Design of Structures L

ENGG_CC_LECTURE NOTES_01Sep2020_V03
CECE 2240/3240 Design of Structures 1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 REINFORCED CONCRETE BASICS ................................................................................4

1.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................5
1.2 Structural Elements and Frames ....................................................................................5
1.3 Composite Action .........................................................................................................7
1.4 Design Philosophies ......................................................................................................7
1.5 Building Code ...............................................................................................................9
1.6 Specification of Materials .............................................................................................9
1.6.1 Concrete ................................................................................................................9
1.6.2 Reinforcing Steel ................................................................................................. 10
1.7 Reinforcement and Bending (Tension/Compression zones) ......................................... 11
1.7.1 Examples (without detailing) ............................................................................... 11
1.7.2 Dimensions and Proper reinforcement in members (without detailing) ................. 13
.............................................................................................................................................. 14
1.8 Summary .................................................................................................................... 16
2 ANALYSIS OF SINGLY & DOUBLY REINFORCED SECTIONS ................................ 19
2.1 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................... 20
2.2 ASSUMPTIONS ......................................................................................................... 21
2.3 Modes of Failure of Sections in Bending or Flexure .................................................... 25
3 DESIGN OF ONE WAY SLAB ........................................................................................ 30
3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 31
3.2 Failures in Slabs .......................................................................................................... 32
3.3 Design Steps (Avoiding Failure Approach) ................................................................. 35
3.4 DESIGN PROBLEMS ................................................................................................ 45
3.5 EXTRA NOTES ......................................................................................................... 46
3.6 Transferring the Slab Load to the beam ....................................................................... 51
3.7 Slab-Beam Reinforcement Overview .......................................................................... 55
3.8 Supplements (Tutorials) .............................................................................................. 56
4 DESIGN OF BEAMS ........................................................................................................ 58
4.1 Modes of Failure of Beams ......................................................................................... 59
4.2 Singly and Doubly Reinforced Section ........................................................................ 59
4.3 Loads on Beams .......................................................................................................... 60
4.4 Typical Reinforcement in Beams ................................................................................ 61
4.5 Singly Reinforced Beam Design.................................................................................. 62
4.6 Doubly Reinforced Beam Design ................................................................................ 63
4.7 Continuous Beam Design (Using BS 8110) ................................................................. 64
4.8 Extra Numerical .......................................................................................................... 65
5 SHORT COLUMN: AXIAL LOAD .................................................................................. 69
5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 70
5.2 Loads Applied to Columns .......................................................................................... 71
5.3 Column Classification ................................................................................................. 72
5.4 Modes of Failures in Column ...................................................................................... 77
5.5 Mathematical Derivation ............................................................................................. 80
Page 1 of 105
5.6 Numerical Problems .................................................................................................... 82

6 FOUNDATIONS .............................................................................................................. 91
6.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 92
6.2 Types of Foundations .................................................................................................. 92
6.2.1 Shallow Foundation ............................................................................................. 93
6.2.2 Deep Foundation .................................................................................................. 95
6.3 Typical Soil Bearing Capacity for Different type of soil .............................................. 96
6.4 Hints for foundation design ......................................................................................... 96
6.5 Design of Pad Foundation ........................................................................................... 97
6.6 Design Problem 1:..................................................................................................... 103
References........................................................................................................................... 104
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1-1: Properties of concrete and steel .................................................................................5
Figure 1-2: Different structural components ................................................................................6
Figure 1-3: Cylinder and cube's strengths .................................................................................. 10
Figure 1-4 Reinforcement Bars.................................................................................................. 10
Figure 1-5 Behavior of Beams under Bending ........................................................................... 11
Figure 1-6 Location of Reinforcement Bars in different types of beams..................................... 12
Figure 1-7 Slab Reinforcement .................................................................................................. 13
Figure 1-8 Reinforcement in Beam ............................................................................................ 14
Figure 1-9 Reinforcement in Column ........................................................................................ 15
Figure 2-1 Types of Beams ....................................................................................................... 20
Figure 2-2 Cross Section of Beam ............................................................................................. 21
Figure 2-3 Cross section and the stress distribution in the member ............................................ 22
Figure 2-4 Fcc and Fst computation .......................................................................................... 22
Figure 2-5 Ultimate Moment of Resistance .............................................................................. 23
Figure 2-6 Cross section and forces computations ..................................................................... 24
Figure 2-7 Moments and Area required derivation..................................................................... 24
Figure 2-8: Balanced Section..................................................................................................... 25
Figure 2-9 Under Reinforced Section ........................................................................................ 26
Figure 2-10 Over Reinforced Section ........................................................................................ 27
Figure 3-1 Different types of slabs ............................................................................................ 31
Figure 3-2 Solid slab system and two of its main failures (bending and deflection).................... 32
Figure 3-3 One-way slab ........................................................................................................... 33
Figure 3-4 Two-way slab .......................................................................................................... 34
Figure 3-5: Cover for Durability of Elements ............................................................................ 35
Figure 3-6: Span to Effective Depth ratio .................................................................................. 36
Figure 3-7: Main and Secondary Reinforcement ........................................................................ 36
Figure 3-8 Effective Length for Different Beams....................................................................... 37
Figure 3-9: Typical loads in slabs .............................................................................................. 38
Figure 3-10: Computation of ultimate load ................................................................................ 38
Figure 3-11 Bending Moment for Simply Supported Slab ......................................................... 39
Figure 3-12: continuous slab .................................................................................................... 40
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Figure 3-13: Fixed End Condition Moments .............................................................................. 41

Figure 3-14: Simple End Condition Moments ........................................................................... 41
Figure 3-15 Reinforcement in Slab ............................................................................................ 42
Figure 3-16 Deflection in a member .......................................................................................... 43
Figure 3-17 Reinforcement in a Slab ......................................................................................... 44
Figure 3-18 Load transfer in one way slab with 2 beams ........................................................... 51
Figure 3-19 Load Transfer in one way slab with 4 beams .......................................................... 52
Figure 3-20 Load transfer in two way slab ................................................................................. 53
Figure 3-21 Load transfer in Cantilever slab .............................................................................. 54
Figure 3-22 Slab beam reinforcement ........................................................................................ 55
Figure 4-1: Singly and doubly reinforced beams........................................................................ 59
Figure 4-2 Self weight of Section .............................................................................................. 60
Figure 4-3 Cross Section of a wall ............................................................................................. 60
Figure 4-4: Calculations of ultimate load (w) ............................................................................ 61
Figure 4-5 Reinforcement in a Beam ......................................................................................... 61
Figure 4-6: Design ultimate bending moments and shear forces ................................................ 64
Figure 5-1: Column and Wall .................................................................................................... 70
Figure 5-2: functions of columns ............................................................................................... 70
Figure 5-3: Transfer of loads to columns ................................................................................... 71
Figure 5-4: Short (left) and Slender (right) concept and typical failure shape ............................. 72
Figure 5-5: Braced and unbraced columns (shear wall) .............................................................. 73
Figure 5-6: Different Cross-sections used in columns and their detailing ................................... 74
Figure 5-7 Column under Axial Load ........................................................................................ 75
Figure 5-8 Column Subjected to Eccentric Load........................................................................ 75
Figure 5-9 Column Subjected to Bi-axial Bending..................................................................... 76
Figure 5-10: Crushing of a short column ................................................................................... 78
Figure 5-11 Buckling of Slender Column .................................................................................. 78
Figure 5-12: Buckling of a slender column ................................................................................ 79
Figure 5-13: Axially loaded column .......................................................................................... 80
Figure 5-14 Reinforcement in Column ...................................................................................... 81
Figure 6-1 Isolated Footing ....................................................................................................... 93
Figure 6-2 Combined Footing ................................................................................................... 94
Figure 6-3 Raft Foundation ....................................................................................................... 94
Figure 6-4 Strap Footing ........................................................................................................... 94
Figure 6-5 Strip Footing ............................................................................................................ 95
Figure 6-6 Pile Foundation ........................................................................................................ 95
Figure 6-7 Isolated Footing ....................................................................................................... 97
Figure 6-8 Load on Footing ....................................................................................................... 98
Figure 6-9 Area of Footing ........................................................................................................ 98
Figure 6-10: Moment Calculation .............................................................................................. 99
Figure 6-11 Reinforcement in Footing ..................................................................................... 100
Figure 6-12 One way shear in footing ...................................................................................... 101
Figure 6-13 Cross Section of a footing .................................................................................... 101
Figure 6-14 Plan of footing ..................................................................................................... 102
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1 REINFORCED CONCRETE BASICS

This chapter emphasises on properties of concrete and steel, structural elements, design
philosophies and code provisions.
At the end of the chapter, students are expected to satisfactorily meet the following course
objectives and learning outcomes:
OBJECTIVES LEARNING OUTCOMES (LO)

1. This course should enable the student 1. Use the design codes in order to produce
to: the design of structures
2. Establish design loads, 2. Apply iteration methods to the initial
3. Understand the design code which is design to converge on an efficient final
used to design structure 3. Maintain ethics within the framework of
4. Discuss the use of basic approaches professional conduct
and more unique method to analyze
structure by hand,
5. Identify the responsibility of the
engineer to be ethical in dealing with
others and in the presentation of
result from analysis and design.
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1.1 Introduction
Concrete is the most important building material, due to its ability to be moulded to take up the
shapes required for the various structural forms. It is also very durable and fire resistant.
1.2 Structural Elements and Frames

Its utility and versatility is achieved by combining the best features of concrete and steel.
Consider some of the widely differing properties of these two materials that are listed below.
Table 1: Differences between Concrete and Steel
Category Concrete Steel
Poor Good
Strength in tension
Good Good, but slender bars will buckle

Strength in compression
Fair Good
Strength in shear
Good Corrodes if unprotected

Durability
Fire resistance Good

Poor
Figure 1-1: Properties of concrete and steel
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The complete building structure can be broken down into the following elements:
Beams Horizontal members carrying vertical and/or lateral loads
Slab Horizontal plate elements carrying vertical loads
Columns Vertical members carrying primarily axial load, but generally

also subjected to lateral load and moment
Footing and foundations Pads or strips supported directly on the ground that spread
the loads from columns or walls so that they can be supported
by the ground without excessive settlement
Figure 1-2: Different structural components
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1.3 Composite Action
The tensile strength of concrete is only about 10 percent of the compressive strength; therefore,
nearly all reinforced concrete structures are not designed to resist any tensile forces, while all
tensile forces are designed to be carried by reinforcement, which are transferred by the bond
between the interfaces of the two materials. If the bond is not adequate, the reinforcing bars will
just slip within the concrete, and there will not be a composite action.
1.4 Design Philosophies
Three basic methods using factors of safety to achieve safe, workable structures have been
developed, and they are:
1) The permissible stress method in which ultimate strengths of the materials are divided by
a factor of safety to provide design stresses, which are usually within the elastic range. e.g.
actual strength = 460N/mm2, applying F.O.S. = 2 ∴ using 230N/mm2 for design.
2) The load factor method in which the working loads are multiplied by a factor of safety.
e.g. actual load = 20kN, applying F.O.S. = 2 ∴ using 40kN for design.
3) The limit state method which multiplies the working loads by partial factors of safety and
also divides the materials’ ultimate strength by further partial factors of safety.
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EXAMPLE 1:
Determine the cross-sectional area of a mild steel cable which supports a total dead load of 3.0
kN and a live load of 2.0 kN. The characteristic yield stress of the mild steel is 250 N/mm2 in
the following cases:
- The load factor method with a load factor= 1.8
- A permissible stress design with a factor of safety of 1.8 on the yield stress
- A limit state design with the following factors of safety:
γG = 1.4 for the dead load, γQ = 1.6 for the live load, γm= 1.05 for steel strength
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1.5 Building Code

The building code BS: 8110-1997 is divided into three parts.
PART 1: Code of practice for design and construction

PART 2: Code of practice for special circumstances
PART 3: Design chart for singly reinforced beams, doubly reinforced beams and
rectangular columns
1.6 Specification of Materials
1.6.1 Concrete
The selection of the type of concrete is usually governed by the strength and durability
requirements. The concrete strength is assessed by measuring the crushing strength of cubes or
cylinders of concrete made from the mix. These are usually cured and tested at 28 days
according to standard procedures. A grade 25 concrete has a characteristic cube crushing
strength of 25 N/mm².
The table below shows the lowest grade of concrete for use as specified.
Table 2 Lowest grade of concrete for use

GRADE Lowest Grade for Use as Specified
C7 Plain concrete
C10
C15 Reinforced concrete with lightweight aggregate
C20
C25 Reinforced concrete with normal-weight aggregate
C30
C35
C40
C45
C50
C35 Concrete with post-tensioned tendons
C40 Concrete with pre-tensioned tendons
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Figure 1-3: Cylinder and cube's strengths

1.6.2 Reinforcing Steel
The characteristic strength of the more common types of reinforcement are shown below.
Table 3 Properties of Steel
Specified Characteristic
Designation Nominal Sizes (mm)
Strength (N/mm²)
Hot-rolled mild steel (6), 8, 10, 12, 16, 250

25, 32, 40 & (50)
(6), 8, 10, 12, 16,
Hot-rolled high yield &
25, 32, 40 & (50) 460
Cold-worked High Yield
(6), 8, 10, 12, 16,
Hot-rolled high yield &
25, 32, 40 & (50) 500
Cold-worked High Yield
 The bar types are commonly identified in designs by the following codes:
R = mild steel(250);
Y =high yield deformed steel (460), type 1;
T = high yield deformed steel (460), type 2;
H = high yield deformed steel (500)
HYSD Mild
Figure 1-4 Reinforcement Bars
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1.7 Reinforcement and Bending (Tension/Compression zones)

The figures below illustrate the behaviour of a simply supported beam subjected to bending and
shows the position of steel reinforcement to resist the tensile forces, while the compression
forces in the top of the beam are carried by the concrete.
Figure 1-5 Behavior of Beams under Bending

1.7.1 Examples (without detailing)
 Simply Supported Beam

 Cantilever:
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 Overhanging:
Figure 1-6 Location of Reinforcement Bars in different types of beams
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1.7.2 Dimensions and Proper reinforcement in members (without detailing)
 Slabs:
Figure 1-7 Slab Reinforcement
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 Beams:
Figure 1-8 Reinforcement in Beam
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 Columns:
Figure 1-9 Reinforcement in Column
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1.8 Summary
 The primary aim of all structural design is to ensure that the structure will perform
satisfactorily during its design life. The designer must check that the structure is capable of
carrying the loads safely and that it will not deform excessively due to applied loads.
 The task of the designer is to design a structure which satisfies the needs of a client and
the user. The structure should be safe, economical to build and maintain, and aesthetically
pleasing.
Question 1:
 Why reinforcement (steel in particular) is used in reinforced concrete and not any other
element? Explain in brief.
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2 ANALYSIS OF SINGLY & DOUBLY REINFORCED

SECTIONS
This chapter emphasises on selection of beam sections, comparison of singly reinforced and
doubly reinforced sections. Design formulas and problems on design of sections.

and more unique method to analyze 4. Design and analyze of basic structural
structure by hand, elements of reinforced concrete including:
5. Identify the responsibility of the a] Singly and doubly reinforced beams
engineer to be ethical in dealing with b]One-way slabs c]Columns and footings
others and in the presentation of
result from analysis and design.
Page 19 of 105
2.1 INTRODUCTION
com
N A
Ten
N A
Singly Reinforced, Doubly reinforced, Flanged Beam-T section, Flanged Beam-L section
W KN/m
Simply Supported beam

Neutral Axis
C
Figure 2-1 Types of Beams
SINGLY REINFORCED SECTION:

- Beam reinforced with tension steel only is called singly reinforced.
DOUBLY REINFORCED SECTION:

- Beam reinforced with tension and compression steel is called doubly reinforced. The
inclusion of compression steel will increase the moment capacity of the beam.
FLANGED SECTION:
- Under certain conditions, T and L beam are more economical than the rectangular beam.
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2.2 ASSUMPTIONS
1. Plane section normal to the axis remains plane after bending.
Figure 2-2 Cross Section of Beam
2. The strain diagram is triangular. The maximum strain in concrete at the outermost
compression fiber is taken as 0.35% in bending regardless of the strength of concrete.
3. The stress distribution in the concrete is parabolic. The maximum compressive stress is
equal to 0.67fcu/Ymc.
4. The tensile strength of the concrete is ignored.
Page 21 of 105
 SINGLY REINFORCED SECTION:
To derive the equations for the single reinforced Section, follow the coming steps:
1) Draw the cross section and the stress block of the rectangular member
Figure 2-3 Cross section and the stress distribution in the member
2) Calculate the forces of concrete and steel (Fcc and Fst):
Figure 2-4 Fcc and Fst computation
Page 22 of 105
3) Calculation of ultimate moment of resistance (Mcu)
Figure 2-5 Ultimate Moment of Resistance
 DOUBLY REINFORCED SECTION:

If the design moment M is greater than the ultimate moment of resistance- Muc the concrete will
have insufficient strength in compression to generate this moment and maintain an under -
reinforced mode of failure.
M (Design moment) > M u (Ultimate moment of Resistant)
Or K > K’
Where, K = M/fcubd2
And K’ = Mucon/fcubd2
 Reasons of providing Reinforcement in compression

The required compressive strength can be achieved by increasing the proportions of the
beam, particularly its overall depth, this may not always be possible due to limitations on
the headroom in the structure, and in such case, it will be necessary to provide
reinforcement in the compression face. Those cases are:
- If the load is high and section in not enough to take the load and the size of
the beam is restricted
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Figure 2-6 Cross section and forces computations
Figure 2-7 Moments and Area required derivation
Page 24 of 105
2.3 Modes of Failure of Sections in Bending or Flexure
1. BALANCED SECTION:
If the ratio of steel to concrete in a beam is such that the maximum strain in the two materials
reaches simultaneously, a sudden failure will occur with less alarming deflection.
Figure 2-8: Balanced Section
Page 25 of 105
2. UNDER REINFORCED SECTION:
When the amount of steel is kept less than the balanced condition, the neutral axis shifts
upward to satisfy the equilibrium condition, and the structure fails due to yielding in steel
with alarming deflection.
Єcc=0.0035
x
Xm
NA
As
Cross/Section Strain Diagram Xm > x
Figure 2-9 Under Reinforced Section
Page 26 of 105
3. OVER REINFORCED SECTION:
When the amount of steel is kept more than the balanced condition, the neutral axis shifts
downward to satisfy the equilibrium condition, and the structure fails due to Failure in
concrete.
Xm X
NA
Thus, X > X m , Limit X to X m, Thus X=Xm and hence same as a balanced section.
Figure 2-10 Over Reinforced Section
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3 DESIGN OF ONE WAY SLAB

This chapter emphasises on different types of slabs, load distribution on slabs, design concepts
of one way and two way slabs. Design problems.

others and in the presentation of 5. Calculate the reinforcement details
result from analysis and design. which include: Maximum and minimum
reinforcement areas b. Spacing of
reinforcement c. Curtailment and
anchorage of d lapping of reinforcement
6. Present the design details to show
reinforcement and size requirements for
basic members
Page 30 of 105
3.1 Introduction
Figure 3-1 Different types of slabs

It is the top most part of a building which can be a steel sheet, timber, (RCC). Which is used to
form a variety of a structure such as floor, roof, staircase, foundations and some types of walls.
Since these elements can be modelled as a set of transversely connected beams. It follows that
the same principals as the design of beams. The major difference in the slab design is that the
serviceability limit state of deflection is usually critical, rather than the ultimate limit state of
bending and shear. The slab may be solid, ribbed (With hollow blocks or voids), flat or of
composite construction.
In practice, the choice of slab for a particular structure will largely depend on the loading
condition and the length of the span. Thus for short –span slabs, generally less than 6m, the most
economical solution is to provide a solid slab of constant thickness over the complete span.
Page 31 of 105
3.2 Failures in Slabs

- Durability (cover and minimum dimension)
- Bending
- Area of reinforcement
- Shear
- Deflection
Figure 3-2 Solid slab system and two of its main failures (bending and deflection)
Page 32 of 105
One way solid slabs may be:
1. One-way slab: If the aspect ratio > 2, the slab is one-way slab
Aspect ratio (α) = Ly / Lx = Effective length in the longer direction

Effective length in shorter direction
Figure 3-3 One-way slab
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2. Two-way slab: If the aspect ratio <=2, the slab is two-way slab
Figure 3-4 Two-way slab
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3.3 Design Steps (Avoiding Failure Approach)
1- Durability:
- Cover Proper Choice (fire and water protection)
Figure 3-5: Cover for Durability of Elements
- Minimum Dimension Requirements
Page 35 of 105
2- Bending:
- Estimation of effective depth d
Figure 3-6: Span to Effective Depth ratio
- Computation for the overall depth

Total depth D=d + cover + Φ/2, where Φ=diameter of bar (to be assumed). As guideline, we
assume (Φ=10mm)
Figure 3-7: Main and Secondary Reinforcement
Page 36 of 105
- Computation of the effective length
Figure 3-8 Effective Length for Different Beams
- Compute for the Dead load = (weight of slab + weight of finishes) & Live load
(depends on the function of the building floor)
Page 37 of 105
Figure 3-9: Typical loads in slabs
- Calculate the ultimate load (w)
Figure 3-10: Computation of ultimate load
Page 38 of 105
- Structural analysis to find the bending moment and shearing forces (Designed
as beams of width=1m, i.e. b=1000mm)
 SIMPLY SUPPORTED
Figure 3-11 Bending Moment for Simply Supported Slab
Page 39 of 105
 CONTINUOUS
Figure 3-12: continuous slab
Page 40 of 105
Figure 3-13: Fixed End Condition Moments
Figure 3-14: Simple End Condition Moments
- Check for single or Double section

Compare between Bending Moment and Ultimate of Resistance
3- Bending:
- Calculation of reinforcement:
\\
Page 41 of 105
Figure 3-15 Reinforcement in Slab
- Checking Area of reinforcement:

Check the area of reinforcement are between the limits of minimum and maximum allowable
areas
- Cracking Check:
Check the minimum and maximum spacing between the bars
Page 42 of 105
4- Shear:
Compare between the shear stress of the load and concrete and check the required shear
reinforcement
5- Deflection:
Check the deflection with the maximum allowable
Figure 3-16 Deflection in a member

DETAILING
Page 43 of 105
Figure 3-17 Reinforcement in a Slab
Page 44 of 105
3.4 DESIGN PROBLEMS

Problem 1: A reinforced concrete floor is subjected to an imposed load of 3.5 KN/m2. The span
between brick walls is shown below. Design the floor for mild exposure condition assuming the
following material strength:
(fcu = 35N/mm2 , fy = 460 N/mm2)
The centre to centre distance between walls is 4.5m. The wall is 150mm thick.
150mm
Le=4.5m
Problem -2:
- Design of a cantilever beam slab of span 2.5 m having:
(fcu = 35N/mm2 , fy = 460 N/mm2)
Imposed load = 2.5 kN/m2 Wall support is fixed at one end of 250 mm thick
L=2.5 m
Problem 3:
- Calculate bending moment and Shear force for the supports and spans of a continuous
one-way slab having three spans as shown in the figure below. With the following data:
imposed load= 3.5 kN/m2, Assuming the fcu = 30 N/mm2 and fy = 460 N/mm2
4m 4.1m 4m
Page 45 of 105
3.5 EXTRA NOTES
Dead Loads:
Table 3-1: Mass of some construction materials
Material Mass per unit Area (kg/m2)
Aluminium panel sheet (2 mm) 5.6
Marble (20 mm thick) 55
Sand Stone Tiles (20 mm thick) 47
Lime Stone Tiles (20 mm thick) 48
Granite (20 mm thick) 55
Gypsum board and supports (12.5 mm thick) 15
Terrazzo tiles (25 mm thick) 54
Screed (cement: sand) 13 mm thick 30
Hard-wood (20 mm thick) 2.5
Ceramic tiles (2.5 mm thick) 6
Carpet 3
A/C ducting, light fittings and other services 40
Hollow block work partition (100 mm thick) 250
Hollow block work partition (200 mm thick) 315
Live Loads (kN/m2):
Page 46 of 105
Q: The slab shown below will be used as part of offices for general use in the ministry of
education. The floor finishes will be 20 mm thick limestone tiles on top of 13 mm concrete
screed. A/C ducting and light fittings will be attached to the ceiling. The characteristic material
strengths are fcu= 30 N/mm2 and fy= 460 N/mm2 . The design is required to be based on mild
environment and fire resistance of 2 hours. The slab is resting on masonry walls from four sides.
Calculate the following:
a) Effective depth of the slab
b) Overall depth of the slab
Page 47 of 105
c) Bending Moment and Shear force
d) Ultimate Moment of Resistance [Mcu]
e) Areas of reinforcement (Required Areas)
Page 48 of 105
f) Shear reinforcement check
g) Deflection
h) Detailing (State what is 1, 2, 3 and 4)
Page 49 of 105
Q: A concrete floor reinforced with 10 mm diameter of (T) type steel at 125 mm2 centres
between bricks is shown below. Calculate the maximum uniformly distributed imposed
load the floor can take.
Page 50 of 105
3.6 Transferring the Slab Load to the beam
- One-way slab (2 beams case)
Figure 3-18 Load transfer in one way slab with 2 beams
Page 51 of 105
- One-way slab (4 beams case)
Figure 3-19 Load Transfer in one way slab with 4 beams
Page 52 of 105
- Two-way slab
Figure 3-20 Load transfer in two way slab
Page 53 of 105
- Cantilever
Figure 3-21 Load transfer in Cantilever slab
Page 54 of 105
3.7 Slab-Beam Reinforcement Overview
Figure 3-22 Slab beam reinforcement
Page 55 of 105
3.8 Supplements (Tutorials)

Q: A composite floor consisting of a 150 mm thick reinforced concrete slab supported on steel
beams spanning 5 m and spaced at 3 m centres is to be designed to carry an imposed load of 3.5
kN/m2. Assuming that the unit mass of the steel beams is 50 kg/m run, calculate the design loads
on a typical internal beam.
Q: The floor shown below with an overall depth of 225 mm is to be designed to carry an
imposed load of 3 kN/m2 plus floor finishes and ceiling loads of 1 kN/m2. Calculate the design
loads acting on beams B1–C1, B2–C2 and B1–B3 and columns B1 and C1. Assume that all the
column heights are 3 m and that the beam and column weights are 70 and 60 kg/m run
respectively.
Page 56 of 105
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4 DESIGN OF BEAMS
This chapter emphasises on different types of beam sections, transfer of loads to beams, design
formulas, use of code to design of beams and design examples.

basic members
Page 58 of 105
4.1 Modes of Failure of Beams
- Durability (Check the minimum dimensions and the cover)

- Bending (Check BM with the capacity)
If BM<Moment capacity (Singly reinforced beam)
If BM>Moment capacity (Doubly reinforced beam)
- Area of reinforcement (Check with minimum and maximum areas)

If Asmin<AsREQUIRED<Asmax, section within limits
If not,
(Provide minimum if Asmin>AsREQUIRED) or (increase the depth if AsREQUIRED>Asmax)
- Shear (Check SF with the capacity)

If SF<Shear capacity (provide minimum shear reinforcement)
If SF>Shear capacity (provide required shear reinforcement)
- Deflection (Check actual span-effective depth ratio to the maximum)
4.2 Singly and Doubly Reinforced Section
Figure 4-1: Singly and doubly reinforced beams
Page 59 of 105
4.3 Loads on Beams
- Self-weight of the beam
Figure 4-2 Self weight of Section

- Weight of the walls
Figure 4-3 Cross Section of a wall
Page 60 of 105
- Load from slab
Figure 4-4: Calculations of ultimate load (w)
After calculating the ultimate load of the slab (w), follow section 4.4
4.4 Typical Reinforcement in Beams
Figure 4-5 Reinforcement in a Beam
Page 61 of 105
4.5 Singly Reinforced Beam Design
Q1: A reinforced concrete beam which is 300 mm wide and 600 mm deep is
required to span 6.0 m between the centres of supporting piers 300 mm wide. The
beam carries dead and imposed loads of 25 kN/m and 19 kN/m respectively.
Assuming fcu = 30 N/mm2, fy = fyv = 460 N/mm2 and mild condition, design the
beam.
Page 62 of 105
4.6 Doubly Reinforced Beam Design
Q2: The reinforced concrete beam has an effective span of 9 m and carries
uniformly distributed dead load (including self-weight of beam) of 4KN/m and
imposed load of 10 KN/m respectively. Design the bending reinforcement by using
Conventional Method assuming the following:
fcu = 30 N/mm2
fy = 460 N/mm2
Effective cover to main steel (Tension) = 40mm
Effective cover to main steel (Compression) = 35mm
Effective depth= 360 mm, width of the wall is 200 mm
Page 63 of 105
4.7 Continuous Beam Design (Using BS 8110)
Figure 4-6: Design ultimate bending moments and shear forces
Q3: The beam is 300mm wide by 660mm depth with 3 equal 5m spans. In the
transverse direction, the beams are at 4m center to center with a 180mm thick slab.
The live load on the beam qk= 50 kN/m and the dead load including self-weight
gk=85 kN/m. fcu= 30 N/mm2, fy=460 N/mm2 and fyv=250 N/mm2. Assume mild
exposure and 1-hour fire resistance. Calculate bending moment and shear forces at
all spans and supports.
Page 64 of 105
4.8 Extra Numerical
1 A simply supported beam has an effective span of 8.00 m and supports

characteristic dead and live loads of 15 KN / m and 10 KN / m respectively.
Determine suitable dimensions for the depth and width of the beam.
2 A simply supported rectangular beam of 7 m span carries characteristic dead

load (including self-weight of the beam) of 12 KN/m and imposed load of 8 KN/m
respectively. The beam dimensions are breadth=275 mm, effective depth=450 mm.
Assuming the following material strengths to be Fcu=30 N/mm2, fy=460 N/mm2,
Design the reinforcement.
3 A Cantilever rectangular beam of 3.5 m span carries characteristic dead load

(including self-weight of the beam) of 5 KN/m and imposed load of 4 KN/m
respectively. The beam dimensions are breadth=250 mm, effective depth=325 mm.
Assuming the following material strengths to be Fcu=30 N/mm2, fy=460 N/mm2,
calculate the area of reinforcement required.
4 A simply supported rectangular beam of 6 m span carries characteristic

dead load (excluding self-weight of the beam) of 10 KN/m and imposed load of 7
KN/m respectively. The beam dimensions are breadth=250 mm, effective
depth=400 mm. Assuming the following material strengths to be Fcu=30 N/mm2,
fy=460 N/mm2, calculate the area of reinforcement required.
5 A Cantilever rectangular beam of 2.5 m span carries a characteristic dead

load (excluding self-weight of the beam) of 3.5 KN/m and imposed load of 3
KN/m respectively. The beam dimensions are breadth=245mm, effective
Page 65 of 105
depth=325 mm. Assuming the following material strengths to be Fcu=30 N/mm2,

fy=460 N/mm2, calculate the area of reinforcement required.
6 Design the shear reinforcement for the beam shown in Fig using high yield
steel (fy = 460 N/mm2) links for the following load cases:
(i) qk = 0
(ii) qk = 10 kN/m
(iii) qk = 29 kN/m
(iv) qk = 45 kN/m
7 The beam is 300 mm wide by 660 mm deep with three equal 5.0 m spans. In
the transverse direction, the beams are at 4.0 m centres with a 180 mm thick slab.
Calculate bending moments and shear forces at all spans and supports for the beam
Page 66 of 105
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Page 67 of 105
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Page 68 of 105
5 SHORT COLUMN: AXIAL LOAD

This chapter emphasises on axially loaded and eccentrically loaded columns, difference
between short and long columns, reinforcement detailing for columns and problems on design
of columns.

basic members
Page 69 of 105
5.1 Introduction
Figure 5-1: Column and Wall
Function of Column  The Function of Column in a Structure is to act as vertical supports to

suspended members such as beams and roofs and to transmit the loads from these members
down to the foundations as shown in figure. with a height of at least four times its least lateral
dimensions.
Figure 5-2: functions of columns

Columns are mainly Compression members although they may also have to resist bending
moments transmitted by beams.
Page 70 of 105
5.2 Loads Applied to Columns
- Beams Reactions
Figure 5-3: Transfer of loads to columns
N (Ultimate load) can be taken to be 1.1× (sum of beams reactions) × Number

of floors
- Self-weight of the column
Can be calculated from specific weight × volume of the concrete (Area × height)
Page 71 of 105
5.3 Column Classification
Column may be classified that as Short or Slender, braced or unbraced, depending on various
dimensional and structural factors which will be discussed below
- Short vs. Slender
- The column is considered short if:
Lex < 15 and Ley <15

h b
Where,
Lex- Effective Height of Column with respect to the Major Axis(x-x)
Ley is the effective Height of Column in respect of the minor Axis-(y-y)
b the width of the column cross-section and h the depth of the column cross-section.
Figure 5-4: Short (left) and Slender (right) concept and typical failure shape
Page 72 of 105
- Braced vs. Unbraced
Bracing can be of shear or core wall, or inclined bracing
Figure 5-5: Braced and unbraced columns (shear wall)
Page 73 of 105
- Based on
Shape
Figure 5-6: Different Cross-sections used in columns and their detailing
Page 74 of 105
- Based on Loading
There are three conditions of loading that may occur in columns and they are:
- Axial Load column
Figure 5-7 Column under Axial Load
- A Column Subjected to axial load and Uni-axial bending
Figure 5-8 Column Subjected to Eccentric Load

- A Column Subjected to axial load and biaxial bending
Page 75 of 105
Figure 5-9 Column Subjected to Bi-axial Bending
Page 76 of 105
EXAMPLE:
5.4 Modes of Failures in Column
1. Compression failure of the concrete /steel reinforcement

2. Buckling
3. The combination of Buckling and compression failure.
 Crushing: is most likely to occur with column which is short and stocky
Page 77 of 105
Figure 5-10: Crushing of a short column
 Buckling is probable with columns which are long and slender. It is important
Figure 5-11 Buckling of Slender Column
Page 78 of 105
Figure 5-12: Buckling of a slender column
The most common type of Column found in Building, namely Short-Braced

Columns
Page 79 of 105
5.5 Mathematical Derivation
 Consider a column having a net cross-section area of concrete Ac and a total area of
longitudinal reinforcement Asc:
The design stresses for concrete and Steel in compression is
Concrete Design Stress= 0.67fcu/1.5 = 0.45fcu

Reinforcement Design Stress= fy/1.05 =0.95 fy
Both the concrete and Reinforcement assist carrying the load. Thus the ultimate load N which
can be supported by the column is the sum of the loads carried by the concrete [Fc] and the
Reinforcement [Fs]
N= Fc+Fs
Fc= Stress X Area = 0.45fcu X Ac
Fs = Stress X Area= 0.95 fy X Asc
N= 0.45fcu X Ac+0.95 fy X Asc
Above equation assumed that the load is applied perfectly axially to the column. However, in
practices, perfect conditions never exist. To allow for a small eccentricity Bs-8110 reduce the
design stresses by @ 10% giving the following expression
N= 0.4 Fcu .Ac+ 0.8 Fy.Asc
b
Figure 5-13: Axially loaded column
Page 80 of 105
LINKS:
Diameter maximum of
1. (¼) * largest longitudinal bar
2. 8mm
Spacing
1. 12 times the diameter of the smallest longitudinal bar
Figure 5-14 Reinforcement in Column
Page 81 of 105
5.6 Numerical Problems

1- A short braced column is having fcu=30N/mm2 and fy=460 N/mm2 is required to support
an ultimate axial load of 2000KN. Determine a suitable section for a column assuming
that the area of longitudinal steel, Asc is of the order of 3% of the gross sectional area of
the column.
2- Design the longitudinal steel and links for a 350mm square, short braced column which
supports the following axial loads: Gk= 1000 KN, Qk=1000 KN Assume fcu=30N/mm2,
fyv=250N/mm2 and fy=460N/mm2
3- A short braced axially loaded column 300mm square in section is reinforced with four 25
mm diameter bars. Find the ultimate axial load the column can carry and the pitch and
diameter of the links required. The materials are grade 30 concrete and grade 460
reinforcement.
4- A short braced column has to carry an ultimate axial load of 1366 kN. The column size is
250mm × 250mm. Find the steel area required for the longitudinal reinforcement and
select suitable bars. The materials are grade 30 concrete and grade 460 reinforcement.
Page 82 of 105
Extra Problems in column

1- Specify the maximum and the minimum area of reinforcement for the two zones shown in
figure
Page 83 of 105
2- As shown in the figure below and assuming the column to be a short column. Calculate the
maximum load that can be carried by a circular column of 400 mm diameter with 8 bars of
20 mm diameter. The characteristic material strengths are fcu= 40 N/mm2 and fy= 460
N/mm2
3- A square braced column is to be designed to support un-factored dead load (including self-
weight) of 1200 kN from beam A and 1800 kN from beam B. Select appropriate cross-
section for the column assuming that the area of steel is taken as 2% of the area of the
column and determine the required quantity of reinforcements. Assume that f cu= 40 N/mm2
and fy=460 N/mm2.
o Beam A (200*200 mm)

o Beam B (200*400 mm)
o Slab (120 mm)
Page 84 of 105
a) Find a suitable cross-section
b) Find the longitudinal reinforcement required and provided
c) Find the required links
d) Draw the detailing of the column (Show the cross section and Section/Elevation)
Page 85 of 105
4- As shown in the figure below and assuming the column to be a short column. Calculate the
maximum load that can be carried by the octagonal column. The characteristic material
strengths are fcu= 40 N/mm2 and fy= 460 N/mm2
HINT: AREA OF THE OCTAGON= 2(1+√2) a2, where a is the side of the octagon
Page 86 of 105
5- A internal column in a multi-storey building, illustrated in the figure below, has a clear
height of 5.5 m between the foundation pad and the first floor. The column carries a total
permanent gravity (dead) load of 750 kN and a total characteristic variable (live) load of
450 kN from the upper levels. In addition to dead and live loads from the first-floor level of
170 and 90 kN respectively. The column is having a square cross section and the area of
steel to be assumed as 2% of the area of the column. Select appropriate cross-section for
the column and determine the required quantity of reinforcements. Assume that fcu= 40
N/mm2 and fy=460 N/mm2 and that the column needs to resist 4 hours of fire.
(a) Select Appropriate Cross-Section (b&D)
Page 87 of 105
(b) Calculate the required & provided longitudinal (main) area
(c) Check for the required links
Page 88 of 105
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Page 89 of 105
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Page 90 of 105
6 FOUNDATIONS
This chapter emphasises on importance of foundation, soil bearing capacity, different types of
foundations, difference between shallow and deep foundations, design criteria for design of
foundations.

basic members
Page 91 of 105
6.1 Introduction
Foundation is required primarily to carry the dead and imposed loads due to the structures floors,
beam, walls, columns, etc. and transmit and distribute the loads safely to the ground. The
purpose of distributing the load is to avoid the safe bearing capacity of the soil being exceeded
otherwise excessive settlement of the structure may occur.
Foundation failure can produce catastrophic effects on the overall stability of a structure so that it
may slide or even overturn. Hence it is essential to pay attention to the design of this element of a
structure.
6.2 Types of Foundations

There are many types of foundations which are commonly used the namely strip, pad, and raft.
The choice of the kind of foundation depends on the given situation and on a number of factors
like:
o Soil strata
o Bearing capacity of soil
o Type of structure
o Type of loads
o Differential Settlement
o Economy.
Page 92 of 105
6.2.1 Shallow Foundation
If the Depth of Foundation is more than the width of Foundation
 Isolated footing (Pad Foundation): Under individual columns. These may be Square,
rectangular or circular
Figure 6-1 Isolated Footing
Page 93 of 105
 Combined footing: Supporting two or more columns. These may be rectangular or

trapezoidal in plan
Figure 6-2 Combined Footing
 Raft foundation is a large continuous foundation supporting all columns of a structure.

This is used when soil conditions are poor or differential settlement is to be avoided.
Figure 6-3 Raft Foundation

 Strap Footing: two pad foundations with a beam in middle
Figure 6-4 Strap Footing
Page 94 of 105
 Strip footings: These are used under walls or under a line of closely spaced columns.
Even were it possible to have individual bases, it is often simpler and more economical to
excavate and construct the formwork for a continuous base.
Figure 6-5 Strip Footing

6.2.2 Deep Foundation
If the Depth of Foundation is more than the width of Foundation

- Pile Foundation
Figure 6-6 Pile Foundation
Page 95 of 105
- Well Foundation
- Caisson Foundation
6.3 Typical Soil Bearing Capacity for Different type of soil

ROCK 450 KN/m2
Sandy Soil 200 KN/m2
Clay Soil 120 KN/m2
Lose soil 50 KN/m2
6.4 Hints for foundation design
1. The choice of types of foundation depends upon soil strata, bearing capacity, standard
penetration test value (N), type of structure, type of loads, permissible differential
settlement and economy.
2. Net safe bearing capacity of Rock is 450KN/m2 to 3300KN/m2, Non-Cohesive soil is

100KN/m2 to 450KN/m2, cohesive soil is 50KN/m2 to 450KN/m2.
p 1  sin  
h 
3. Depth of foundation is found by formula
 1  sin   2,where p=SBC
4. Bending moment is maximum at the face of the column in pad foundation

5. One-way shear is critical at d distance away from the face of column
6. Punching shear (two-way shear) is critical at 1.5d away from the face of the column
Isolated Footing
Page 96 of 105
6.5 Design of Pad Foundation
The footing for a single column may be square in plan, but where there is a huge moment acting
about one axis it may be economical to have a rectangular base.
Figure 6-7 Isolated Footing
Page 97 of 105
STEP 1: Find axial design Load (Pu)
Figure 6-8 Load on Footing
STEP 2: Calculate Area and depth of the foundation required
Figure 6-9 Area of Footing
Page 98 of 105
STEP 3: Find design moment (M) for both sides and choose the largest
Figure 6-10: Moment Calculation
Page 99 of 105
STEP 4: Find design moment for concrete (M u) and check for compression reinforcement
STEP 5: Calculate main reinforcement (As) for both sides
Figure 6-11 Reinforcement in Footing

STEP 6: check for punching shear
Page 100 of 105

STEP 7: check for shear reinforcement
Figure 6-12 One way shear in footing
Step 8: Detailing of reinforcement
Figure 6-13 Cross Section of a footing
Page 101 of 105

Figure 6-14 Plan of footing
Page 102 of 105

6.6 Design Problem 1:
A 400 mm square column carries a dead load of 1050 KN and imposed load of 300 KN. The safe
bearing capacity of the soil is 170 KN/m2 at a depth of 1.5 m below natural ground level. Design
a square pad footing to resist the load assuming the following material strength.
fcu= 35 N/mm2 and fy= 460 N/mm2
Page 103 of 105

References
1. Arya, C. (2009). Design of structural elements: concrete, steelwork, masonry and timber designs
to British standards and Eurocodes. CRC Press.
2. Standard, B. (1985). 8110: Part 1, Structural use of concrete–code of practice for design and
construction. British Standards Institute, London UK, 3-8.
3. Mosley, W. H., Hulse, R., & Bungey, J. H. (2012). Reinforced concrete design: to Eurocode 2.
Palgrave macmillan.
4. Arya, C. (2009). Design of structural elements: concrete, steelwork, masonry and timber designs
to British standards and Eurocodes. CRC Press.
**********
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ENGG_CC_LECTURE NOTES_01Sep2020_V03

CECE 2240/3240 Design of Structures 1

1 REINFORCED CONCRETE BASICS ................................................................................4

5.6 Numerical Problems .................................................................................................... 82

Figure 3-13: Fixed End Condition Moments .............................................................................. 41

1 REINFORCED CONCRETE BASICS

OBJECTIVES LEARNING OUTCOMES (LO)

1.2 Structural Elements and Frames

Good Good, but slender bars will buckle

Good Corrodes if unprotected

Fire resistance Good

Figure 1-1: Properties of concrete and steel

Beams Horizontal members carrying vertical and/or lateral loads

Slab Horizontal plate elements carrying vertical loads

Columns Vertical members carrying primarily axial load, but generally

Figure 1-2: Different structural components

1.3 Composite Action

1.4 Design Philosophies

1.5 Building Code

PART 1: Code of practice for design and construction

Table 2 Lowest grade of concrete for use

Figure 1-3: Cylinder and cube's strengths

Hot-rolled mild steel (6), 8, 10, 12, 16, 250

Figure 1-4 Reinforcement Bars

1.7 Reinforcement and Bending (Tension/Compression zones)

Figure 1-5 Behavior of Beams under Bending

 Simply Supported Beam

Figure 1-6 Location of Reinforcement Bars in different types of beams

1.7.2 Dimensions and Proper reinforcement in members (without detailing)

Figure 1-7 Slab Reinforcement

Figure 1-8 Reinforcement in Beam

Figure 1-9 Reinforcement in Column

2 ANALYSIS OF SINGLY & DOUBLY REINFORCED

OBJECTIVES LEARNING OUTCOMES (LO)

Simply Supported beam

Figure 2-1 Types of Beams

SINGLY REINFORCED SECTION:

DOUBLY REINFORCED SECTION:

1. Plane section normal to the axis remains plane after bending.

Figure 2-2 Cross Section of Beam

4. The tensile strength of the concrete is ignored.

 SINGLY REINFORCED SECTION:

2) Calculate the forces of concrete and steel (Fcc and Fst):

Figure 2-4 Fcc and Fst computation

3) Calculation of ultimate moment of resistance (Mcu)

Figure 2-5 Ultimate Moment of Resistance

 DOUBLY REINFORCED SECTION:

 Reasons of providing Reinforcement in compression

Figure 2-6 Cross section and forces computations

Figure 2-7 Moments and Area required derivation

2.3 Modes of Failure of Sections in Bending or Flexure

Figure 2-8: Balanced Section

2. UNDER REINFORCED SECTION:

Cross/Section Strain Diagram Xm > x

Figure 2-9 Under Reinforced Section

3. OVER REINFORCED SECTION:

Figure 2-10 Over Reinforced Section

3 DESIGN OF ONE WAY SLAB

OBJECTIVES LEARNING OUTCOMES (LO)

Figure 3-1 Different types of slabs

3.2 Failures in Slabs

One way solid slabs may be:

Aspect ratio (α) = Ly / Lx = Effective length in the longer direction