Interna Learning objectives : The reader will be abl made a study of the subject matter presente internal combustion engines and their class A engine parts and their functions Chapter | Combustion Engines le to explain the following aspects after having d in this chapter : ification 1 working of two strokeffour stroke petrol and diesel engines 1 combustion phenomenon in petrol and diesel engines, pre-ignition, detonation and diesel knock 1 engine systems; fuel supply, engine cooling 1 performance parameters and heat balance calculations 22.1. HEAT ENGINES A machine or device which derives heat from the combustion of fuel and converts part of this energy into mechanical work is called a heat engine. Heat engines are broadly classified into internal combustion engines and external combustion engines. An internal combustion engine is a recipro- cating heat engine in which fuel mixed with correct amount of air is burnt inside a cylin- der. The gaseous products of combustion form the working substance which make the pis- ton move and produce mechanical work at the engine crankshaft. In contrast, the com- bustion of fuel in steam engines is external. Combustion takes place on the fire grate of the boiler, and the heat energy of fuel thus released is used to convert water into steam. The steam is then led to the steam engine or steam turbine where work is produced. Ob- viously, the working substance (steam) is generated in a boiler which is outside the power producing device. Compared to steam engines, the IC engines are noted for : and lubrication — high overall efficiency. The efficiency of IC engines ranges from 30 to 35% whereas efficiency of steam engines lies between 15— 20% — compact and small size — low weight to power ratio — easy and quick starting. In steam engines, firing of the boiler and generation of steam takes sufficient time — less maintenance and operating cost. The important applications of IC engines are: * Road vehicles, locomotives, ships and aircraft. As such IC engines enable passengers and cargos to cross lands, oceans and skies. * Portable stand by units for power generation in case of scarcity of electric power. * Extensively used in farm tractors, lawn movers, concrete mixing devices and motor boats. 22.2. CLASSIFICATION OF IC ENGINES The IC engines are classified on the basis of following systems and their variations : 702of ee Of strokes required for the completion ()) Two stroke engines in which the engine ee two stokes of the piston, . ion of crank shaft = i ¥ Yao ce engines in which the engi cycle is completed in four strokes of the piston, , lutions of crank shaft. * Thermodynamic cycle : The thermodynamic cycles commonly used are : () Constant volume combustion (Otto) cycle : Most of the petrol and gas engines work on this cycle (ii) Constant pressure combustion (Diesel) cycle : Low speed diesel engines work on this cycle (iv?) Mixed of limited pressure (Dual) cycle: The high speed diesel engines work on this cycle. * Ignition system : The following two methods are used for the ignition of fuel. () Spark ignition : Petrol engines use a spark for the ignition of compressed charge (mixture of air and petrol) and the spark may be produced by magneto or battery. i) Compression ignition : Diesel engines have a high compression ratio. The resulting high temperature is utilized to burn the fuel. « Kind of fuel used = (i) Light oil engines using kerosene or petrol. Petrol engines fall under this category. (ii) Heavy oil or diesel oil engines: The oj] used may be crude oil or mineral oil. jii) Gas engines : The ga used may be coal gas, producer £95, blast furnace gas or coke oven 825: ») By-fuel engines fe Se fuel and liquid fuel is use poses: Purpon umber and a ine engines hh their axe The gas is used as d for starting rangement of cylinders ‘all the cylinders are 's parallel and they nto a single crank shaft er tO Behe engines contain Wwo nee “onnected to the same crank s The crank shaft length for and crank Sh. if of that for in-line engines v-type engin (iii) Radial engines the cylinders are arranged radially and are connected to a single aera eehalt, Radial engines occupy less floor crea and have little balancing problem. © Fuel supply system (i) Carburettor engines : mixture of petrol and air is prepared in the carburettor and is supplied to the engine during suction stroke. (ii) Solid injection or airless injection : 4 fuel pump is used to inject the fuel in diesel engines. (iii) Air injection pressure to the cylinder o using compressed air. * Cooling system (i) Water cooled engines in which the heat from the cylinder walls is transferred to cooling water which is kept circulating in the water jackets provided in the cylinder block. The water picks up heat and is taken to the radiator where the heat is transferred to the surrounding air. The water is repeatedly returned to the engine after being cooled in the radiator Medium and large sized engines and the automobile engines use the water cooling system. (ii) Air cooling in which the heat from the cylinder walls is directly transferred to surrounding air. Air cooling is generally employed for small capacity engines like scooter and motor cycle engines. © Lubrication system : Lubrication system refers to the act of reducing friction by introducing a substance (called lubricant) between the mating parts of the engine. Be aie eee eee for and bearing loads. reels fuel is supplied under f diesel engines by (ii) Pressure lubrication s heavy duty engines. stem used for vere system (speed control under (® Quality control engines in which composition of mixture (air-fuel ratio) ‘is changed by admitting more or less fuel in accordance with variation in load on the engine. This method is used in diesel engines.() Quantity control engines in which the air-fuel mixture has a constant composition. However, the quantity of the mixture supplied is changed in accordance with load on the engine. This is used in petrol and gas engines. * Valve location : (°) overhead valve engine i) side valve engine © Speed : Engines having speeds above 900 rpm are called high speed engines, and less than 400 rpm are called * Field of application : ()) Stationary engines used for small and medium capacity electric power plants, concrete mixers and pumping units (4) Mobile engines installed in motor vehicles, air planes and ships. 22.3. ENGINE PARTS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS * Cylinder and cylinder head :The cylinder is the main body of the engine wherein direct combustion of fuel takes place. The cylinder is a stationary component and the piston Teciprocates inside it. The cylinder head closes one end of the cylinder, and it is usually casted as one piece and is bolted to the top of the cylinder. It contains the valve seats and ports, and supports the valves and valve - actuated mechanism. Cylinders are usually made of ordinary cast iron. However, for heavy duty engines, alloy steels are used. In the interest of weight saving, particularly in aeroplanes, use is made of aluminium and magnesium alloys. * Piston and piston rings : A piston is a metal cup with its crown facing the combustion space. The function of the piston, together with the rings, is to confine the gases in the combustion space and thus transmit the full force of expansion to the connecting rod and crank shaft. The piston also acts as a bearing for the small end of connecting rod. Pistons are usually made of grey iron or of aluminium alloys for high speed engines. Aluminium has he advantage of low density (the density of Sanit is about two-fifths that of cast iron). v Engineering Thermodynamics The leakage of gases between the walls of piston and cylinder is prevented by means of three to six cast iron rings which may be square or rectangular in cross-section. These rings are inserted into the grooves provided on the piston. There are usually two sets of piston rings: ()) upper piston rings (called. the compression rings) provide gas tight seal and prevent the leakage of high pressure gas. (i) lower piston rings (called oil rings) provide effective seal and prevent the leakage of oil into the cylinder head. * Connecting rod : The connecting rod transmits the force given by the piston to the crank, causing it to turn and thus convert the reciprocating motion of the piston into rotary motion of the crankshaft. The rotary motion is required to make wheels turn, a cutting blade spin or a pulley rotate Crankstialt Fig. 22.1. Nomenclature of engine components The connecting rod connects the piston at one end and the crank at the other end. The piston end is called the small end and the crank end is called the big end. The connectionInternal Combustion Engines at the small end is made by a pin called the gudgeon pin, wrist pin or piston pin, At the big end, the connecting rod embraces the crank arm by a pin named crank pin. ae cones rod is usually a small i L-section which provides the maximum stiffness with minimum weight " is normally tapered along its length so as to provide smaller cross-sectional area towards the small end. It has also a passage for the transfer of lubricating oil from the big end bearing to the gudgeon pin «© Crank and crankshaft: The reciprocating, motion of the piston is converted into rotary motion by the connecting rod and crank mechanism. All the auxiliary mechanism of the engine having mechanical transmission art geared in one way or the other to the crank shaft and obtain their motive power from it. The shape of the crank shaft, i.c., the mutual arrangement of the cranks depends on the fumber and arrangement of cylinders and the turning order of the engine. Fig. 22.2 shows a typical crank shaft layout for a four-cylinder engine. B B B tPF | ) Al \ | | {/ - A Oil thrower A protons A= Main bearing journals Fig. 22.2. Crankshalt ink and crank shaft are steel ei id to a smooth finish, The ts in bearings and can rota the crank shafts id, both statically and je: The engine cylinder, piston : sed in the crank case: Tsump for the storage pil level is checked ck or dip stick ally made of cast ex as an oi ‘The ¢ s mectanian : The © Camahaft and aloe Ww : jperaten the intake and exhaunt valve® ‘lowers, push rods ‘on a four stroke engine: the vLoand exhiaunt valves operate One® per eyele, Heer ie aamatol the crankohatt, Carwequently, the carn shaft Is driven by the cranknhatt at exactly half it rotational speed The crankshaft material 1% commonly @ stee forging, with journals and cam faces case hardened camphatt through the and rocker arms cam, cam fe Serow fh, adjuster 1, ? ‘Cam shat Fig, 22.3. Overhead valve mechanism The valves are usuall a ally mushroom shaped (known «poppet valves) with conical seating surfaces he poppet valve is practically pierealicelal modem car and commercial es. The face of the valve and i . hs 7 ‘a ya it wat on the cylinder are very accurately ground an angle of 30 degree or 45 degree. Steelcontaining a small percentage of nickel and chromium is the usual valve material. Such an alloy has good heat-resisting qualities, and is considered good enough to withstand high temperatures, mechanical forces, corrosive and erosive effects of the high velocity cylinder gai The valves may be provided at the top or on the side of the engine cylinder. Fig. 13.3 shows a typical overhead-vaive assembly with the principle parts named. The cam lifts the Push rod through cam follower and the push rod actuates the rocker arm lever at one end The other end of the rocker arm then gets depressed and that opens the valve. The valve returns to its seating by the spring after the cam has rotated. The valve stem moves in a valve guide which acts as a bearing. Some clearance is provided between the rocker arm and valve stem to take care of valve expan- sion during running of engine, and it can be adjusted by the abjusting screw. The exhaust valve usually has a greater clearance as it runs hotter. * Flywheel : The flywheel is a heavy and thoroughly balanced disk fitted onto the end of crankshaft. It stores excess energy during the power stroke and returns this stored energy for use during the auxiliary strokes, Thus it serves to reduce cyclic variations of speed and ensures uniform rotation of crankshaft. Heavier the flywheel, more uniform and stable will be the operation of the engine. Flywheels are generally manufactured from cast iron or cast steel. * Governor; A governor is used to adjust the power output from an engine in conformity with the external load and accordingly make the engine operate at constant speed. The task is accomplished by regulating the quantity of charge in petrol engines, and the amount of fuel in diesel engines. All types of engines generally have the components described above. Given below are the components used either only for diesel engines or for petrol engines. Ful punup and injector :In diesel engines, uel pumps are used to deliver the correct v Engineering Thermodynamics quantity of fuel at the precise instant required for a wide range of loads and speeds. The nozzle atomises the fuel and distributes it into the combustion chamber of the engine. Atomisation of fuel means breaking of the fuel stream into mist like spray. Atomisation ensures that each particle of fuel is surrounded by air needed for combustion and that assists in rapid and successful burning of fuel. Atomisation is made possible by the high velocity of fuel through the nozzle which is due to high pressure created by the pump. Carburettor and spark plug: The carbu- rettor delivers to the gas and petrol engines a combustible mixture of air and fuel in a condition that can be easily and efficiently burnt in the engine cylinder. The process of mixture formation is called carburation. Towards the end of compression stroke, the combustible mixture is ignited by a spark plug which has to spark several thousand times a minute under a wide range of temperatures. Each cylinder is provided with its own spark plug screwed into the lid. 22.4. FOUR STROKE PETROL ENGINE EE ‘Spark plug ‘Cylinder head — / Outlet valve 5 F ee * ce Cylinder A wi ‘Crank Fig. 22.4. Four stroke cycle system A cycle is a sequence of operations con stantly repeated, and four-stroke refers to theEngines number of « complete one OK*S OF th Plete one cyclo, Ret Piston re rangement of ~ Refer re o diffe cycle system THe cre arts of ‘quired to the cylinder hy provided with The cytind ler head All events of the ee Pate Plug, ake Y or : compression, combustion sy Namely suction, : stion a *P and expansion, and in two revolutions of salient featu: a petrol engi res of the 1 Intake net 38 Biven below ; a © oF suction stroke : Initially the piston j : (Fig. 22.5a) paste, Re Piston is a top dead centre (TDC) on, the inlet valve is open valve is cl pen and the outlet closed. The piston moves down towards bott. rene ‘ottom dead centre (BDC) positio and the i bposidon ; Pressure inside the cylinder is reduced 0 a value below the atmospheric pressure. The vacuum thus created causes the charge to rush in and fill the space vacated by the piston. The charge consists of a mixture of air and petrol prepared by the carburettor. The suction continues till the piston reaches its BDC position. The piston has now made one stroke and the crankshaft has turned through 180°C, ie., has made half the revolution >. Compression stroke : (Fig, 22.5b) Both the valves (inlet and outlet) are closed and the movement of the piston is from BDC to TDC position. The charge inside the cylinder is compressed to the clearance volume; the volume decreases and there is a continuous rise both in temperature and Pressure of the iori the petrol engines use ‘arge. Majority of Cot eression ratios between 5 to 1 and 8 to 1. comp’ 'd of compression, the Towards the en P’ oximate values of pressure and ap perature are 6-12 bar and 250~300°C tem] tively. ; respec ae rag, expansion oF power stroke : (Fi + en the piston reaches TDC position, 22.5¢) Weris ignited by causing an electric the caetweel the electrodes of a spark plug spar four strokes in aly Which is located in the cylinder head. During combustion, the chemical energy of the fuel is released and there is rise both in pressure and temperature of the gases at almost constant volume. The temperature of the gases increases to about 1800 ~ 200°C and the pressure reaches 30-40 bar (d) Exhaust Fig. 22.5. Operation of a four stroke cycle petrol engineWith both valves closed, the gases at increased pressure and temperature expand, push the piston down the cylinder and work is done by the system. The reciprocating motion of the piston is subsequently converted into rotary motion of the crankshaft by connecting rod and crank. It is the rotary motion which is required to make wheels run, a cutting blade spin or a pulley rotate. During expansion, there is increase in volume of the gases and the pressure drops to as low as 3 bar. 4. Exhaust Stroke : (Fig. 22.5d) The inlet valve remains closed but the exhaust valve opens when the piston reaches BDC position towards the completion of power stroke. The pressure falls slightly above atmospheric Pressure at constant volume. The piston moves upwards from BDC to TDC and this upward movement of the piston pushes the spent up gases into the atmosphere through exhaust valve and the exhaust manifold. Much of the noise associated with automobile engines is due to high exhaust velocity. The exhaust stroke completes the cycle and the engine cylinder is ready to suck the fresh charge inside the cylinder once again and the cycle is repeated. Since the beginning of suction stroke, the piston has made four strokes inside the cylinder : two up and two down. During the same period, the crank has turned two revolutions. Thus for a four stroke cycle, there is only one power stroke for every two revolutions of the crankshaft. Theoretical and actual p—V diagrams : The following assumptions have been made while carrying out the above operations : ()) Suction and exhaust is at atmospheric pressure. (ii) Opening and closing of the valves (both inlet and outlet) is instantaneous and at dead centres. (iii) Compression and expansion processes are isentropic, i.., reversible adiabatic. (io) The combustion of fuel takes place instantaneously at constant volume. wv eee eee CS (v) There is sudden drop in gas pressure to the atmospheric pressure at the end of expansion stroke. Such a theoretical operation of the cycle can be represented by the p—V plot as shown in Fig. 22.6a. However, an actual cycle deviates considerably form the hypothetical one because of the following reasons : (i) For efficient suction, the pressure inside the cylinder at suction is less than the atmospheric pressure. This pressure difference, called intake depression, is needed to overcome the resistance to the flow of charge through the restricted area of the inlet passages. Pressure ' Volume 1 (b) Fig. 22.6. Theoretical and actual p-V diagram tor four stroke petrol engineSON Engines. (i) For has to be a ned ot exhaust of burnt gases, there a outside Pressure from inside het Come Accordingly the exhaust Je with atmospheric 'S slightly above it enon and expansion are not tet ion is always present, and between the niderable interchange of heat (io) These TB and the cylinder walls the ignition or i always a time lag between consequently Gai8® and is actual combustion place Re pane we combustion does not take is not alone ant volume and the pressure rise & a straight line. a Opening and closing of the valves takes penne and is never instantaneous. This is reflected in rounding off the corners of the P—V plot (7) Ignition of charge, and opening of the valves is never at dead centres. These events occur at some degree on either side of dead centres to get better charging and scavenging (pushing out of burnt gases) performance. (vii) At high temperature, there is every likelihood of dissociation of products of combustion such as CO, and H,O (steam). This splitting is an endothermic process and requires heat. Further, the value of exponent y decreases with rise in temperature. Due to these aspects, the pressure and temperature attained during the actual cycle are lower than the theoretical values. (viii) The layer of charge just in contact will cylinder walls is at a lower temperature and may not be able to ignite. Moreover at high speeds, the combustion process may not get enough time required for chemical reactions and the combustion may remain incomplete. (ix) Consider the following chemical reactions taking place inside the engine cylinder, * 2CO+0,=200, 2 vol +1 vol = 2 vol That is 3 volumes produce 2 volumes * 2H,+0,=2H,0 2 vol +1 vol = 2 vol Again 3 volumes produce 2 volumes, v Thus we see that due to chemical reaction, the volume dec s. THis apparant contraction in volume causes a reduction in pressure () Thermodynamic properties are differ ent for fresh charge and the products of com- bustion. The specific heats increase with tem perature. Por the same difference between ©, and c,, the value of adiabatic exponent + decreases with rise in temperature Because of dissociation and lower value of 7 at high temperatures, the pressure and temperature attained after compression are lower than the theoretical values. When these modifications are taken into account, the p—V plot takes the form as shown in Fig. 22.6(b). The suction line a—1 lies below the atmospheric pressure line, and the exhaust 1—1 lies slightly above the atmospheric line. The area enclosed by the exhaust and suction lines is called negative loop or pumping loop. This represents the work required for the admission of fresh charge and for the removal of burnt gases. Net work is obtained by subtracting the pump loss from the gross output Network per cycle = (A, - A) The area (A, ~ A,) is always less than the area A of theoretical p—V diagram 22.5. FOUR STROKE DIESEL ENGINE The engine completes its working cycle in four strokes of the piston, uses diesel oil as fuel and, therefore, is known as four-stroke diesel engine. Fig. 22.7 shows the different parts of the engine and illustrates its principle of operation. The piston seciprocates inside a cylinder, is connected to the crankshaft through connecting rod and the crank. The inlet (suction) and outlet (exhaust) valves are housed in the cylinder head. The cylinder head is also Provided with a nozzle for injecting, the fuel. The sequence of individual strokes is as follows : ___L Intake or suction stroke: Initially the piston 1s at top dead centre (TDC) position, the inlet valve is open and the outlet valve is closed The piston moves downwards towards bottom dead centre position (BDC) and the pressureinside the cylinder is reduced to a value below the atmospheric Pressure. The vacuum thus created causes the air from atmosphere to rush in and fill the space vacated by the piston. The suction stroke is completed when the piston reaches the BDC position. The piston has then made one stroke and the crankshaft has turned through 180°, i.e., has made half the revolution. ma Exhaust Expansion rig. 22.7. Operation of a four stroke cycle diesel ne sengine 2. Compression stroke : Both the inlet ang outlet valves are closed and the Movement of the piston is from BDC to TDC Position (Fig. 22.7 b). The air inside the cylinder is compressed to clearance volume; the volume decreases and there is a continuous rise both in temperature and pressure of the air, Major of the diesel engines use compression ratios between 15 : 1 and 20 : 1. Towards the end of compression, the approximate values of Pressure and temperature are 60 bar and 600°C respectively. 3. Working, expansion or power stroke : When the piston reaches TDC position, a fine spray of diesel is injected into the combustion space containing the high temperature compressed air. The fuel vapours are raised to self ignition temperature and combustion occurs at approximately constant pressure. The atomisation of fuel and its supply to the combustion space can also be accomplished by compressed air supplied from compressed air bottles. The air entering the combustion space is so regulated that the Pressure theoretically remains constant during the burning period. With both valves closed, the combustion Products at increased pressure and temperature push the piston down the cylinder with a large force. Expansion of the gases takes place and work is done by the system. The reciprocating motion of the piston is subsequently converted into rotary motion of the crankshaft by connecting rod and crank. The expansion stroke gets completed as the piston reaches its BDC position. During expansion, there is increase in volume of the ases and the pressure drops. 4, Exhaust stroke : The inlet valve remains The exhaust and the engine cy air inside the cy] Stroke completes the ‘ylinder is ready to suck inder once again cycle fresh and the evclesngines 1. Much of the noise assoc jated with Automobil rile engine OXH USE jane RIMES HS due to high velocity of Since the Piston t, the beginning of suction stroke, the CVNder made four strokes inside the Wo up and two down, During the SaMe Period, the revolutions. Thus for is only one power stre of the crankshaft nk has turned two @ four stroke cycle, there dke for every revolutions The followi White following assumptions have been made © carrying out the above operations ) ‘) Suction and exhaust is at atmospheric Pressure () Opening and closing of the valves (both inlet and outlet) is instantaneous and at dead centres, (2) Compression and expansion processes sentropic, i.e., reversible adiabatic. (©) The combustion of fuel takes place at constant pressure during a small part of expansion stroke. (©) There is a sudden drop in gas pressure to atmospheric pressure at the end of expansion stroke Such a theoretical operation of the cycle can be represented by the p—V plot as shown ig. 22.8(a). However, the actual cycle differs consi- derably from the hypothetical one due to the reasons mentioned in section 22.4 above. When those modifications are taken into account, then the plot takes the form as shown in Fig. 22.8 (b). The actual pressure inside the cylinder is slightly less than the atmospheric pressure during suction stroke, and slightly higher than ospheric pressure during exhaust stroke. Also the corners are rounded off in the actual VY plot. The area exclosed by the exhaust Pr suction lines is called negative loop or ane ping loop and it represents the work pumpiné of fresh charge and red for the admission « % rede 1 of burnt gases. Net work is remova eee by subtracting the pump loss from ol e gross output ne Net work per cycle = (A, ~ A) The area (A; ~— Aj) is always less than the A of the theoretical p-V diagram. area are the atm et wb ape tha : } 4A i WKS i * 1 i : ales _— 1 eeeey elvgl+ Ve 4 Volume (a) oc 2 x ---9 3 Lp Pressure Volume (b) Fig. 22.8. Theoretical and actual p-V diagram for four stroke diesel engine 22.6. VALVE TIMING DIAGRAM While analysing the cycles for internal combustion engines, it is assumed that opening and closing of the inlet and exhaust valves, and the ignition of charge (or injection of fuel occurs at the engine dead centres). However, in actual operation, these events occur at some degrees on either side of dead centres to get better charging and scavenging performance. Valve-timing diagram shows the correct positions pertaining to opening, and closing of the valves. Refer Fig. 22.9. which shows the typical valve timing diagrant of vertical 4-stroke petrol engine :IVO = Inlet valve opens IVC = Inlet valve closes EVO = Exhaust valve opens EVC = Exhaust valve closes ToC BDC Fig, 22.9. Valve timing diagram four a four stroke petro! engine 1, Inlet valve : At admission, the intake valve should be sufficiently open to avoid throttling of intake charge. However due to inertia effect, the opening of inlet valve is not instantaneous. Further, due to high operating speeds, the charge would not get enough time to enter the engine cylinder during suction stroke. Apparaently the cylinder would receive charge less than its capacity if the inlet valve closes at BDC. This insufficienct charge will not produce the same power as that produced by full charge. To achieve full valve opening and to admit full amount of charge, (i) a lead of 20 - 30° to given to the intake valve, i.., intake valve opens 20 - 30° before TDC. (ii) there is a delay of 30 - 50° to exhaust valve, i.¢., the exhaust valve closes 30 - 50° after BDC. For the crank angle positions shown for the opening and closure of inlet valve, it remains open for (20 + 180 + 40) = 240°. : The top dead centre would be the proper time to produce spark if the charge could burn instantaneously. However, there is always a time lag between the timing of spark and that of actual ignition. For best results with regard to power and economy, and to avoid explosion knock, the ignition of charge is timed to occur as early as engine permits. This shifting of ignition timing ahead of TDC is called ignition advance. Depending upon the speed of the engine, the ignition of charge is times to occur 20 ~ 35° before TDC. 3. Exhaust valve : Exhaust valve opens before BDC and closes after TDC. This is to ensure that full amount of burnt gases is expelled out from the engine cylinder. (i) Earlier opening helps in driving out the exhaust gases due to their pressure being higher than the atmosphere. (ii) During late closure, the kinetic energy of fresh charge is utilized to assist in the maximum exhausting of the cylinder. It needs to be pointed out that early opening of exhaust valve entails loss of power due to shorting of power stroke, but it is well compensated by better scavenging and less negative work that needs to be done by piston during return stroke. Generally, the exhaust valve opens at about 35° before BDC and closes at 10° after TDC. Thus the exhaust valve remains open for (35 + 180 + 10) = 225°. The noteable aspects of the valve timing diagram (Fig. 22.10) for a four stroke diesel engine are : (i) The inlet valve opens 10 - 25° in advance of top dead cenbtre position, and closes 25 — 40° after the bottom dead centre position. (ii) Exhaust valve opens 30 - 50° ahead of bottom dead centre positions and its closure occurs 10 ~ 15° after top dead centre position. (iii) There is a brief time interval for the fuel oil to mix with the hot compressed air in the cylinder and ignite. The injection of fuel is timed to occur 10 - 15° before TDC so that by the time piston reaches TDC, the actual combustion of fuel starts. The fuel valve remains open for some time as per design 2. IgnitionInte: al Combustion Engines VO = ini let valve N= inlet valve closes =F FVC = Fuel Valve opens Fuel vah Evo = Exh twa EVC = Benaust vane opens, TOC BoC Fig. 22.10. Valve timing diagram for four stroke diese! engine Note: (i) The value of crank positions as men- tioned above are only average and consider- able difference exists with different engines. (ii) The opening and closing timings for the valves are function of engine speed. For high speed engines, the inlet valve is made to close later, the exhaust valve opens earlier and the ignition (or injection) is timed to occur earlier. (if) A valve is said to lead when it opens before TDC, and lags if the closure is after BDC. (jv) For some part of the cycle near TDC, poth the inlet and exhaust valve remain open, this period is called overlap. During over- Jap the incoming charge helps to drive out the traces of exhaust gases, and this phenomenon jy called scavenging and 22.7. COMPARISON BETWEEN PETROL AND DIESEL ENGINES iven the differences between the aeiruction and operation of a diesel engine and a petrol engine of similar capacity and number of cylinders. (i) Basic cycles : The petrol engine works on Otto cycle whereas a diesel engine works on Diesel cycle. a (ii) Fuel used : Petrol engine is a light oil engine and uses gasoline or petrol as fuel. Diesel engine is a heavy oil engine and uses diesel as fuel. The diesel has a high self ignition temperature compared to petrol. (iii) Induction of fuel : Mixture of petrol and air in required strength is prepared in the carburettor and inducted into the engine cylinder during the suction stroke of a petrol engine. During suction stroke of a diesel engine, only air from the atmosphere is sucked in the engine cylinder. A fuel pump is used to inject fuel directly into the combustion space where it meets the air which has been compressed. (iv) Compression ratio : Majority of petrol engines use compression ratio between 5 to 1 and 8 to 1. The upper limit is fixed by anti- knock rating of fuels. The compression ratio in diesel engines lies between 15 : 1 and 20: 1 ; the upper limit is fixed because of an increase in the weight of engine with increase in compression ratio. (v) Thermal efficiency : For the same compression ratio, the efficiency of a diesel engine is lower than that of a petrol engine. However, this aspect is of not much practical significance since the petrol engines work with compression ratio not exceeding 8 whereas diesel engines can safely have compression ratio as high as 20. High compression ratio for a diesel engine is a must not only for high efficiency but also to prevent diesel knock — phenomenon of uncontrolled and rapid combustion. (vi) Ignition : Petrol engines use a spark Plug to ignite the charge (mixture of air and petrol) after it has been compressed. Thedue to combustion of fuel in diesel engines is high temperature of compressed air. (oii) Weight : The cylinder walls of diese! engines have to be made thicker to sustain the high pressures attained due to higher compression ratios. The weight of a diesel engine amounts to between 30 to 50% more than that of a petrol engine giving the same power output (viii) Speed : The petrol engines are high speed engines due to light weight, and the diesel engines run at comparatively low speeds due to heavy weight (ix) Vibration and noise : The vibration and noise level is higher with a diesel engine because of higher maximum pressure. (x) Load control : The petrol engines are quantity control engines. The air-fuel mixture prepared by the mixture being inducted is controlled by the throttle valve in accordance with load on the engine. The diesel engines are quality control engines. The composition of the mixture (air- fuel ratio) is changed by admitting more or less fuel with variation in engine load. The fuel pump regulates the supply of fuel injected into the combustion space. (xi) Power : A petrol engine can be desig- nated to give a better mean effective pres- sure mainly due to its improved combustion efficiency. . (xij) Cost : The initial cost of a diesel engine is higher, mainly due to the cost of the fuel pump. Since diesel is cheaper than petrol, the running cost of a diesel engine works out to be low. Further, the experience of most operators is that a diesel engine requires less maintenance than a petrol engine. However, a larger battery is necessary for a diesel engine. (xiii) Fire risk : This is minimised in diesel engines owing to the higher ignition point of the fuel used (xiv) Applications : Petrol engines are used in cars, scooters and motor cycles. Diesel engines are used in heavy duty vehicles like trucks, buses and locomotive engines. 22.8. TWO STROKE SYSTEM ‘The working cycle is completed in two strokes of the piston or in one revolution of the crankshaft as against two crankshaft revolutions ina four stroke cycle engine. The preparatory strokes (suction and exhaust) are combined with the working, strokes (compression and expansion). The following two methods have been used to accomplish the desired objective. (i) Providing, a separate pump outside the engine cylinder to compress the charge (air- fuel mixture from carburettor or air alone from atmosphere) before forcing it into the cylinder. The pump is an integral part of the engine and gets its motive power from the engine itself. The arrangement is referred to as two channel system and is used for large capacity multi-cylinder engines. (ii) Crank-case compression system where the crankcase works as an air pump as the piston moves up and down. The charge (air- fuel mixture or air alone) is compressed by the pumping action of the underside of the piston before being supplied to the engine cylinder. The arrangement is referred to as three-channel system and is commonly used for single cylinder small power engines such as scooter and motor cycle engines. Fig. 22.11. Two-stroke cycle system Construction ; Fig. 22.11 shows the arrangement of a typical three-port engine employing crank case compression. The pistont Internal Combustion Engines. Which is connected oan sited in the cylinder is rod and crank he shalt through connecting crown-shaped and that aeahiston is usually the spent-up paces cay assists in sweeping with the help Aiea the exhaust port employs ports ax ag ease: The engine ina four ereake eainst valves as provided in the cylinder wally and ane ake ee ‘the transfer port igen ae hee in number the earaaee sporitlet oF induction port and are Loran art The inet and exhaust ports is provided on the aa and the transfer port top epee on the other side. The cylinder seca brovided with an electric spark plug in eee aoe for injecting the Working : The charge is led to the crankcase through the inlet port. The charge Consists of a mixture of air and petrol prepared by the carburettor in case of petrol engine. The diesel engine admits only fresh air through the atmosphere. The transfer port takes the compressed charge from the crankcase to the engine cylinder. The spent up gases are discharged to the atmosphere through the exhaust port. The closing and opening of the ports is controlled by up and down motion of the piston inside the cylinder. The piston crown helps to prevent the loss of incoming fresh charge (charge being carried with the spent up gases) and uses its momentum for exhausting only the burnt gases. Scavenging is the term applied to the process of forcing the burnt gases through exhaust port by deflecting fresh charge across the cylinder. Sequence of events : Fig. 22.12 explains the working principle and sequence of events in a two-stroke cycle system. Ignition and induction : In Fig. 22.122, the piston occupies the almost TDC position pevards the end of compression stroke. The towamvessed charge is being ignited by coe a spark, or uel is being injected Fe ie Bot compressed air. The combustion ate ae cours and thermal energy is released of fisel ots a rise both in the pressure and There Otte of combustion products. tempera ve same time, a partial vacuum A . ower than atmosphere) exists in the (pr e is being inducted crank case and fresh charg Sort which into the crank case through the inlet covered by the piston. Age plug or nozzle | Piston crown A Re is ui Mixture induced {@) Ignition and induction Transfer port x Crankcase (b) Expansion and ‘compression (©) Exhaust and transference Fig. 22.12. Working of two-stroke cycle engine Expansion and compression : (Fig. 22.12b). The high pressure gases push the piston down, expansion takes place and power is developed. With downward movement of the piston, the charge in the crank case gets compressed by the underside of the piston to a pressure of about 1.4 bar absolute. After completion of about 80% of expansion stroke, the piston uncovers the exhaust port. Some of the combustion products which are still above atmospheric pressure escape to the atmosphere. On its further downward motion, the piston uncovers the transfer portand allows the slightly compressed charge from the crank case to be admitted into the cylinder via the transfer port Exhaust and transference : (Fig. 22.12c). The piston lies at its bottom dead centre position The expanded gases are escaping through the exhaust port and simultaneously the slightly compressed charge from the crank case is being. forced into the engine cylinder through the transfer port. The charge strikes the deflector on the piston crown, rises to the top of the cylinder and pushes out most of the burnt gases. During this scavenging action, a part of the fresh charge is likely to leave with the exhaust gases. The cylinder is completely filled with the fresh charge, although it is somewhat diluted due to its mixing with the burnt gases. When the piston moves upward from its BDC position, it first covers the transfer port and stops the flow of fresh charge into the cylinder. A little later, the exhaust port too gets covered and actual compression of the charge begins and continues till the piston reaches TDC position. The cycle of the engine is thus completed within two strokes of the piston (one up and one down) and one revolution of the crank shaft. The port timing diagrams for two stroke petrol and diesel engines have been depicted in Fig. 22.13, and these diagrams are self explanatary. (a) Petrol engine Toc Fuel supply ye , 20° (b) Diesel engine Fig, 22.13. Port timing diagrams for two stroke petrol and diesel engines 22.9. COMPARISON BETWEEN TWO- STROKE AND FOUR-STROKE ENGINES Merits of two-stroke engines (i For the same power output, a two stroke engine is simple in design, easy to manufacture and operate. (if) A two stroke cycle engine gives one working stroke for each revolutions of the crankshaft. The four stroke cycle engine gives one working stroke for every two revolutions of the crankshaft. As such, a two stroke engine develops theoretically twice the power developed by four stroke engine for the same engine speed and cylinder volume. (ii) The number of working strokes is twice than that in a four stroke engine. Consequently, the turning moment is uniform and hence the need only for a lighter flywheel. (vi) Less friction loss due to the absence of suction and exhaust strokes; consequently high mechanical efficiency. Absence of cams, cam shaft and rockers etc. also contributesInternal Combustion Engines. towards high mech hanical effi ©) Simpler ¢ oMiclency Decnaeare ai aattuetion and mechaniam The par alve and valve mocha € POTTS are easy ta | haniam. covered and un RN and they are Neovered by piston iteelt the movement of engine occupies less len loan space, ations and requires few (vii) The can be achie mechanism. (viii) The imiti is less due to li mechanism, (ix) The two stroke to start. reversing of a two str ved by a simple engine reversing, gear ‘ al cost of a two stroke engine ight weight and absence of valve engines are much easier Demerits of two-stroke engines + (®) Scavenging (driving out of burnt gases) is not complete due to short time available for exhaust This results in the dilution of fresh arge. (a) Exhaust and inlet parts are uncovered (open) simultaneously daring a certain period. Some fresh charge is likely to escape without giving any work output. (iii) Thermal efficiency of a two-stroke engine is likely to be lower due to some charge escaping without burning and poor scavenging. Consequently fresh charge is diluted which results not only decrease in performance but also slow running , low combustion pressure and poor efficiency. (iv) For the same stroke and clearance volume, the effective compression ratio is lower in a two stroke engine. This too lowers the engine efficiency. (v) More wear and tear of moving, parts due to double the number of power strokes. (vi) The piston gets overheated due to firing in each revolution of crankshaft. Higher temperatures make the cooling and lubrication requirements quite severe. (vii) Greater consumption of lubricating due to high operating, temperatures (oiii) Noisy exhaust due to sudden release of burnt gases. oil wo-atroke engines plications of 1 Applications of generally used yo atroke engines: are Arana cont, compactness and light weight are the major e considerations sue has in eat fee. otor cycle dy and other light vehicles The twecatroke opposed piston diesel engines are quite suitable for marine installations (ship the engine room is smal propulsion) whe 22.10. CARBURATION AND CARBURETTOR puration refers to the entire process of mixing it with the air in varying, proportions, to suit the changing, operating, conditions of the engine. + Atomisation ; breaking, up the fuel into very small particles so that it gets properly mixed with air * Vaporisation : change in state of the fuel from liquid to vapour Carburettor is the device which supplies the metred spray of petrol fuel mixed with correct amount of air for efficient combustion in cylinder at all operating conditional namely = starting, idling and low load running = acceleration and deceleration — maximum power and maximum economy (minimum specific fuel consumption) The spark ignition engines use octane (Cy Hyg) a8 fuel for which the chemically cor- rect or stoichiometric mixture of air-fuel ratio is approximately 15: 1 by mass. With this mixture, there is most rapid combustion of fuel, almost the greatest power and reasonable economy of fuel, Richer mixtures (11 to 15: 1) given power and better fuel economy results when the mixture is weak (16 to 18: 1). A carburettor is designed to meet the following, main requirements : (i) maintain a constant level of petrol in the mixing chamber _ (ii) prepare the homogenous air-fuel mixture by atomising and vaporising the fuel (iii) meter the liquid fuel so as to produce the required air-fuel ratios at all operating conditions like idling, low load running, cruising and maximum power range.AL} (ie) provide rich mixtures for easy and reliable starting of engine from cold conditions (0) simplicity of maintence and repairs, durability and reliability of operation Petro! cL ? Fitter engine Fig. 22.14. Simple plain tube carburettor Refer Fig. 22.14 which shows the schemat- ics of a simple plane tube carburettor. The main components of the unit with their functions are : () Float and float chamber : The purpose of the float chamber is to reserve / maintain a small volume of petrol at atmospheric pressure and at a constant level for supplying to various jets and passages. The float chamber has a float (a hollow brass pressing) which controls the Position of a needle valve in the top of the chamber. When the petrol in the chamber is at the prescribed level, the needle valve blocks the inlet passage and that cuts off the petrol supply. During running of engine, the fuel is withdrawn from the chamber and there is fall in the petrol level. Consequently the float descends allowing the needle valve to open petrol passage and make the petrol to flow again to the chamber. The float then rises and keeps the petrol at constant level at all operating conditions of the engine. The fuel in the float chamber is always in communication with atmospheric pressure through a small hole made in the cover. A filter is usually fitted at entrance to the float chamber and this serves to prevent the foreign matter from choking or clogging the needle valve or jets (ii) Venturi : The venture is restriction (a narrower passage) with smooth walls which allow a frictionless flow. Engineering Thermodynamics When the air passes through the venturi during suction stroke of the piston, its velocity increases at the throat (the section where cross- sectional area is minimum) with corresponding, reduction in pressure. There is a fuel jet (nozzle) which is placed inside the venturi throat and is connected with the float chamber. Since pressure is atmospheric on the petrol in the float chamber, pressure would be lowest and vaccum or suction develops at the throat. This vaccum (called carburettor depression) is utilized in sucking, the petrol from the float chamber through the fuel jet. The sucked in petrol vaporises, under low pressure conditions at the throat, and mixes with incoming, air stream forming a homogenous air-fuel mixture. ‘The vaporisation of fuel depends upon the nature of fuel, temperature and velocity of incoming air and the pressure at the throat. The tip of the jet is kept slightly higher than the level of fuel in the float chamber. This is to prevent the fuel leaking into the carburet- tor when the engine is not running. The differ- ence of level between the tip of the nozzle jet and the fuel level in the float chamber is called nozzle lip, and it is usually kept as 1.5 mm. (iii) Throttle : The throttle valve is of butterfly type hinged and placed between the mixing chamber and the intake manifold of the engine. The purpose of the valve is to control the quantity of air-fuel mixture being supplied to the engine cylinder, and hence the power output from the engine speed. The control of the throttle valve is normally with the accelerator pedal through certain linkages. When the throttle is fully open, the engine sucks the maximum amount of mixture and the engine speed goes up till equilibrium is reached between the engine power and the load on the engine. When the throttle is Partially closed, the engine slows dow new equilibrium is reached. Apparently, the Position of throttle helps to run the engine at widely changing speeds. (fo) Choke valve : The followi are encountered when a cranked for starting : n until ing difficulties cold engine is being ~ only a small vaceui > m is built up at the venturi throat due to loy W air speed through_— Internal Combustion Engin the venturi tube. The a small quantity small vaccum, fuel nozzle. OF act to ee allows only sucked into the ~ the mixtun 7 mixture on its wag (he PeHOL in the air-fuel » Of Its way to the induction pi due Teenie starting bece te ue to thatch ane becomes quite difficult homogenous: a ete being weak and non for cold stavting elting rich mixture needed On the aig nn8 @ choke or strangley is fitted Partially clot ke side. When the choke is Ge to ane oked: the pressure near the throt! the pte suction becomes very low. Sin ore Peeaaure acting on the petrol in the float h is atmospheric, a greater pressure — is obtained. Due to g1 ae preeaire depression enough petrol is forced into the air pas sage and a rich mixture needed for cold ating is obtained. After the engine starts and gets warm, the choke is closed and normal air- fuel ratio is restored. This simple carburettor entails the following limitations : + Working is affacted by changes in environmental conditions of pressure and temperature. The unit gives proper mixture at only ‘one engine speed and load, and as such is suitable only for engines operating under con- stant load and speed conditions. « No arrangement exists for providing extra fuel during acceleration and overload. For pracise control of the mixture compo- sition at varying operating conditions, this simple plain tube carburettor has been modi- fied by adding idling jets, compensating jets and the valves for increasing the richness of air-fuel mixture. 22.11. FUEL INJECTION IN COMPRESSION IGNITION ENGINES only air with a small amount In diesel engines, of residual gases 18 compressed through a high compression ratio (16 : 1 to 20 : 1) and the Shesel oil (chemical formula Cyp Hy, and pecific gravity 0.82 — 0.88) is injected into the 5 am oe eylinder almost towards the end of en trake. The temperature OF Air Tur compression is high than the temperature of fuel The b terogenous 1 ignites duc to heat of need of any out side engin comp attained: ignition fuel air mixture th compression; there 1s 1 means for ignition The main requirements of fuel injection system are {correct metering, of fuel to be inject 4 per eycle ax per load and speed of the engine { fuel injection so that dat minimum fuel (ii) proper timing maximum power is 0b consumption: {iii) suitable rate of fuel injection to have desired heat release during the combustion process. (jv) proper atomisation of fuel so that each particle of fuel is surrounded by oxygen needed For combustion; this will assist in rapid and successful burning of fuel. (v) uniform distribution of sprayed fuel into the cylinder so there is penetration of fuel in all parts of the combustion chamber. (vi) instantaneous start and termination of fuel injection to avoid any dribling of fuel droplets into the cylinder. The engine performance, i.c., its power output, fuel economy and efficiency ete are greatly affected by the correct working of the fuel injection system. There are two distinct methods for fuel injection namely the air injection and the airless injection. In air injection system, air is compressed to about 60 ~ 80 bar and is stored in bottles. The kinetic energy of a blast from this air is utilized to feed fuel spray into the engine cylinder. The nozzle is fed with fuel from a pump, the air atomises the fuel by friction and creates turbulence in the combustion chamber for its thorough mixing with fuel. The system has the merit in : ~ very good atomisation and distribution, ~ requirement of no precision fuel pump, no choking, of fuel valve, and — slight effect of supercharging due to compressed air supply.However, the system has become obsolete due to its cumbersome design which renders it unsuitable for portable engines, requirement of more space, poor combustion efficiency and considerable amount of power needed to run the compressor. Their use is restricted to high powered engines using heavy viscous fuels. The airless injection system (also known by different names such as mechanical, solid and hydraulic injection) is commonly employed on diesel engines. The system supplies fuel at a very high pressure (15 bar), from the fuel pump to the fuel injector from where it is injected to ) the combustion chamber at appropriate time. Delivery valve Inlet port Le _— Spill port Vertical hole Helical groove Cam Fig. 22.15. Diesel fuel pump The constructional and operational details of the diesel fuel pump are Construction (i) The pump has a cylinderical plunger which operates inside a closely fitting barrel. The barrel is closed at the top by a spring loaded delivery valve from where a pipe leads the fuel to the engine cylinder via injector. (ii) The plunger has a constant stroke and reciprocating motion to it is given by a cam on a camshaft. The plunger can also be rotated by a rack and pinion arrangement. (iii) The plunger has a vertical slot and a helical groove which supplies varying quantity of fuel as per demand. Further, in the upper portion of the pump cylinder there are two ports. One port communicates with the fuel tank by an intake pipe through the filter, and the other is connected to spill port which spills to the fuel tank. Operation (i) At the starting position the plunger is at the bottom of its stroke and the two parts (inlet port and spill port) leading to the suction space are open and the cylinder is filled with fuel oil. (ii) With starts of delivery stroke, the plunger moves up and displaces some fuel back from the port in the barrel. This act continues until the top edge of plunger covers the ports and the remainder of the fuel oil is forced out through the delivery pipe to the engine cylinder. (iii) The supply of fuel to the injector continues until the helical edge uncovers the port and releases fuel back to suction lines. At this position of the plunger, the pump space communicates with the spill port through the vertical groove and is thus connected to the atmosphere. That releases the pressure on the spring, the delivery valve falls back on its seat and the supply of fuel to the injector is stopped. At this instant, the fuel in the barrel escapes through the by-pass, i.e, spill port. During downward stroke of the plunger, suction is created and fuel is drawn into the barrel through the supply port. helical groove. When the plunger is turned to the right by means of tooth tack, the effective pump stroke is increased. This implies that the instant at which the space communicates withEE ——— Internal Combustion Engines The function of an a split Up the fuel into a spray, and (i) deliver the atomise ir ‘d fuel di the combustion chamber where ine Penetration and distribution is achice qRefet Fig, 22.16 which shows of a spring load injector w conjunction with the fuel pu Injector is to eves the outlines hich is used in mp. Fig. 22.16. Spring loaded fuel injector The unit consists of : (i) A housing and a detachable nozzle (atomiser) body which are connected by a cap or union nut (ii) A spray nozzle which is held on its seat by means of a spindle and helical spring, The compression of the spring can be adjusted ca nut. This permits to by means of an adjusting Serena le valve adjust the pressure at which the noz: is to lift against the spring force. (iii) The nozzle is provided with small sized holes 0.15 mm to 0.4 mm in diameter. The number of holes depends upon the type of combustion chamber and varies from 1 to 8 in a multi-hole nozzle. High pressure oil from the pump is led to the injector through the fuel duct and ultimately reaches the valve seat. The valve gets lifted off its seat against the spring force due to fuel pressure, and the fuel is injected into the combustion chamber. A small quantity of oil which leaks into the body of the injector provides the necessary lubrication and is finally removed through the leak off connection. 12.12. IGNITION SYSTEM FOR PETROL ENGINE The combustible air-fuel mixture in a petrol engine is ignited by an electric spark produced between the electrodes of a spark plug. The battery ignition system consists of a storage battery of 6-12 volt; an ignition coil; a circuit breaker and spark plugs. (i) The ignition coil consists of primary and secondary coils wound on a soft iron core. The primary winding has a small number of turns of a thick wire and the secondary winding has a large number of turns of thin wire. (ii) The contact breaker is a spring controlled switch and is operated by means of a cam. The lobes of the cam correspond to the number of cylinders and for a four stroke cycle engine, the cam is motored at half the engine speed. (iii) Distributor and the spark plugs for a multi-cylinder engine When the primary circuit is closed, current starts flowing and magnetic field is setup. With opening of breaker points, this magnetic field collapses and a high voltage of the order of 10,000 to 15,000 volts is set up at the secondary coil. The high voltage thus generated is directed to the rotor of the distributor which in turn supplies spark to each of the spark plug inDintributor Spark pluge poondary apap core + Rotor — Sy | Primary 4 [2 | - | tation sitet Contact breaker (Ammoter Cam -Prennt ] Condenser Loy | Battry Earth Fig. 22.17. Battery ignition system accordance with the firing order of the engine. Because of high voltage, spark jumps across the spark plug gap (0.45 to 0.6 mm) and ignites the combustible air-fuel mixture. The condenser connected in parallel with the circuit breaker prevents sparking actoss the gap between the points, and causes more rapid collapse of the magnetic field (primary current) and hence giving a higher voltage in the secondary circuit. The coil ignition system is employed with medium and heavy spark engines such as automotive cars. The scooters, motor cycles and small motor boat engines operate with magneto ignition system where magneto acts its own generator and so no battery is required. Spark plug : Towards the end of compres- sion stroke, the combustle mixture in a petrol engine is ignited by an electric spark produced between the electrodes of a spark plug. The spark plug receives high voltage ignition current from secondary coil of the ignition system and supplies spark which jumps across its electrodes. Refer Fig. 22.18 which shows the cross- section of a spark plug. The unit es: entially consists of a central electrode, a threaded metallic body with a ground electrode, and insulator that separates the two electrodes, an uc Terminal Central electrode WLLL Liu LZ. Porcelain insulator Zi GZ LIV FP sbark Ground gap electrode Fig. 22.18. Spark plug The central electrode passes through the parcelain insulator. The electrode extends for a short length through the bottom of insulator and it has external contact at the top of wire from ignition coil, There is a metal screw that surrounds the bottom part of the insulator and fastened into the cylinder head. The lower part of the metal screw has a ground electrode welded to it. The ground electrode is bent towards the central electrode. The small gap between the central electrode and the groundelocteog = © iS called s, current ig a a When high tension 22.13. GOVERNING (SPEED CONTROL) ectrode. itu, N to the terminal of central SYSTEM Produced, MMPS across the gap and spark is The term governing implies keeping the engine between g © SPATK gap is generally kept sPeed constant regardless of the charges in load SMall gap hag Emm. Two large or two OM the engine. Speed control is essential is the Of ignition 2’ adverse effect on the efficieney, Stationary engines used for driving electrical System, generators, pumps and compressors that are to operate at constant speed irrespective of load The methods commonly used for governing IC engines are quantity governing, quality Note : (i) Th (2) The spark; is wooo ae Voltage at the spark plug bout 1007 ee NOTE ae the spark last fr i) When the s HICK Central one SESE plug is short and has Cooler and 1 {etodes and insulator, it runs 86verning and, the hit and miss ears Tae i ts called cold plug. The plug would In quantity governing, the quantity of the lect tet When it has long and thin exposed mixture supplied to the engine is changed in eisctrode, and is then known as hot plug, accordance with load on the engine; the mixture The firing onde: on . strength (air-fuel ratio) remains same. The depends upon The ca multi-ylinder engine contrel is accomplished by means of a throttle arrangement of cylinders and he design of Valve which is placed in the intake manifold crankshaft. There are two possible firing ord immediately after the carburettor. In ig orders : ; Of the four stroke cycle engine as 13-42 or automobiles, the throttle valve is operated by 1-244-3 (Fig. 22.19). Although the first ordre is! foot or accelerator pedal through certain more frequently used, both satisfy the condition link rods. In stationary engines which must run as regards eveness of torque. at constant spped the throttle is positioned as a function of load and the movement of throttle 4 14 valve is regulated by the lift of governor. With : Le a decrease in load on the engine, the speed 7 en | increases and the fly balls move outwards. That ow Taal makes the governer sleeve rise up and partly LJ is close the throttle valve. The quantity of mixture 2 2.3 entering the engine cylinder then decreases. The converse happens when there is increases in load on the engine. With a change in the quantity of mixture, there will be change in The firing interval of any engine is equal _ the mean effective pressure and accordingly to 720/n where 1 is the number of cylinders. _ the power developed by the engine In a six cylinder engine, the firing interval is The quantity governing is used in many 720/6 = 120° and the corresponding spacing gas engines and is invariably employed with of crank is shown below. all petrol engines. 34 In quality governing, the air flow rate re- : mains constant but the composition of mixture is changed by admitting more or less fuel in accordance with variation in load. The varia- tion in the quantity of fuel admitted is affected by one the following methods : 2 changing the angular position of the helical groove of the fuel pump plunger relative Fig. 22.20. Spacing of cranks to the suction port. This would alter the amount Fig. 22.19. Firing order for four stroke cycle engineof fuel delivered due to change in effective stroke of the pump. ~ delaying the closure of the suction valve of the pump. ~ inserting a control valve to the Gelivery side of the fuel pump, this by-passes a part of the fuel back to the reservoir, The quality governing is mostly used in high speed diesel engines The speed control system becomes flexible and most economical when both the quantity and quality of the mixture are changed depending on the load. In hit and miss governing every charge is of normal strength but an explosion of charge is occasionally omitted when the engine speed has risen above the mean speed. The governor causes the inlet valve to remain closed (in 8as engine) and puts the fuel pump out of action in diesel engines. Since no fuel is supplied to the engine, it will perform an idle stroke during which no power will be developed 22.14. SUPERCHARGING The following methods have been suggested and are usually employed for improving the performance of an engine of a given size and capacity: () Run the engine at Sreater speeds : An increase in speed results into an increase in charge induced per unit time and that increases the power output. However, the system has fo encounter increased friction loss es and a drop in volumetric efficiency (breathing capacity) beyond a certain limit of speed. Further, the increased engine speeds necessitate 2 rigid and robust engine due to increased bearing loads and inertia forces (di) Use of higher compression ratios Engine output and thermal efficiency Senerally increase with increase in compression ratio, However, too high a value of compression ratio results into an enormous increase in eylinder pressure The engine cylinder has to be made strong, enough to resist the high pressure and consequently the increased structural weight the engine offsets the advantage of increased efficiency. Further, the combustion process takes place in an abnormal manner at high compression ratio, There is almost an instantaneous pressure rise which results in excessive noise and engine detonation. If detonation becomes severe, the engine over heats and the output starts declining. The value of compression ratio at which the engine power starts decreasing, is called the highest useful compression ratio (HUCR) (ii) Employment of two stroke cycle systems + For an engine working on two-stroke cycle, the power output is theoretically two-times the power output from a four-stroke cycle engine at the same speed and capacity However, this approach is not considered appropriate due to certain practical difficulties of cooling, low thermal efficiency and low volumetric efficiency (iv) Increasing the charge density + If the density of charge is more, then for a given capacity, the engine would suck a greater mass of charge and generate more power, The process where by a mixture of air and fuel (in case of petrol engines) or air only (in case of diesel engines) is forced under pres. sure to the engine cylinder during suction stroke is called supercharging, Essentially, the super- charging process means the admittance of dense charge to the engine cylinder. The device used for increasing the density, ic., increasing the Pressure of charge above atmospheric pressure is called supercharger. Basically the supercharg- ers-are air compressors which may be of the reciprocating or rotary type. The units are driven cither by engine shaft through Bearing or by exhaust gas turbines he reciprocating units slow speed engines ~ their need large space, inconstructions, problems. The are used with large, short coming being: are bulky and heavy and have greater lubrication Supercharging of aero- engines. Is done by rotary blowers (roots and vane blowers). These units can be run at much Breater speeds by coupling them directly to the shaft of the exhaust gas turbines,” The engines which are ; supplied charge at Pressure higher than atmospheric pressure arecalled Supercharged engines and the engines Which suck air at atmospheric pressure are called naturally aspirated en; The effects and purpose o' an engine are upercharging engi, Te increase the power output from an Gakine by supplying charge at pressure and ensity higher than atmospheric. " () To reduce the weight to power ratio. Ms aspect attains significance in case of aircraft and racing cars . (11) To reduce the bulk of the engine to fit into a limited space as in case of marine engines and locomotives. (i) To compens in aircraft application the atmosphere te for the loss of power at high altitudes where is rarified. Further * the mechanical efficiency of a super- charged engine is more than that of a natu- rally aspirated engine when both are made to run at the same speed. * the specific fuel consumption of a su- per-charged engine is less due to proper com- bustion achieved by better turbulence and Proper formation of air-fuel mixture and due to increased mechanical efficiency. A supercharged engine has the following limitations: (i) the engine components have to be desi- gned to sustain the high pressure, and ac- cordingly the engine structure becomes heavy. (ii) an increase in mep is likely to increase the bearing pressure and that results into increased friction losses. (iii) power is required to drive the super- charger (usually driven by the engine) and it partly offsets the power gain due to super- charging. (iv) the engine parts have to be made of materials which can sustain high temperatures encountered in supercharged engines. For keeping the temperature levels with in safe limits, a greater load would be put on the engine cooling system. Ina supercharged spark ignition (SI) engine, the pressure and temperature are high and the delay period in short, These aspects increase the possibility of detonation. For preventing, detonation either the engine has to operate with low compression ratio or a fuel with better octane rating, has to be employed. With reduced compression ratio, the thermal efficiency of the engine is adversely affected. ‘The higher inlet pressure and temperature achieved by supercharging, a compression ignition (Cl) engine shorten the delay period and that lessons the possibility of knock. The rate of pressure rise during combustion is quite moderate and the engine gives a smoother and quieter operation. Apparently, the use of supercharging is more favorable with diesel engines than with patrol engines. 22.15. COMBUSTION IN SPARK IGNITION ENGINES With reference to Fig, 22.21 given below : Crank angle ‘Toc Fig. 22.21. Combustion in SI engines (i) spark is provided at point a, certain pre- flame reactions start and finally actual combustion takes place at point b resulting in noticeable rise in cylinder pressure. The period elapsed between the points a and b is called delay period. (ii) During delay period, the molecules of mixture prepare to ignite. The number of degrees before tdc position at which ignition occurs is called angle of advance. The delay period is very short, about 0.002 second. But in high speed engines, this will correspond to appreciable movement of the crank. If an engine runs at 3000 rev/min, then during a delay period of 0.002 seconds, the crank will turn through, = 300%360 002 36°(iii) The delay period is reduced with in crease in compression ratio, intake temperatures and pressure. A higher value of self ignition temperature of fuel increases the delay period (ir) The charge adjacent to the spark plug, ignites first and a luminous flame front develops Which imparts its heat to the unburnt charge lying adjacent to it. When the unburnt charge attains the self-ignition temperature, it starts burning and a new wavefront develops. The flame front thus spreads through out the charge, heat is released and consequently there occurs a rise in pressure and maximum pressure rise is attained at point.c; a few degree after tde, The combustion stage corresponding to the flame propagation in the combustion chamber is represented by the line b-c Sometimes, the burning of fuel continues even during the expansion stroke, and this phenomenon is called after burning. (») In the context of flame speed it has been observed that + high flame speeds are obtained with an A/F ratio about 10% richer than chemically correct. * an engine of high compression ratio has a high flame speed + superchanged engines have a high flame speed because of high charge density. Reverse is true for throttled engines. * turbulence results in a high rate of heat transfer and high flame speed. + at high engine speed, there will be greater inlet velocity or turbulence and so greater flame speed « the flame speed increases with increase in engine load and intake temperature (ci) The mechanism of detonation (sharp metallic sound) in spark ignition engines manifests in setting up pressure waves in the Bases. These shock waves travel at very high velocity (900 ~ 2700 m/s) and are repeatly reflected from the walls of combustion space. The waves by their impact against the walls of the combustion chamber set them in vibration, and this gives rise to high pitched noises. The region in which detonation occurs is fasthest from the spark plugs and is known as detonation x Engineering Thermodynamics cone. Even with most severe detonation, it jy rarely more than 1/4 th of clearance space The following factors promote detonation in a petrol engine + increase in inlet pressure and temperature * increase in compression rat + advanced spark time. + increase in coolant temperature and the engine load Purther, it has been noted that detonation is * maximum for slightly rich mixtures * much relieved in small cylinders with engine running, at the same speed * much less in engines having compact combustion chamber. « less with fuels of aromatic series Due to detonation : * the engine parts are set in vibration and the vibrating engine parts may get damaged due to fatigue failure. * the operating temperatures are about 300°C higher and that increases the heat loss to the chamber walls. « the temperature of the spark plug is greatly increased when the high pressure gases pass through its cavity time and again, The high temperature may adversely affect the electrical and thermal properties of the plug and then render it useless. Overheating of the spark plug may even lead to pre-ignition Pre-ignition is the spontaneous auto-ignition of the fresh combustible charge before the end of compression stroke. The high pressure wave set up in the cylinder due to pre-ignition Opposes the piston movement during the last part of compression stroke and there occurs a serious loss in efficiency and power output of engine Detonation follows the Preignition precedes it. Furthe can occur with any type of fuel and is due to the presence of some hot spots in any portion of combustion space. The hot spots may be an overheated spark plug, exhaust valve or the presence of some carbon deposits on the spark while r, pre-ignitionInternal Combustion Engines cylinder walls, Detonation, however, occurs eae fuels which are volatile in nature and is affected by the composition and molecular ucture of the fuel. The high temperatures and pressures resulting from pre-ignition, however, promote detonation >The following methods Suggested to reduce detonation (}) Compact design of combustion chamber and central location of spark plug. This is to reduce the path of the flame front travel from the spark plug to the remotest part of combustion chamber. (11) Better cooling of the end charge for getting rid of the excess heat (i) Keep the inside temperature limits within the reasonable limits by injecting water into the cylinder before igniting the charge. (12) Use salt or sodium cooled exhaust valves particularly when the engine is operating at high compression ratios. (0) Provide the combustion chamber with squish recesses. This will facilitate the cooling of the last portion of the charge and accelerate the flame front speed by providing the necessary turbulence for proper mixing. (vi) Retard the spark timings so that the peak pressures are reached only during the power stroke and are also of lower magnitude. (vii) Operate the engine with extremely Jean or rich mixtures so that flame temperatures are kept low. The anti-knock value of a gasoline engine is rated in terms of its octane number. The octane rating is a measure of the ability of fuel to resist detonation during combustion. The fuel under test is used to run the engine under specific conditions and the octane rating is measured with a specially designed knock meter. The engine under the same conditions is then operated on a mixture of iso-octane and n-heptane. The iso-octane resists detonation very owerfully and is arbitrarily assigned a rating ‘of 100 octane number. The n-heptane detonates very easily even at every low compression ratios and represents zero octane number. The two hydrocarbons may be mixed in varying have been : Othe proportions by volume and number of blends Ef fuel can be obtained. Such blends will have anti-knock ratings ranging from 0) to 100 octane numbers The percentage of iso-octane in such a blend which gives the same detonating results as that recorded by using the gasoline under test is called the octane rating of the fuel. Thus if a similar knock intensity is observed with a blend consisting of 75% iso-octane and 25% iheptane, then we will say that the commercial fuel has a octane rating of 75%. Higher the octane number, better is the quality of fuel. For understanding the progréss of flame front and its effect on burning of the end charge in the combustion chamber, refer to Fig. 22.22 given below : Detonation Fig, 22.22, Flame travel for normal combustion and knocking combustion There is communication of flame from molecule to molecule. The charge near the flame is heated, attains the temperature of self- ignition, burns and forms a new wave front.