Yr10 Science Notes

REVIEW: ELEMENTS, COMPOUNDS AND MIXTURES/THE

PERIODIC TABLE.
Elements, Compounds and Mixtures
Atoms have a highly complex internal structure made up of even smaller particles. These particles
are known as subatomic particles. All atoms are made up of types of three subatomic particles:

Protons - carry a positive charge (+).

Neutrons - have about the same mass as protons. They are neutral, having no charge.

Electrons - are 2000 times smaller than protons. They carry a negative charge (–). These zoom
around the nucleus in constantly changing paths called orbits. In an atom, the protons and neutrons
form a tiny cluster in the centre of the atom called the nucleus.

The protons and neutrons are held together in the nucleus by extremely strong nuclear forces. This
force prevents the positively charged protons from repelling each other. Electrons are negatively
charged and so are attracted to the positive nucleus. This keeps the electrons from straying too far
from the nucleus or from escaping the atom completely. Although the protons (+) and electrons (–)
have opposite charges, the size of the charge is the same for each. Every atom has an equal number
of protons and electrons and so the positive and negative charges balance each other. This means
that every atom is neutral, with no overall charge.

Different types of particles: atoms and molecules

Atoms are the smallest particles into which matter can be broken down molecules contain two or
more atoms held together by chemical bonds.

Different types of substances: mixtures and pure substances

Mixtures are impure substances – they have two or more different types of particles, which can be
separated using physical separation techniques (e.g., filtration etc.) as they are not chemically
bonded together pure substances contain only one type of particle–as their particles are all identical,
they can’t be separated into simpler substances using physical techniques.

Different types of pure substances: elements and compounds

An element is the simplest type of substance, containing one type of atom only a compound contains
two or more types of atoms, as it is made up of two or more elements chemically bonded together –
to separate it into its component elements, chemical processes must be used to break these bonds.

Particles of elements and compounds:

An element’s particles can be either single atoms, or molecules containing identical atoms (e.g.,
oxygen molecules, O2) compounds are never made up of single atoms – their molecules contain
atoms of the component elements bonded together in the same proportion, shown by its formula
(e.g., water molecules contain 2 hydrogen atoms bonded to 1 oxygen atom, shown by the formula
H2O).

The Periodic Table

Organisation of the Periodic Table
The Periodic Table is arranged in:

• Rows called periods of increasing atomic number

• Columns called groups arranged by grouping elements with similar properties

• Metals are on the left and non-metals are on the right separated by a ZIG- ZAG line from aluminium

Families of the Periodic Table

• The periodic able contains 8 groups of elements, some have been given special names:

• Group I: alkali metals. All react strongly with water to form basic solutions.

• Group II: alkaline earth metals.

• Group VII: halogens. Brightly coloured elements. Chlorine is green.

• Group VIII: noble gases. Noble gases are inert and do not readily react with other substances.

• The block of elements in the middle of the table is known as the transition metal block.
 .

Compounds
Covalent bonds
Ionic compounds form by electron transfer because metals (on the left side of the periodic table)
want to lose electrons and non-metals (on the right side) want to gain them.

The oppositely charged ions produced by the transfer of electrons are electrostatically attracted to
each other, forming ionic bonds. These ions tend to form large crystal lattices of alternating cations
and anions.

So how do we explain common substances like hydrogen gas (H2), water (H2O) and carbon dioxide
(CO2) that are made up of only non-metal elements?

That's where covalent bonds come in. A covalent bond is formed when two non-metal atoms share
valence electrons. Shared electrons count as valence electrons for both atoms and so they can both
obtain full valence shells.

Bonding
Valency refers to the combining power of an element (how it can bond/connect with another
element). It is based on the outermost electrons an atom has

Chemical formula
A chemical formula tells us the number of atoms of each element in a compound. It contains the
symbols of the atoms of the elements present in the compound, as well as how many there are for
each element in the form of subscripts.

If there is no number next to the symbol it means, there is only one atom of an element in a
molecule. Each chemical substance has a specific chemical composition, so these chemical
substances have their own chemical formula.

Example: Glucose C12H22O11 - There are 12 carbon atoms (C), 22 hydrogen atoms (H) and 11
oxygen atoms (O).

Brackets: Some formulas have brackets in them. For example, magnesium hydroxide is Mg (OH)2.
The 2 outside the brackets tells you that you have two of each atom inside the bracket.
Acids and Bases
Acids can be defined as substances that release H + ions when they dissolve in water. When
hydrogen chloride dissolves in water, it releases H + ions and Cl – ions: Since acids release H+ ions,
we call them H+ donors.

What are acids and bases?

Many common pure substances can be classified according to whether they are acids or bases. Acids
produce hydrogen ions (H+) and bases produce hydroxide ions (OH– ) when dissolved in solution. The
concentration of hydrogen ions refers to the number of hydrogen ions in a specific volume of
solution. Solutions with a high concentration of hydrogen ions are highly acidic. Similarly, solutions
with a high concentration of hydroxide ions are highly basic. When an acidic solution is mixed with a
basic solution, the solutions can neutralize each other, which means that the acidic and basic
properties are in balance.

What is pH?

Testing the pH of a solution is a way of measuring its concentration of hydrogen ions, H+ (aq). The pH
scale is a number scale that indicates how acidic or basic a solution is. Acids have a pH below 7 and
bases have a pH above 7. Neutral solutions have a pH of 7. On the pH scale, one unit of change
represents a 10-fold change in the degree of acidity or basicity. For example, a two unit drop in pH is
a 102 or 100 times increase in acidity.

Bases are substances that react with acids. They absorb hydrogen ions (H +). Bases are therefore H +
acceptors. The oxides, hydroxides, and carbonates of metals, such as sodium carbonate, are bases.
Some bases are soluble in water: these bases are called alkalis. Alkalis release hydroxide ions (OH–)
in solution.

What are pH indicators?

pH indicators are chemicals that change colour depending on the pH of a solution.

- Litmus paper can determine whether a solution is acidic or basic. Blue litmus paper turns red
in an acidic solution (below pH 7). Red litmus paper changes to blue in a basic solution
(above pH 7).
- A universal indicator contains several indicators that turn different colours depending on the
pH of the solution.
- Phenolphthalein, bromothymol blue, indigo carmine, methyl orange, and methyl red are
other common pH indicators. Each determines pH within a different range.
- A digital pH meter or pH computer probe that measures the electrical properties of a
solution can also be used to determine pH.

PH scale
Scale used to measure the acidity or alkalinity of a substance. It is a measure of the concentration of
H+ ions (acid) or OH- ions (base).

• The pH scale goes from 0 (highly acidic) to 14 (highly basic). A pH of 7 is neutral.

• On this scale, pH 1 is ten times more acidic than pH 2. The same applies to bases: pH 14 is ten
times more basic than pH 13.

• To measure the pH of a solution, you add a few drops of indicator and note the colour. This is
compared to a colour chart which corresponds to a particular pH value. You can also measure pH
electronically with a pH meter.
Acid–base Reactions
Neutralization reactions
Strong acids and bases can be harmful. Too much acid in the stomach can cause painful indigestion
and the alkaline venom of a jellyfish gives a lasting sting. Luckily, there's a way to stop acids or bases
from having an effect.

To stop the properties of acids from having an effect, a base can be added to it. For example,
indigestion can be relieved by swallowing an antacid tablet, which contains a weak base.

Similarly, to stop a base from having an effect, an acid can be added to it. For example, the effect of a
jellyfish sting can be neutralized by gently rinsing it with a weak acid, such as vinegar.

Neutralization is a chemical reaction where an acid and a base react to produce water and salt.

This can be expressed as a word equation:

Neutralization happens when an equal number of hydrogen ions (H+) in the acid and hydroxide ions
(OH–) in the base combine to form water molecules (H2O). Water is a neutral substance with a pH of
7. So, if there is the same amount of H+ and OH–, the solution will be completely neutralized. This
process is shown in the following diagram.

During neutralization, the other atoms in the acid and base form a salt.

For example, in the neutralization reaction between hydrochloric acid (HCl) and sodium hydroxide
(NaOH), water is created leaving chloride (Cl–) and sodium (Na+) ions. The chloride and sodium can
form sodium chloride (NaCl), which is most known as table salt. Like water, it is a neutral substance.

Carbonate:
All neutralization reactions produce salt and water. However one type of neutralization reaction also
produces bubbles of carbon dioxide (CO2) gas. This happens when the base is a carbonate, such as
calcium carbonate (CaCO3) or sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3). The reaction fizzes as bubbles of
carbon dioxide are given off.

WHAT ARE CHEMICAL REACTIONS

A physical change
is a change in a substance's physical properties, such as size, shape, or state of matter. The same
substance is present before and after the change.

For example, a sliced apple is still an apple, a crushed can is still made of aluminium and a cracked
phone screen is still made of glass.

To explain physical changes, we need to think about what happens to the particles that make up the
substance:

- the same particles remain after the change, but

 - the particles move to new positions and may speed up or slow down.

Because the particles remain the same, so does the substance. But the change in the position or
speed of particles means that some of the physical properties change. Most physical changes are
reversible because the particles can change back to their original positions and speeds. But there are
exceptions to this general rule, such as shattering a vase or breaking an egg.

Atoms and molecules

All matter is made up of tiny particles called atoms. In elements, the atoms are all of the same type,
such as carbon, oxygen, iron or gold. In compounds, atoms of different types are bonded together to
form molecules or lattices.

When we talk about the particles that make up a substance, we could mean either atoms or
molecules. The particles in elements are atoms. For example, the particles that make up an
aluminium can are aluminium atoms.

The particles in compounds are molecules. For example, the particles that make up water are water
(H2O) molecules.

So, when a physical change occurs to a compound, the molecules change their position or motion.
But the bonds that hold them together are not broken and so the same number and type of
molecules remains after the change.

Changes of state are caused by heating or cooling. The physical changes we observe can be
explained by the particles either speeding up or slowing down.

- Heating a substance increases the energy of the particles, causing them to speed up.
- Cooling a substance decreases the energy of the particles, causing them to slow down.

In solids, particles have the lowest energy, and they simply vibrate in place. In gases, particles have
the highest energy, and they are free to zoom around in space, far apart from each other.

Mixing

Mixing two or more substances together is another common example of a physical change. This does
not produce any new substances. The same particles are present after the change – they have just
been mixed. The substances can often be separated again by physical processes, such as evaporation.

Solutions

One special case of mixing occurs when you dissolve one substance in another. The mixture
produced is a solution.

When a solid substance dissolves, it often looks as though it disappears. But the particles are still
there – they're just too small to see. In a solution, the two types of particles are evenly mixed with
one another.

Chemical changes
In a chemical change, one or more new substances are formed. For example, when you burn a
match, the black substance left behind and the smoke released are new substances.
You can recognize when a chemical change is taking place by looking for some typical signs. These
include:

- change in colour.
- change in temperature.
- production of light or sound.
- disappearance of a solid.
- formation of a new solid.
- formation of a new gas – may be indicated by fizzing or a new odour.

Re-arranging atoms

The key feature of chemical changes is that at least one new substance must be produced. This does
not occur in physical changes. Rusting is an example of a chemical change. The iron slowly combines
with water and with oxygen in the air. This creates a new substance that was not there to begin with
– rust!

During a chemical change, some of the chemical bonds between atoms are broken and new bonds
are formed. This re-arrangement of atoms is what produces a new substance.

In the rust example, some of the bonds that hold iron atoms together are broken. The iron atoms
form new bonds with oxygen and hydrogen atoms. This creates the new compounds that make up
rust. Because breaking chemical bonds takes energy, many chemical changes cannot be easily
reversed.

Burning

Whenever something burns, a chemical change occurs. Any material that burns is known as a fuel,
including wood, paper, cloth, alcohol, and petrol. Burning is when a fuel combines with oxygen to
produce new substances and release heat.

This type of chemical change is also called combustion.

Exothermic and endothermic reactions
Reactions that release energy are called exothermic. The energy is usually released as heat – "exo"
means out and "thermo" means heat – but sometimes also as light or sound.

Reactions that absorb energy are called endothermic – "endo" means in, so an endothermic reaction
takes in heat. Some instant cold packs use this type of reaction to treat injuries.

All reactions involve the rearrangement of atoms to form new substances. This involves two steps:

- Breaking bonds in the reactant molecules: this requires energy from the surroundings.
- Making bonds to form new product molecules: this releases energy back into the
surroundings.

The two steps – the first requiring energy and the second releasing it – take place in all reactions,
exothermic and endothermic. The difference is whether the amount of energy released when the
new bonds form is greater or less than the energy required to break the old bonds.

Activation energy
The energy required to break bonds is called activation energy. It is always required to start a
reaction. For example, gas ovens and grills need a match or spark to start them (left). Similarly, a
spark is needed to ignite the fuel and air mixture in a car engine.

The activation energy differs for different reactions – some need a lot, and some not much at all.

Chemical energy
We can explain the energy changes in all these reactions in terms of the energy stored in the
chemicals. Different chemicals have different amounts of energy in them due to the way their atoms
are bound together. This is their chemical energy.

In exothermic reactions, the products have less chemical energy than the reactants. So the extra
energy is released to the surroundings.

In endothermic reactions, the products have more chemical energy than the reactants. So the extra
energy is absorbed from the surroundings.

These changes in chemical energy can be represented in energy level diagrams, like the ones on the
right for the reactions of hydrogen and oxygen, and hydrogen and iodine.
It's easy to see that the hydrogen and oxygen reaction is exothermic because more energy is released
than absorbed. And it's easy to see that the hydrogen and iodine reaction is endothermic, because
less energy is released than absorbed.

Acids and Metals

Reactions of metals and acids
Reactions between most acids and metals follow a very similar pattern, making a ‘salt’ and hydrogen
gas. We can show this pattern using a word equation for the reaction to represent the reactants (the
acid and the metal) making the products (the ‘salt’ and hydrogen):

A ‘salt’ is a scientific name for the substance produced by these reactions – it does not mean that
you can eat it! An example of a reaction between an acid and metal would be hydrochloric acid and
magnesium:

The name of the salt produced comes from the taking the name of the metal in the reaction (in this
example ‘magnesium’), and the second part of the name of the acid (here, ‘chloric’), but tweaking it
slightly to give the right ending.

Reactions of metal carbonates and acids

Reactions between most acids and metal carbonates also follow a pattern: a ‘salt’ is produced
together with water and carbon dioxide gas. Again, we can show this pattern using a word equation
for the reaction to represent the reactants making the products:
An example of a reaction between an acid and metal would be hydrochloric acid and calcium
carbonate:

The name of the ‘salt’ is formed in the same way as before, using the name of the metal and the
second part of the name of the acid in the reaction.

Corrosion
Corrosion Reactions
Corrosion is the term we use to describe what happens when substances are ‘eaten away’, or ‘rust’,
or if their surfaces get holes in them or become ‘pitted. Acids in rainwater (acid rain) will corrode the
metal in buildings and bridges, and rocks used to build things will wear away as they are battered by
wind, salt and acid rain. In chemistry, corrosion has a much more specific meaning. Chemical
corrosion of metals occurs when their atoms lose electrons and form positively charged ions.

For example, when iron reacts with hydrochloric acid in the environment, the iron is ‘corroded’ or
dissolved away by the acid as soluble chloride forms.

Iron + hydrochloric acid → iron chloride + hydrogen gas

If we only look at what happens to the iron:

Iron atoms → iron ions + two electrons

Fe → Fe2+ + 2e-

This last equation is known as an ionic equation. It shows the ions involved in the corrosion of iron.

Of course, a corrosion reaction requires other reagents - ones that take the electrons away from the
metal atoms. These might be oxygen, or an active gas like chlorine, or an acid. So corrosion reactions
might also be classified as oxidation reactions, or reactions of metals with acids, or as reacting
elements reactions. That should be no problem to you because hopefully you are starting to
understand that classification schemes are what we make of them. They differ depending on what
we want to use them for.

Slowing down corrosion

To slow down the rusting of iron and steel you need to keep air and water away from them. A simple
way to do this is to paint the object, as is done with car bodies, ships’ hulls, bridges, and iron railings.
A layer of oil will also protect iron (e.g., on a bicycle chain). The iron can also be coated with plastic.
This is sometimes done with outdoor furniture. You can also coat the iron with a layer of another
metal. For example, tin cans are made of steel that has a thin coating of tin. Tin is less reactive than
iron and corrodes very slowly. It stops air and water meeting the iron and protects the iron from
acids in the canned food.

Another way to protect iron from rusting is to coat it with a layer of zinc. This is called galvanising.
Zinc is a more reactive metal than iron. So, in the presence of air and water the zinc corrodes, leaving
the iron unaffected. Many building materials are made from galvanised iron.
The iron or steel does not need to be completely covered by zinc. When you wrap a piece of zinc
around the iron nail, the zinc corrodes but the iron does not. This is because zinc is more reactive
than iron. This process is called sacrificial protection because the reactive metal sacrifices itself to
save the iron. The hulls of ships and offshore oil and gas platforms are protected in this way.

Combustion

Corrosion
When iron rusts the equation is (slightly simplified):

iron + oxygen → iron oxide + energy

We don't notice the energy released because the reaction occurs slowly – it doesn't get very hot, and
the heat is lost into the air. Is it a combustion reaction? We don't normally say so, but from a
chemistry point of view you could consider it as slow combustion. We call these slow reactions
where metals react with oxygen, corrosion.
Precipitation
It occurs when dissolved substances react together and form an insoluble product. This product,
called a precipitate, forms tiny solid particles that fall out of solution. Any soluble products that are
formed remain dissolved in the solution.

Precipitation reactions generate solid products that settle out of solution. These are known as
precipitates. They are often brightly coloured compounds and can be used as pigments, like the
powders shown at the top of the page. In chemical equations, precipitates are always shown as solid
(s).
Rate of reaction
The reaction rate or rate of reaction is the speed at which a chemical reaction takes place, defined as
proportional to the increase in the concentration of a product per unit time and to the decrease in
the concentration of a reactant per unit time. Reaction rates can vary dramatically.

A motion that has zero displacement is any journey where the final location is the same as the initial
location.

Displacement has direction. Distance is how far an object moves. Displacement is where the object is
located relative to its starting point. Distance has no direction.

Vectors have magnitude and direction; scalars only have magnitude (the great size or extent of
something).

28 metres distance, and displacement = 0

100m distance , 30m displacement