THE REVOLUTIONARY WARS 1792-1802

1792-1793 PERIOD
Important dates
1791 August 27 Declaration of Pillnitz

1792 April 20 France declares war on Austria

June 13 Prussia declares war on France
August 1 Brunswick Manifesto
August 10 Overthrow of the Monarchy
August 19 Prussian forces entered northern France
August 20 Capture of Longwy by Prussia
Sept 2-6 September Massacres
September 20 Battle of Valmy: French troops defeated Prussians
Sept 22 Proclamation of the First French Republic
Nov 6 Battle of Jemappes
Nov 19 Decree of Fraternity

1793 Jan 21 Execution of King Louis XVI

Feb 1 France declares war on Great Britain and the Dutch Republic
Mar 11 Revolt in the Vendee
Oct 16 Battle of Wattignies

Reaction of other Powers to the Revolution

Initially the Great Powers were not interested in intervening in the Revolution in France
during the first two years:
i. Austria: Leopold II, ruler of the Habsburg Empire, supported many of the liberal
reforms of the Revolution and did not want a return of absolutism in France. Like
many rulers in Europe, he was pleased by the collapse of the French power and no
longer regarded France as a serious rival. From 1787, Russia and Austria were at war
with the Ottoman Empire. Leopold II abandoned the fight in July 1790 to concentrate
on the Austrian Netherlands (later to become Belgium in 1830) where there was a
revolt. Leopold crushed this revolt in 1790 and then turned his attention to Poland.
ii. Russia: From 1787, Russia and Austria were at war with the Ottoman Empire. Russia
and Prussia were also seeking to gain territory in Poland. Russia, Austria and Prussia
were more interested in the partition of Poland to their own advantage than in what
was going on in France.
iii. Prussia: Russia and Prussia were also seeking to gain territory in Poland. Russia,
Austria and Prussia were more interested in the partition of Poland to their own
advantage than in what was going on in France.

The Outbreak of the 1792 War

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  The outbreak of the war in 1792 had decisive and far-reaching results than any other
in the whole of the French Revolution; almost everything that happened in France
from that time was caused, or was affected, by outbreak of the war
 The war had the following results/effects
 it destroyed the consensus of 1789
 it led to the fall of the monarchy
 it also led to the Terror
 It strengthened republicanism in France
 It strengthened patriotism in France
 There was an outbreak of civil war in western France – in the La
Vendee: in the La Vendee the peasants rose up in revolt to support the
non-juring priests and expelled the constitutional (juring) priests from
their parishes

Causes of the 1792 War

1. The Declaration of Pillnitz, 27 August 1791
2. The ‘Austrian Committee’
3. French Army Commanders wanted war
4. The warlike mood in France
5. The untenable position of the French Monarchy
6. The accession of Francis I to the Austrian throne
7. The role of Queen Marie Antoinette
8. The confidence of Great Powers to win the war
The Declaration of Pillnitz 27 August 1791
This was jointly done by Austria and Prussia.
They declared that:
 they regarded the position of King Louis XVI as of interest to all other
rulers of Europe
 they hoped to restore the powers of the French rulers
 force would be used, if necessary, to bring about this restoration
This Declaration appeared to be a threat to interfere in French internal affairs.
 The Assembly did not debate it and even the French newspapers ignored it.

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  When the Constitution was passed in September 1791, Leopold II gave it a warm
welcome, so the possibility of Austrian intervention was even more remote.
The ‘Austrian Committee’
Marie Antoinette wrote to her brother saying that only ‘armed force can put things right’ and
she hoped for a war in which France would be defeated and Louis would be able to recover
his old powers.
There were rumours that France’s foreign policy was being run by an ‘Austrian Committee’
headed by Marie Antoinette – ‘the Austrian Woman’ – and that secret agents were being sent
to Koblenz (the émigré headquarters) and Vienna to plot counter-revolution. These rumours
were well-founded. [Why? Read Rees Dylan]
French Army Commanders wanted war
Army commanders such as Lafayette and Dumouriez also wanted war. Lafayette, the first
commander of the National Guard, had brought the King from Versailles to Paris during the
October Days. He was also responsible for the massacre of the Champ de Mars. He had
been frustrated by the failure of the Revolution to bring political stability and wanted the
authority of the King to be strengthened. This could be done by waging a short, successful
war against Austria. He believed this would increase his prestige as an army general. This
would then enable him to dictate his terms to both the King and the Assembly.
The warlike mood in France/Support for war
Different groups and individuals in France wanted war for different reasons.
The Feuillants The Girondins King Louis XVI
Thought a short and glorious Thought (i) all classes He expected France to be
war would restore the prestige would unite against the defeated and hence the
of the King in the eyes of the enemy and (ii) their restoration of the absolute
people shipping and trade monarchy
interests would benefit

The desire for war resulted in the co-operation of Lafayette and his followers with the
Brissotians, who also wanted war. Brissot thought that war would force the King to reveal
his true sympathies – either being for or against the Revolution. He also argued that the war
would expose any traitors who were opposed to Revolution.
Brissot’s main points were:

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  a successful war would increase the French people’s support for the
Revolution and show the permanence of the new regime
 a war would allow France to extend its revolutionary ideals abroad
 French armies would be supported by their enemies’ own repressed
subjects
 the international situation was conducive since: a) European powers were
unlikely to unite against France b) Russia was preoccupied with Poland
and c) Britain would not join unless her home security or empire was
directly threatened
However, the Jacobins were against the war because they feared if France was defeated the
fruits of the Revolution would be lost. Robespierre observed: ‘No one loves armed
missionaries.’
The untenable (indefensible) position of the French Monarchy
While the revolutionary changes in France were taking place, some European countries were
anxious about the events taking place within France. France was posing a threat to the
monarchs of other powers by its abolition of feudalism and the idea of a constitutional
monarchy. The King’s attempted flight to the eastern border and his subsequent
imprisonment was not good news to other European powers. This led Austria and Prussia to
eventually want to fight France.
The accession of Francis I to the Austrian throne
In March 1792, Leopold II died. His successor, Francis I wanted military adventure. He was
supported by his chancellor, von Kannitz. Francis rejected the demand of the French
government that he revoke his alliance with Prussia. This resulted in a war.
The role of Queen Marie Antoinette
Marie Antoinette (‘the only man in the family’ Mirabeau called her) wrote to her brother
appealing for military assistance in September 1791: ‘armed force has destroyed everything
and only armed force can put things right’. She hoped for a war in which France would be
defeated, enabling Louis XVI to recover his old powers. King Louis XVI also hoped for a
war in which France would be defeated and he would then dictate his wishes to the French
people.
The confidence of Great Powers to win the war
On 7 February 1792 Austria and Prussia became allies and thought they could intimidate the
French by threatening war. They had great confidence in their own armies: in 1789 a small
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Prussian army had conquered the United Provinces (Holland) in less than a month and in
1790 a small Austrian army occupied Belgium in less than two weeks. Their confidence was
due to
 their belief that France was weak from internal divisions
 there were mutinies in the army
 many French army officers had fled the country
 France was bankrupt and could not therefore buy weapons
The declaration of war
In March 1792 King Louis XVI dismissed his Feuillant ministers and replaced them with
some radical Girondin Ministers.
The old ministers had obeyed the King; the new ones obeyed the Assembly.
The new foreign minister, General Dumouriez, hated Austria and had aims similar to those of
Lafayette: a short successful war would increase his own personal power and prestige along
with that of the Crown.
In Austria the cautious Leopold II had died on 1 March and was replaced by the young and
impetuous (reckless) Francis II. When it was rumoured that Queen Marie Antoinette was to
be put on trial, Austria decided on war. But it was the French who declared war on 20 April
1792.
Military crisis
When war was declared, French forces were not ready: it was badly depleted.
Of its 12 000 officers, half had emigrated.
There were 150 000 troops in 1791 (regular and newly recruited volunteers)
The volunteers were poorly trained and poorly equipped
France had challenges:
 desertions
 poor discipline of the regular army
When the French armies advanced into the Austrian Netherlands (Belgium) on 20 April 1792
they faced stiff resistance, panicked and retreated to Lille where they murdered their
commander.
Whole units deserted.
The enemy counter-attacked and invaded northern France.
The French government blamed this on traitors: Marie Antoinette had sent details of French
military plans to the Austrians.
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Results of the War
1. Heavy losses on the French side
2. Increasing insecurity of the royal family
3. Increased patriotism of the French family

Heavy losses on the French side

 The French army entered the war totally unprepared and they suffered heavy
casualties
 Discipline was lacking, military equipment was poor and the economy was not
prepared for war conditions.
 Many volunteers joined the war for patriotic reasons and without any military training
Increased insecurity of the royal family
 The king was suspected of helping the enemy.
 In Paris the rumour was spread that the ‘Austrian Committee’ was working from the
Tuileries
 This endangered the royal family
Increased patriotism of the French family
 The war led to more unity of the French people in defence of the gains of the
Revolution
 The Legislative Assembly was able, at a heavy cost in human lives, to defend the
gains of the Revolution

The Brunswick Manifesto (July 1792)

o was one of the last events preceding the fall of the monarchy
o it was issued by the Duke of Brunswick, commander-in-chief of the Austro-Prussian
forces
o its main terms were:
 to ensure the welfare of France, not to conquer any French
territory
 to restore the liberty of Louis XVI and his family

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  that the city of Paris set Louis XVI free without delay and
ensure the safety of the royal family
 if the Tuileries palace were attacked and the royal family
harmed then the joint Austrian-Prussian army would inflict ‘an
exemplary vengeance’ on the city and its citizens
o the Manifesto was intended to help the king but it had the opposite effect: French
people were infuriated by ‘foreign intervention’ and those who previously supported
the monarchy now turned against it
o on 3 August, Petion, the Mayor of Paris went to the Assembly and demanded, on
behalf of 47 out of 48 Sections, the abolition of the Monarchy
Effects of the Manifesto
1. increase in violence, especially in the capital Paris. This threatened the security of the
royal family which sought shelter in the Legislative Assembly
2. the rise of the Revolutionary Commune in Paris. The san-culottes joined the
Revolutionary Commune.
3. loss of control by the Legislative Assembly

The Republic at War 1792-1793

In the summer of 1792 the situation of the French armies on the frontiers was desperate.
Lafayette had defected to the Austrians on 17 August 1792 and as a result there was panic
and fear of treachery [betrayal]. This was increased when the Prussians crossed the French
frontier/border and captured Longway. By the beginning of September, Verdun, the last
major fortress on the road to Paris, was about to surrender. The French capital, Paris, was
under immediate threat from foreigners and the Revolution itself was in danger of being
overthrown by foreign powers.
The September Massacres
There was panic and desperation and the government appealed to the forces of nationalism
and patriotism. This led to:
 the Commune called on all patriots to take up arms; thousands
of volunteers defended Paris and the Revolution
 concern over the overcrowded prisons (which contained priests
and nobles who were branded as counter-revolutionaries) since
thousands had left for the front; there was a rumour that these
were plotting to escape, kill the helpless population and hand
over the city to the Prussians
Marat called for these prisoners to be killed.

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From 2-7 September 1792 between 1 100 and 1 400 of the 2 600 in Paris jails were murdered;
ironically only a quarter of these were nobles and priests. The killers were the sans-culottes
of the Paris Sections.
Battle of Valmy
On 20 September 1792 at Valmy 52 000 French troops defeated 34 000 Prussian troops. If
Prussians had won, this would have meant the end of the Revolution.
The new forces summoned by the decree of 12 July 1792 were very effective because:
a. they were supplemented by many volunteers and National Guardsmen
b. they belonged to the sans-culottes rather than being sons of the
bourgeoisie thus they were highly committed to the revolution
Brunswick, the Prussian commander-in-chief, retreated to the frontier.
French troops were now on the offensive (rather than defensive).
Within a month, the French troops had occupied much of the left of the Rhine.
In November, Dumouriez defeated the Austrians at Jemappes and occupied most of Belgium.
This was the first major battle won by the Republican forces.

From defence to offence

The French Republic was now secure from external threats; it now wanted to expand to reach
France’s natural frontiers – the Rhine, the Alps and the Pyrenees - and in January 1793 it
passed a decree claiming them for France.
On 19 November 1792 the Convention issued the Decree of Fraternity in which the French
Government (the Convention) promised to support those of any state who wished to
overthrow their rulers and establish a democratic system. In other words the Convention
wanted to export the Revolution to other states.
 Avignon, which had been papal territory in France since 1273 had been annexed in
1791
 Savoy in November 1792
 Nice in January 1793
A revolutionary administration was set up in these conquered lands.
o French armies were (i) paid for and (ii) fed at the expense of the local population
o Church lands were confiscated

The First Coalition

Year: 1793 Formed between March and September
Members: Holland, Spain, Piedmont
Naples, Prussia, Russia
Austria, Portugal and Britain
Aim: a loose anti-French alliance

The Decree of Fraternity was a threat to the European monarchs.

France’s annexation of Nice and Savoy had alarmed the Great Powers.
Britain was also concerned by France’s extension to the Rhine as this would lead to the
annexation of a large part of the United Provinces (Holland) as well as the whole of the
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Austrian Netherlands (Belgium). Britain was determined that France should not control these
as they also contained good ports from which to launch any potential invasion of Britain.
The Dutch (Holland) also controlled the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa.
The British also disliked the French re-opening of the River Scheldt to navigation.
The Convention unanimously declared war on Britain and Holland on 1 February 1793.
The Spanish royal family were also shocked by the execution of King Louis XVI.
The Convention also declared war on Spain.
The French mistakenly thought that:
 there would be a revolution in Britain
 Britain would be defeated in war just like Prussia and Austria at
Valmy and Jemappes
The British also mistakenly thought that:
 France was bankrupt
 France was on the verge of a civil war
British diplomacy persuaded other powers to join the anti-French crusade.

The 1793 War

 began very badly for the French; an attack against Holland failed and Dumouriez was
defeated by the Austrians.
 after Dumouriez’s defeat, he reached an agreement with the Austrians and planned to
march on Paris, dissolve the Convention and restore the Constitution of 1791 and the
monarchy.
 his army refused to follow him and he defected to the Austrians.
 His defection greatly weakened the position of the Girondins within the Convention
and within the Paris political clubs
 the French lost the Left Bank of the Rhine
 with the deteriorating military situation, a large rebellion broke out in the Vendee

The role of Lazare Carnot – organiser of victory

 he was sent to the Bayanne, in the south, to organise defences against a possible
attack from Spain
 in 1793 he joined the Committee of Public Safety (CPS)
 he studied the military problems facing the Republic and presented reports to the
CPS
 following his recommendation in his reports 82 representatives were sent into the
departments to speed up the conscription of 300 000 men into the army
 he was also sent to the north to help the dispirited and demoralised army.
 he did the following:
 re-organising the army
 re-establishing discipline
 leading by example in military engagements

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  following his role, the enemy forces were defeated at the battle of Wattiginies on 16
October 1793

The Vendee Rebellion

 was an ‘anti-revolution’ rather than a ‘counter-revolution’ because it was directed
against the Revolution and its demands rather than the restoration of the ancien
regime.
 Its causes were
 expansion of the war
 introduction of conscription
 since 1789 the peasants in the area had been paying more in the
new land tax than they had paid under the taxes of the ancien
regime
 they hated the Civil Constitution of the Clergy (there were many
Catholics and non-juring priests in this area)
 most of the Church lands in this area was bought by the urban
bourgeoisie who often raised rents

 in May 1793 the situation was so serious that the government had to withdraw 30 000
troops from the front to deal with the uprising.

The levee en masse 23 August 1793

 was passed because of the need to deal with external threats
 the decree stated that ‘until the enemies of France have been expelled from the
territory of the Republic, all Frenchmen are in a state of permanent requisition for the
army’.
 Unmarried men between 18 and 25 years were called up to the army – nearly 500 000
men
 They had to be fed, armed and trained
 State factories were set up to make arms and ammunition
 The government also took control of foreign trade and shipping
 This was successful in the short term: without it victory would have been impossible

THE 1794-1802 PERIOD

Important Dates
1795 April 6 Treaty of Basle between Prussia and France
1795 October 1 Vendemiaire Uprising [‘Whiff of the Grapeshot’ by Napoleon]
Napoleon appointed commander of the Interior Army
1795 The Batavian Republic established in the United Provinces

1796 March 2 General Napoleon Bonaparte appointed commander of the French

army in Italy

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1797 October 18 Peace of Campo Formio ends the war between Austria and France

1798 January Helvetic Republic set up in Switzerland

1798 March The Congress of the Holy Roman Empire handed over the Left Bank
of the Rhine to France
1798 Three small republics created in Italy: the Roman Republic, the
Cisalpine Republic and the Ligurian Republic
1708 Sept Jourdan’s Law: re-introduction of conscription since 1793
1799 The Second Coalition of Britain, Russia, Austria, Turkey, Portugal
and Naples
1799 Nov 9-10 Coup d’état of 18 Brumaire; Bonaparte overthrows the Directory
1802 March 27 Peace of Amiens with Britain marking the end of the Revolutionary
Wars

The 1794-1799 War

 the Battle of Fleurus in Belgium in 1794 was the first of a series of successes which
continued until all members of the First Coalition had been knocked out of the war
 in 1794 Belgium and later the United Provinces (Holland) was also invaded
 the French conquered the Rhineland and crossed into Spain
 Russia had intervened in Poland, which it was clear would be partitioned again;
Prussia made peace with France so that Prussia could also claim territory for herself
 on 6 April 1795 Prussia promised to hand over territories on the Left Bank of the
Rhine to France and in return would receive land on the Right Bank: this treaty freed
French troops to attack other enemies
 the United Provinces had become the Batavian Republic in January 1795, after a
revolt against William V, who fled to England. Having lost Prussian support, the
Dutch made peace with France, who they were forced to join as an ally
 the French also hoped that the powerful Dutch navy would help to tip the naval
balance against Britain.
 Spain also made peace with France giving part of the island of San Domingo to
France
 Of the Great Powers only Great Britain remained in war against France

[photocopy map in Rees p 150]

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Defeat of Austria
 in 1796 the main aim of France was to defeat Austria
 Carnot drew up a plan and prepared a pincer movement against Austria:
a. armies under Jourdan and Moreau would march across Bavaria to Vienna; this first
group had 140 000 troops
b. the second army was put under Napoleon Bonaparte; it would conquer Piedmont and
Lombardy and then move across the Alps to Vienna; there were only 30 000 unpaid
and ill-disciplined troops. To motivate and win the loyalty of his soldiers Napoleon
promised them glory, prestige and wealth.
 within a month Napoleon had defeated the north Italian state of Piedmont and forced
her to make peace.
 Napoleon also defeated the Austrians at Lodi and entered Milan. Milan was the key
to the passes over the Alps to Vienna and Napoleon finally captured it in February
1797.
 Moreau had been driven back to the Rhine and Napoleon signed an armistice with
Austria at Leoben in April 1797.
 Without consulting the Directory, Napoleon decided the terms: he joined Lombardy to
Modena and the Papal Legations to form the Cisalpine Republic and Austria also
recognised Belgium as French territory; Austria was given Venice and part of the
Venetian Republic
 The Peace of Campo Formio 18 October 1797 confirmed what had been agreed at
Leoben

Britain isolated
 With her major allies out of the war, Britain was isolated
 France wanted to invade Britain, but for this to happen control of the sea was
necessary in order to ensure a safe passage for an invasion army

Creating states
 French foreign policy became aggressive as the Directors sought to keep French
conquests and even extend them
 France created satellite republics under French influence or control:
 The Helvetic Republic
 Geneva was annexed to France
 The Roman Republic
 The Cisalpine Republic based on Milan
 The Ligurian Republic
 The Batavian Republic

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  The spring of 1798 marked the high point of the Republic’s power; France now
dominated western, central and southern Europe
 Yet from this position of great external strength, the decline in the Directory’s
fortunes was equally dramatic: within 18 months it would be overthrown.
THE SECOND COALITION
Formed 1799
Members Britain, Russia, Austria, Turkey, Portugal and Naples
Collapsed in 1802 with the Peace of Amiens

 following his successes in Italy, Napoleon departed for Egypt in May 1798 with the
aim of attacking British interests
 his fleet was destroyed by Nelson at the Battle of Aboukir Bay in August 1798
 this defeat of France encouraged other powers to fight against France and they formed
the Second Coalition
 Russia, which had not taken part in the previous fighting against France declared war
against France in December 1798
 The Tsar had been angered by French seizure of Malta, of which he had declared
himself protector in 1797
 France declared war on Austria in March 1799 because Austria had allowed Russian
troops to march through her territory
 war resumed: France occupied the rest of Italy; Piedmont was annexed to France and
Naples was turned into another ‘sister’ republic – the Parthenopean
 however there were a series of French defeats: the French were pushed back to the
Rhine by the Austrians, and the Russians advanced through northern Italy. French
troops withdrew from the whole of Italy, except Genoa, as the Russians moved into
Switzerland. It appeared France would be invaded for the first time in six years: but
France was helped by divisions and quarrels among the allies. Austria, instead of
supporting Russia in Switzerland, sent her best troops north to the Rhine; and this
allowed the French to move to Switzerland, where the Russians withdrew in 1799.
 the immediate danger to France was over

PAST EXAM QUESTIONS

1. Assess the impact of the 1792 war on revolutionary France.
2. How did war affect the course of the revolution from 1792 to 1795?

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