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PA 201 Theory and Practice in Public Adminisration

Professor Ofelia T. Pacete
Session 1 Discussion Notes

I. The study of Public Administration in Western setting has been critically presented in
Nicholas Henry’s (1989) ‘Public Administration’s Century in a Quandary”. It
emphasized its broad-ranging nature and is characteristically amorphous combination of
theory and practice. More particularly, it traced the beginnings, and in reviewing how the
field has seen itself in the past, has developed some overlapping paradigms.

IA

Present the development of the kinds of theories that public administration is or should be
concerned. Describe it beginning, indicating overlapping paradigms, including the key
authors and their contributions. In your discussion, be particular with the locus (‘where’
of the field) and focus (‘what’ of the field). In presenting paradigm 2, take note of the
challenge in terms of demurring to the dichotomy and puncturing the principles, as well
as the reaction to such challenge. In paradigm 3, give attention to the use of case studies
and the development of comparative and development administration. In paradigm 4,
consider the similarities and differences between public and private management. Also
describe the forces of separatism, given two distinct but complimentary development---
interdisciplinary that public administration is neither management nor political science.

Premises and Concerns

Public Administration (PA) has developed as an academic field through a

succession of five (5) overlapping paradigms. Each phase has its respective locus and
focus.

Outline for Answers

1. Development of the kinds of theories: beginning, major contributions and
perceived failures
2. Five (5) overlapping paradigms: key authors, locus and focus
 Paradigm 1: The Politics/Administration Dichotomy
 Paradigm 2: Challenge in terms of Demurring Dichotomy, Puncturing the
Principles and Its Reaction to Challenge
 Paradigm 3: Use of Case Studies and Development of Comparative and
Development Administration
 Paradigm 4: Similarities and Differences between Public and Private
Management
3. Forces of Separatism, Distinct but Complimentary Development- Interdisciplinary
Programs and “New Public Administration”
4. Defend assertion that Public Administration (PA) is neither management nor
political science

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Explanation of Answers
1. Development of the kinds of theories: beginning, major contributions and perceived
failures
Woodrow Wilson (1887): observed that “is getting harder to run a constitution than to
frame one”
 called for the beginning of more intellectual sources to bear in the management of
the state
 scholar have insisted that he originated “politics/administrative dichotomy”
 well aware that PA was innately political in nature
 failed “to amplify what the study of administration actually entails, what proper
relationship should be between the administrative and political realms and
whether or not administrative study could ever become an abstract science akin to
the natural science
 ambiguous thesis: PA was worth studying

2. Five (5) overlapping paradigms: key authors, locus and focus

 Paradigm 1: The Politics/Administration Dichotomy (1900-1926)
 Frank J. Goodnow: Politics and Administration (1900)
o politics: has to do with policies or expressions of the state will
o administration: has to do with execution of these policies (legislative,
judicial, executive)
o locus: PA should center in governments bureaucracy
o focus: PA was something more than a significant subfield of political science,
it was a principal reason of being for the discipline
 Leonard D. White: Introduction to the Study of PA (1926)
o politics should not intrude on administration
o management leads itself to scientific study
o PA is capable of becoming a value-free science in its own right
o the mission of the administration is economy and efficiency
o locus: isolation of PA from other fields as business administration (BA)
o focus: emphasis on science and facts of PA and substantial contributions by
Public Administrationist to the merging field of organization theory- the
discovery of scientific principles of administration

 Paradigm 2: The Principles of Administration 1927-1937

 W. F. Willoughby: Principles of PA (1927)
o certain scientific principles of administration existed, they could be
discovered
o administrators would be expert in their work if they learned how to apply
these principles
o principles of administration period saw a flowering of PA- professionally and
academically
o locus: PA was everywhere, since principles were principles and
administration was administration
o focus: essential expertise in the form of administrative principles
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 Mary Parker Follet: Creative Experience (1924)

Henry Fayol: Industrial and General Management (1930)
James D. Mooney & Allan C. Reiley: Principles of Organization (1939)
o delineated varying number of overarching administrative principles
o school of administrative management: focus on hierarchical echelons of
organization
 Frederick Taylor: Principles of Scientific Management (1911)
Frank and Lillian Gilbreth: developed principles of efficient physical
movement for optimal assembly line efficiency
o focus: lower level personnel in organization
o locus: sharpening new focus of PA
 Luther H. Gulick and Lyndall Urwick: Papers on Science of Administration
(1937)
o 7 principles of administration: planning, organizing, staffing, directing, co-
ordinating, reporting, budgeting (POSDCORB)- helpful touchpoints in
conveying an understanding of how organization worked
o focus: scientization of democracy
o locus: became rigid scientific principles

The Challenge (1938-1947):

Chester Barnard’s The Function of the Executive
Herbert Simon’s Administrative Behavior
 Demurring the Dichotomy:
 Fritz Morstein Marx edited Elements of PA (1946): questioned the assumption
that politics & administration could be dichotomized as value-free administration
was actually value-laden politics
 1940’s as per intellectual abandonment of the politics/administration dichotomy:
politics & administration were totally inseparable
 Puncturing the Principles:
 1946 Simon’s Administrative Behavior: The Proverbs of Administration
published in PA Review
 1947 Robert Dahl’s Science of PA: Three Problems- argued that the development
of universal principles of administration was hindered by obstruction of values
contending for preeminence in organizations, differences in individual personality
& social framework that varied from culture to culture
 1948 Dwight Waldo’s The Administrative State: attack the notion of unchanging
principles of administration, the inconsistencies of methodology used, the
narrowness of the values of economy & efficiency
 1947 Simon’s Administrative Behavior: A Study of Decision Making Processes in
Administrative Organization- in every principle there was a counter principle

 Reaction to Challenge 1947-1950:

 Simon’s 2 Kinds of Public Administrationist: pure science of administration &
prescribing for public policy
 Carrot & A Stick: carrot as maintenance of the logical conceptual connection
between PA & PS in public policy making process; stick as worrisome prospect
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of retooling only to become a technically oriented pure science that might lose
touch with politics & social realities
 1952 article in American Political Science Review: called for “dominion of PS
over PA
 WW II Era: PS shaken by behavioral revolution in other social science
 1950 John Merriman Gaus’ PA Review: “a theory of PA means in our time theory
of politics also”

 Paradigm 3: PA as Political Science (1950-1970)

 locus: governmental bureaucracy
 focus: explore new fields of inquiry, i.e., sociology, BA, social psychology related
to the analysis of organization and decision-making ( H. Simon)
 re-establishing the linkages between PA and Political Science
 PA as an “emphasis”, “area of interest”, “synonym” of political science
 1961 study of PA in the U.S. is characterized by the absence of any fully
comprehensive intellectual framework
 1962 PA was not included as subfield of political science in American Political
Science Association Committee on Political Science as Discipline
 1964 major survey of political scientists indicated a decline in faculty interest in
PA
 1967 PA disappeared as an organizing category in program of American Political
Science Association
 1968 scholars “many political scientists not identified with PA are indifferent or
even hostile, they would sooner be free of it”
 an “uncomfortable “ and “second-class citizenship”
 “PA stands in the danger of…senescence”
 PA as “that lusty young giant of the decade ago, may now evaporate as a field”

 Use of Case Studies

 began 1930s under Commission of PA of the Social Science Research Council
 Significance of Case Study: innate value of case method as a simulation based on
teaching device, an extraordinary effective vehicle for illuminating questions of
moral choice & decision making behavior
 Comparative and Development Administration
 or cross-cultural PA
 White 1936 Principles of Administration: as a useful guide of action to PA in
Russia
 Dahl & Waldo: cultural factors could make PA as one part of the globe quite a
different animal from PA
 Alexander Hamilton: for PA to be effective it must be fitted to a nation as much
as a coat to individual
 Addressed 5 Motivating concerns as an intellectual enterprise: the search for
theory, the urge for political application, the incidental contribution to the broader
field of comparative politics, the interest if the researcher trained in traditional
administrative law & comparative analysis of ongoing problem of PA
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 Fred W. Riggs: “captured” the early interest of PA in the developing nation-

theoritical development
 One writer: “PA should take full notice of the fact that comparative
administration’s failure rests substantially on the self-imposed failure experience.
It sets an unattainable goal, that is, in its early & persisting choice to seek a
comprehensive theory or model in terms of which to define it.”

 Paradigm 4: PA as Management (1956-1970)

 Management/Administrative Science/Generic Management an alternative for
significant number of scholars in PA
 essential thrust was PA losing its identity and its uniqueness within the confines
of some larger concept
 focus: offers techniques often highly sophisticated techniques, that requires
expertise and specialization
 in institutional setting expertise should be applied undefined
 1960 Public Administrationist argued that organization theory was or should be
the overarching focus of PA
James March and Herbert Simon (1958)
Richard Cyert and March’s Behavioral Theory of the Firm (1963)
March’s Handbook of Organizations (1965)
James Thompson’s Organizations in Action (1967)
 gave solid theoretical reasons for choosing management as logical successor to
more parochial paradigm, i.e., PA and BA
 Woodrow Wilson seminal essay in 1887: “the field of administration is a field of
business. It is removed from the hurry and strife of politics”

 Similarities and Differences of Public and Private

 Stanley I. Benn and Gerald F. Gaus: publicness and privateness in society has 3
dimensions:
o Agency: acting privately on his own account, acting publicly as an officer of
the city
o Interest: status of people who will be better or worse off for what ever is in
question
o Access: degree of openness that distinguishes publicness and privateness
 Definition of Public” Administration
o Institutional: the management of tax supported agencies that appeared on
government organizations charts
o Normative: include not only government agencies and actions of those
agencies but a plethora of other institutions, technologies and other
interrelationships
o Organizational: public organizations, i.e., government agencies, public
authorities, voluntary association and non-profit corporation
 are mutually exclusive, mutually reinforcing
 together they form public in PA, the locus of both the field and the profession

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 Paradigm 5: PA as Public Administration

 1970 National Association of Schools of Public Affairs and Administration
(NASPAA) founded
 indicated the determination to take public responsibility for upgrading the
educational backgrounds and technical competence of nation’s public sector
manager
 call itself as a separate, self-aware field of study

3. Forces of Separatism
 Science, Technology and Public Policy
o the evolution of science and society in university curricula in 1960s held
interest in the relationships between knowledge and power, bureaucracy and
democracy, technology and management, related technobureaucratic
dimensions
o dominated by Public Administrationist located in Political Science
department
o focus is elitist rather than pluralist, synthesizing rather than specializing,
hierarchical rather than communal
 New Public Administration
o 1960 Waldo’s Towards a New PA: The Minnowbrook Perspective: focus was
disinclined to examine such traditional phenomena as efficiency,
effectiveness, budgeting and administrative techniques
o questions raised dealt with values, ethics and development of the individual
members in the organization, the relationships of clients with bureaucracy
and broad problems of urbanism, technology and violence
o call for independence from both Political Science and Management

4. PA: neither Management nor Political Science

 politico-administration system is unique and warrants a unique educational
treatment
 case of Social Security of U.S.
o contributions were set-up as individual accounts
o to be paid legally defined amount with no cash balances in individual
accounts
o grand total assets in several funds were not invested such and not segregated
in Treasury
o technical expert said that individual accounts were unnecessary and great
administrative waste
o President Roosevelt argued: Reasoning not solely rested on dramatic political
insight but on psychological impact of personal accounts, inadequate
definition of systems analyzed: bookkeeping, administrative mechanics,
fiscal and cost analysis but not political and psychological strategy

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Significant Learning

 Five (5) overlapping paradigms can be understood in terms of its locus and focus:
review of intellectual development of PA
 Five (5) paradigms explained why PA should be treated as separate field of study
different from other fields and sub fields

IB

State at least five (5) definitions of ‘public administration’, and on such bases, identify its
key features, scope, and purpose. Mention Wilson’s definition of public administration
and argue that it is so critical of the future of the United States. Do you think such
arguments for its rationale and value valid until today? Why is the politics-administration
dichotomy important, practical, and workable for creating public administration? What
the advantages and disadvantages of using such dichotomy as a way of advancing the
study of public administration? What are the sources to be taken into account and what
should be avoided in shaping this administrative enterprise? (Stillman)

Premises and concerns

The scope and purpose of public administration involves the interest of the different
sectors of the society, the government, the public organization and the social group.
Political-administration dichotomy may be the way of advancing performance but in any
aspect could also limit the transactions of the business in a pluralistic society.

Outline for Answers

1. Five [5] definitions of Public Administration
2. Key features, scope and purpose of public administration
3. Wilson’s definition of public administration
4. Importance of politics-administration dichotomy
5. Advantages and disadvantages of politics-administration dichotomy

Explanation of Answers
1. Public administration
 The production of goods and services designed to serve the needs of citizens-
consumers. (Dimock and Fox et al)
 A generic expression for the entire bundle of activities that are involve in the
establishments and implementation of public policies. (Cole Blease Graham Jr.)
 A cooperative group effort in public setting; covers all three branches-executive,
legislative, judicial-and their interrelationship; has an important role in the
formulation of pubic policy, and is thus part of the political process; is different in
significant ways from private administration; is closely associated with numerous
private groups and individuals in providing services to the community. (Felix and
Lloyd Negro)
 Involves the dynamic reconciliation of various forces in government’s efforts to
manage public policies and programs. (Dubnick and Romzek)
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 All processes organizations, and individuals associated with carrying out laws and
other rules adopted or issued by legislatures, executive and courts. (Gordon and
Milakovich)

2. Key features, scope and purpose of public administration

 the executive branch of government (yet it is related in important ways to the
legislative and judicial branches);
 the formulation and implementation of public policies;
 the involvement in a considerable range of problems concerning human behavior
and cooperative human effort;
 a field that can be differentiated in several ways from private administration;
 the production of public goods and services; and
 rooted in the law as well as concerned with carrying out laws.

3. Wilson’s definition of public administration

 Engaged in technical, although not necessarily mundane details; They prepare
budgets for a city government, classify jobs in a post office, have potholes
patched and mail delivered, or evaluate the performance of a city’s drug treatment
centers
 Concerned with the major goals of society and with the development of resource
for achieving those goals within the context of a rapidly changing political
environment.

4. Importance of Politic Administration Dichotomy

• Administration is the most obvious part of government.
• It is a government in action
• Politics is a state of activity, “in things great and universal.”
• Administration is the activity of the state in individual and small things.
• Politics is the special province of the statesman, administration of the
technical official.
• Policy does nothing without the aid of administration.

5. Advantages and Disadvantages of politics-administration dichotomy

Advantages:
• To free public organization from political motives.
• To allow public organization to improve its performance without the hindrance
from political bureaucrats
Disadvantages:
• Public administration exists within the pattern of hierarchal bureaucracy wherein
organization could directly and indirectly affected by governmental laws.
• Public and business enterprise need the support of the legislature to
institutionalize their rules and policies.

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Significant Learning

The knowledge of public administration will help the managers see all intervening
factors that may affect the organizations and will also help the managers come up with a
strategy so that an organization will successfully survive. Limiting the intervention of
political intervention and control will allow the organization to improve and develop.

IC

Prepare a ‘dragnet overview’ of public administration in the United States, emphasizing

its ‘antistatist’ political tradition, contradicting it from Wilson’s perspectives, and
identifying its basic values and outlook. Present the four (4) eras of Public administration
during the 20th century, each with distinct doctrines, ideals, theories, frameworks,
methodologies, agendas, shaped by the particular generational needs of that era: 1926-
1946; 1947-1967; 1968-1988; and 1989 to the present. For proper visualization,
schematically present these four (4) eras. (Stillman)

Premises and Concerns

The emergence of Public Administration in the U.S. provides an overview how it

was developed from antistatist political traditions contradicting the views of Wilson. This
can be understood in the four (4) eras during the 20th century indicating the generation
needs of each era.

Outline for Answers

1. Overview of Public Administration in the U.S
2. Four (4) eras of Public Administration
 POSDCORB orthodoxy, 1926-46
 Social Science Heterodoxy, 1947-67
 The Reassertion of Democratic Idealism, 1968-88
 The Refounding Movement, 1989-present

Explanation of Answers
1. Overview of Public Administration in the U.S
 Antistatist Political traditions
 Public Administration arrived in the U.S., it took a century after the
Constitution was written
 The Constitution as core framing document says nothing about
 Civil Service
 Budgets
 Executive Department
 Planning
 All essential to promoting effective government performance
 The constitution of 1787 limits the government action by means of
 Federalism
 Separation of Powers
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 Periodic elections enumerated powers

 Bill of Rights
 The framed constitution was premised on erecting a style
 Government to provide only defense
 Courts
 Foreign affairs
 Trade relations
 Coin money
 Leonard White’s textbook “An Introduction to the Study of Public
Administration” (1926) appear four (4) decades after Woodrow Wilson’s
centennial essay
 The growth of public administration research and training did not appear until
1930’s and 1940’s
 Contextual forces forced Americans to build an administrative enterprise in
response to
 Close of the frontier
 Massive migration from abroad
 Rapid technological and industrial change
 Clashes between management and labor
 Drive for international markets abroad
 Wilson’s centennial essay became meaningful “it is getting harder to run the
constitution than framing one” and further influenced by Lockean-Calvinistic
antistatism
 Administrative state became an established reality and that running the
constitution a necessity
 Intense antistatism
 Democratic constitution-making preceded the development of both
state and administrative sciences
 American PA started from grassroots reforms inspired by protestant moral and
democratic idealism
 Evolved from bits and pieces through experimentation by variety of local
reform groups
e.g. National Civil Service League, National Municipal League, and New
York Bureau of Municipal Research
 American PA remains considerably more experimental, fragmented,
inductive, applied, and reformist in class and in character
 American PA was rooted in common law traditions as well as in the
fundamental law, the U.S. Constitution that largely negated public power
 Look contributions from other fields to find substance and scope for
legitimacy of its administrative ideas
 Frank Goodnow’s Politics and Administration, 1900 and Frederick W.
Taylor’s Principles of Scientific Management, 1911
 Gave rational the managerial methodology as well as scientific legitimacy
to do good public administration
 American advance a clear dichotomy that “free up clean” administration
from messy and corrupt “machine politics”

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 Frederick Mosher, 1976, observed the developments that created the

management movement
 Fragmentation of responsibilities
 Lack of unified leadership
 Political corruption and spoils
 Generated from an era of
 Reform
 Progressivism
 Growing professionalism
 Occupational specialization
 Faith in rationality and applied sciences
 The rapid expansion of democracy in all phases of American public life was
directly related to origins and growth of PA in the U.S.
 PA stays in flux and can never be fixed doctrine or set of doctrines
 Always shifting constitutional-democratic priorities in each new American
generation
 Wilson’s views
 Relationship between politics and administration
 Role of ethics in administration
 The making of good and correct policies
 Policies process dealing with the today’s pressing issues meeting the
public needs and securing public interest
 Basic values and outlook
 POSDCORB principles rooted in economy, efficiency, and politics-
administration dichotomy
 Realistic and rigorous application of interdisciplinary perspectives
promoting institutional effectiveness
 Searching for new legitimacy, conceptual framework and values

2. Four (4) eras of Public Administration

Reassertion of
POSDCORB Social Science Refounding
Democratic
Eras and Dates Orthodoxy Heterodoxy Movement
Idealism
1926-46 1947-67 1989-present
1968-88
America as last
global
Key shaping Depression and Cold War abroad; superpower, end
Vietnam, Watergate,
events WW II prosperity at home of cold war and
“fear of bureaucracy
fall of Berlin
Wall
Intellectual First Refounding
Leonard White’s Dahl’s essay and Simon’s Minnowbrook &
Benchmark book published,
textbook, 1926 book, 1947 Ostrom’s, 1968
Event and Date 1989
Framing
Social Science Refounding
Administrative POSDCORB Democratic Idealism
Heterodoxy movement
Idea
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Robert Dahl, Herbert

Leading Leonard White and Simon, Dwight Waldo, New PA and public Multiple
Administrative Luther Gulick Frederick Mosher, and choice scholars “refounding”
theorists Don Price schools
Professional
“Policy Schools” at associations
Major
“The Chicago Harvard or such as
Institutions The Maxwell School,
Schools” PACH, Berkeley, and “think NASPAA,
Promoting Ideals USC, and other
ASPA, PAR, tanks” at Heritage, ASPA, APSA,
within Public ”generalist” program
White’s text AEI and CATO APPAM or
Administration
PAT-NET
POSDCORB
Principles rooted in
Applied “realistic and In search of a
“economy and
Central Values of rigorous,” new legitimacy,
efficiency,” as well
the Feld interdisciplinary “Two Es and one l” conceptual
as politics-
perspectives promoting framework and
administration
institutional effectiveness values
dichotomy
Main Orientation Ethical, economic,
of Administrative Dealing with National/International legal, oversight In search of a
Sciences depression and issues of the Cold War control issues of new overall
wartime issues bureaucracy orientation
How to build and
Key What will be the
apply What is Public Where is Public
Theoretical field’s new
Administrative Administration? Administration?
Questions identity
Sciences?
Training in “All depends”
Learning generalist Applying ideas from
numerous on a particular
Education management economics, politics,
administrative school’s
Methods functions of history, and social
techniques, concepts perspectives and
POSDCORB sciences
and technologies theories
New ideas of law,
Birth of the field: Rich infusion of social Fundamental
economics,
highest visibility: sciences; global rethinking of
Lasting implementation;
creation of key influence; expanded “basics” like
Contributions analytical method;
institutions like views and ideas about the PA’s legitimacy
rapid growth of the
ASPA and PAR field purposes, etc.
size of field

Significant Learning

Public Administration in the U.S. remain dominated by its own unique brand of
indicative experimental, reformist orientation closely related to the practice of coping
with the immediate needs of democratic governance of times.

ID

On the basis of Reyes’ ‘Life Begins at Forty: An Inquiry on Administrative Theory in the
Philippines and the Structure of Scientific Revelations’ (1995), present the different
phases (with time frames) in the development of Philippine public administration-
beginnings, foundations and growth, transition years (social consciousness and search for
development model), and activist public administration: reform and reflection. In each

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phase, specify its major preoccupation and orientations, including a limited listing of the
accompanying literature, to reveal the focused contents within each phase.

Premises and Concerns

Public Administration (PA) in the Phil. exhibits richness in experience but is

blunted by its complacency to assess how far it has gone to advance the frontiers of the
discipline. PA undoubtedly has largely been a theoretical, a historical and inattentive to
the development of its own intellectual and ontological well being.

Outline for Answers

1. Beginnings (1952-1956)
2. Foundations and Growth (1957-1972)
3. Transition Years: Social Consciousness and The Search for the Development Model
(1973-1981)
4. The Activist Public Administration: Reform and Reflection (1982 to present)

Explanation of Answers
1.Beginnings (1952-1956)
 considered as the first phase.
 starts at the time when Public Administration as a discipline was formally introduced
at the Institute of Public Administration (IPA) in the University of the Philippines.
 this period saw the coming of American Public Administration scholars to the IPA as
early as Jan. 1952 from Univ. Of Michigan
o James K. Pollock
o John W. Lederle
 scholars mission is to survey the need for establishing an Institute of Public
Administration at the University of the Philippines. Institute was based on the
intention to establish a center for research, academic and in-service training
and consultation in public administration.

 during this years, American Scholars with contribution from their Filipino
counterparts documented a collection of studies that are characteristically inward-
oriented or focused towards the dynamics of the processes, procedures and the
application of management Principles that have been tried and tested in the U.S.
 studies were freely multidisciplinary.
 Inward or organizational oriented theme of P.A. in this era is best exemplified by the
two manuals produced by Braum;
 A Thousand questions on Supervision in Phil. Government
o a handbook that advocates the application of scientific management Principles
in gov’t. Supervision and was a product of the author’s involvement as
coordinator of the IPA’s in-service training program for 1st line supervisors
(Braum 1954).
o manual espouses scientific management Methods in the tradition of Frederick
Taylor and tackles problems involving organization, authority, office
practices, personnel management, motivation and morale, work simplification,
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discipline, training, control and a host of other dimensions in supervisory

work..
 Handbook for Government Secretary – Stenographers
 serves as a guide-book to secretaries, assistants and stenographers in
the gov’t. Service (Braum & Portugal 1954)
o In public finance, Odell Waldby (1954) edited a reader on fiscal
management entitled Philippine Public Fiscal Administration: Readings
and Documents, perhaps one of the most comprehensive treatment of the
subject in the Phil.
o Amos Hawley, a sociologist from the University of Michigan detailed as
visiting professor at the IPA from 1953-1954, departed from inward
orientation perspective and published a report on demography in the
Philippines, then a subject matter gaining importance but alien to P.A. as a
field of study and a profession.
 Hawley’s papers in Demography and Public Administration (1954)
states that demography on the more familiar word population seems
not to be a part of the vocabulary of P.A.
 Hawley’s monograph on demography had ominous rings in it but it
remained a voice in the wilderness for as can be expected, P.A. then
was fixated with institutions and organizations, their structures and
functions and not with their larger environment.

 If Hawley’s demographic concern did not evoke much attention, so did

Drew’s attempt in Current Problems in Philippine Public Administration in
1955 to explore the nature of the discipline and bring the debate then raging in
the U.S. as to whether P.A. was a science or art. (1st inquiries in the Phil. of
whether P.A. can lay claim to scientific methods.)
 Drew’s work evaluated the discipline itself, not the profession nor the
practice, and apparently did not merit any response, for it indulged heavily on
epistemological questions. For Drew, P.A. is not a science.
 One of the most significant contributions that emerged during this period was
Romani’s work on the Philippine Presidency.

 1954 – A Survey of Local Gov’t. in the Phil., Romani co-author M. Ladd

Thomas, dissects local gov’t. institutions in the country. Perhaps sets the tone
for an enduring commitment by the IPA, and later the CPA towards
strengthening local autonomy and local governance which would result in a
series of studies and other initiatives, including the establishment a decade
later of a Local Gov’t. Center.

 1955 – IPA published one of the first comprehensive textbook on Public

Administration in the country, Stene and Associates’ Public Administration in
the Philippines. The volume signaled the beginning of the disciplinary
foundations of P.A. as a field of study. 17 chapters addressing various
dimensions of P.A. in the Phil.

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 1956 – The Phil. Presidency, Romani made a preliminary examination of the

functions and organization of the office of the Chief Executive. He observed
that a primary problem in outlining the composition of the Office of the
President is in establishing a definitive list of agencies which are within this
dept.. This, he claimed stems from “the penchant for abolishing, creating and
reorganizing bureaus and offices by appropriation act” which renders a degree
of uncertainty in the organization of the office.
 Two years after Romani went beyond structures and organization of the
Office of the President and proceeded to review “the presidency itself”.
 Romani’s work looked at the historical evolution of the position of the Phil.
President and examined his multifarious roles as chief executive, chief
administrator, chief legislator, chief diplomat & top political leader.

o evaluated personalities of the Phil. Presidents and looked at the dynamics

of their leadership and their ascendancy to office.
o work provides us a clear picture of the office of the President.
o if serious efforts were made to listen to his assessment / rectifying them,
martial law may have been prevented in 1972
o Romani’s work had a profound impact on the direction of P.A. study in
the Phil.

 Romani, in his ending chapter, contented that the Phil. President is vested
with more power than that of his American counterpart because “The Phil.
constitutional system requires forceful, dynamic leadership from one who is
the chief executive”.

 1956- U.P. contract with Univ. of Michigan terminated. H.B. Jacobini edited
a collection of essays devoted to a critical examination of various
governmental services in the Phil. (Governmental Services in the Philippines)
 Jacobini’s volume is one of the most comprehensive, self-contained appraisal
of gov’t. service programs and would have reflected a departure from the
inward-oriented perspective.
 Institution-centered perspective was the prevailing motif of the era.
 Client-focused orientation was product of the stormy decades towards the end
of the 60’s, spanning to the present and represents a maturation of P.A.
consciousness in a time characterized by a “revolution of rising expectations”.

2. Foundations and Growth (1957-1972)

 Filipino scholars began to take over from their American counterparts.
 Carlos P. Ramos was appointed as the director of the Institute
 IPA initiated the publication of the Philippine Journal of Publication (PJPA)
under the editorship of Jose V. Abueva.

 PJPA – major forum for the publication of articles , papers and

research reports in the discipline in the Phil.
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 Institute expanded from a single unit institution to shelter 3 specialized sub-

units under its umbrella.

 Phil. Exec. Academy (1962) – carry out program of executive

development.
 Local Government Center (1963) – research program
 Administrative Development Center (1968)
o later reconstituted into the center for policy and Administrative
Development (CPAD)

 period had a profound effect on Filipino Scholarship, for it was during this
time that Filipino PA scholars assumed the responsibility of determining the
course of the IPA as an organization, and the discipline itself.
 rich collection of PA literature and its related fields had been produced.
 IPA Goals (by: Dean Ramos) was set;

 to organize and make available information of Phil. Public Administration,

and to contribute to the advancement of the knowledge of Public
Administration in general;
 to develop and prepare qualified personnel for public service;
 to stimulate widespread interest in and to encourage the improvement of
Phil. Public Administration.

 most incisive materials that were produced following these genre were the
collection of papers edited by de Guzman, Patterns in Decision-Making
(1963) and Abueva’s, Perspective in Government Reorganization (1969).
 de Guzman echoed that American disenchantment with the politics-
administration tradition, saying that “it does not describe the realities of
modern government”.
 Abueva on the other hand collected and edited papers on reorganization, the
collection (20 papers) considered reorganization experiences in different
agencies of the exec., legislative and the judiciary.
 in this period, research efforts and applied studies began to multiply leading to
different dimensions in the study of P.A.

3 Major Areas of Interest

 the concern for local government administration which expanded the
works of Romani and Thomas, and of Roy Owsley in the mid-fifties;
 the concern for public accountability
 comparative administration

 IPA focused solely on an inward-orientation but outward perspective is

developing. (1957 Buenaventura Villanueva’s “The Community
Development Program of the Phil. Gov’t.”)

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 Dean Ramos broach the idea of “publics” or of “clienteles” terms which

gained currency in PA during the 70’s following the “new” PA movement.

“Notes on the University of the Phil. & It’s Publics” (1957), reflected on the
relationship of the University with its publics and perhaps sets the tone for
succeeding studies that considers the outward orientation.

 Jose V. Abueva’s (1959) Focus on the Barrio exemplified this rising

attention to understanding the needs and demands of the public.
 1959 – Raul de Guzman on a special issue of the PJPA recommended
reforms at the U.P. and points out that one function of institutions of higher
learning is to provide service to the community.

Followed by efforts of:

o Vicente Encarnation, Jr.’s (1959) “An Approach to the Study of the
Effects of a Program for Rural Development”
 sought to evaluate the effects of grants-in-aides projects of the
PACD
o Tito Fermalino (1960)
 conducted a field study of the impact of political activities on
community development
o Aprodicio Laquian (1966)
 studied the problems of Manila’s urban renewal programs &
predicament of squatters.

 much of the focus of PA thinking have been addressed to studies of public

organizations and institutions with sprinklings of works on political system
and discourses on theory.
 1965, conversion of the Local Government Research Project into the Local
Government Center at the U.P. CPA by Republic Act 4223  studies,
researches and involvement on local gov’t. became more pronounced.
 1966, a special issue of the PJPA was released devoted to local gov’t. issues
and concerns. This issue reflected various viewpoints on local gov’t.
management and would be followed by a host of other researches and
materials in the next decade.
 One of the outstanding outputs of the period which remains in our memory is
O.D. Corpuz’s The Bureaucracy in the Philippines. This book is an incisive
and authoritative treatment of the roots and foundations of bureaucracy in the
Phil. and has become a classic.
 1967, two important textbooks were published, edited by Abueva and de
Guzman;

* Foundation and Dynamics of Filipino Government and Politics

* Handbook of PA

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 1972, de Guzman’s “Achieving Realism in PA Academic Programs” attempted

to evaluate relevance and realism in PA academic programs as part of the review
process of the discipline.
 Iglesias provided a provocative explanation. Observed that serious writing,
teaching, and the demanding and sustained activity required for mastering one’s
selected field of specialization could be insidiously displaced by the equally
demanding extension work.
 Cariño, de Guzman & Iglesias’ observations was a fateful one not only for P.A.
but for the entire Filipino.
 This period would be one of transition, not towards comprehensive theorizing, but
towards a more community-oriented P.A.

3. The Transition Years: Social Consciousness and the Search for the Development
Model (1973-1981)
 PA took the initiative to move out of its institution or organization orientation.
 The concept of “development administration” started finding its way to the
Phil.
 Preoccupation was somehow influenced by the United Nation’s declaration of
the sixties as “a development decade”, a theme that had been extended to the
seventies as “the second development decade”.
 Pres. Marcos declared Martial Law in the Phil. and legislated decrees under an
arrangement he called “constitutional authoritarianism”.
 Martial Law found P.A. and Phil. society in a quandary.
 P.A. scholars looked at Martial Law with much trepidation and guarded
enthusiasm.
 P.A. scholars were prepared to compromise it only to bring about needed
reforms in government and to allow a more decisive pursuit of the agenda of
development.
 Critical outlook towards the operations of bureaucracy emerged;
 spawned a series of studies on graft and corruption and inefficiencies of gov’t.
 social development, citizen’s or people’s participation, rural development,
regionalization and decentralization and social responsibility became popular
and would result in studies on social concerns as population and family
planning, poverty, housing, health and agrarian reform.

 The preoccupation with the outward-looking orientation during this period can
be gauged by the string of studies that focused on social concerns and those
that espoused people oriented philosophies.
 1977 – policy launched by the government under Letter of Instruction 559
which required government to perform rural service for 15 days every year.
 Policy referred to as the barangay immersion or the rural immersion program,
evoked much efforts on the part of the PA scholars to study efficacy and
impact of the policy.

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 Studies on rural development, decentralization, rationalization and

strengthening of local govt. administration also became even more
pronounced during this period.
 Handbook on City Government & Administration produced by the joint efforts
of U.P. LGC and NEDA (1973) continued with narrative and descriptive
primers on cities and their management to serve as a form of guidebook to
scholars and practitioners.
 Philippine Local Government: Issues, Problems and Prospects, collection of
readings edited by Raul de Guzman and Proserpina Tapales (1973) sought
to analyze the nature, characteristics and problems of local gov’t. units.
 de Guzman & Tapales and their contributors attempted to introduce policy
oriented researches that incorporate specific proposals and recommendations
towards reforming the system of local gov’t. in the country.
 Special articles were produced that inquired into the theoretical foundations of
their respective subject-matters;
 Roman Dubsky’s “The Limitations of Methodology in Social Science”
 Carolina Guina
 Larry Kirkhart

 The martial law regime also invited commentaries that both justified and
criticized it, and which incorporated theoretical underpinnings of the regime.
 Stauffer, boldest critique against Martial Law. Cited pressures applied by the
regime on various sectoral groups, labor, employers and business and
highlighted the breaking up of political parties.
 1981 phase ends when Martial Law was claimed to have been lifted even if its
effects, policies and philosophies continued.

4.The Activist Public Administration: Reform and Reflection (1982 to Present)

 Researches and studies on graft and corruption, bureaucratic inefficiency,
rural development, local gov’t. administration and specialized studies on
various social concerns have continued to appear.
 Outward orientation has continued to dominate the writing and thinking in this
period although with some substantial modification.
 Activist PA evolved, not anymore confined to the concerns of bureaucratic
institutions.
 Activist nature of PA in this period are manifested not only by its growing
concern for political institutions, but on a propensity towards examining other
interests that hitherto have been peripheral to the discipline.

Studies:
* de Guzman and Tancanco (1986) – electoral process and the
administration of elections reflected the interest and consciousness
towards the dynamics of the political arena.

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* Leonor Briones – privatization policies in the Phil. and on the foreign

debt burden of the Phil. opened newer dimensions in the appreciation
of fiscal processes in P.A.

 Increasing attention given to academic concerns and the development of

Filipino literature.
 Ocampo (1982) espouses in his paper calling for a review of research
and knowledge in the disciplines, saying that the product of past efforts
can be put some kind of a framework of analysis.
 Observed that research in PA has tended to be more of the descriptive
kind than the theoretical kind.
 1988 – Tapales also points out that the discipline have so much been
concerned with applied research that “we hardly have room for the
basics”.

Significant Learning

o 50’s reflected a mood towards institution-building and familiarization with

the locus of the field.
o 60’s depicted a trend towards disciplinal eclecticism the “Filipinization” of
contemporary PA approaches to pervasive issues and problems, the
juxtaposition of conventional and non-conventional themes and the
redefinition of concerns.
o 70’s characterized a critical, searching élan that was normative, prescriptive
and outward oriented.
o 50’s  70’s according to Reyes is a maturing process hammered out by the
passage of time and experience, and influenced by the vicissitudes of the
discipline’s environment. Theorizing has remained largely underdeveloped.
o P.A. in the Phil. is a discipline not in search of a subject matter but rather
one in search of its past, its roots, its tradition and consequently its direction
(Reyes).

II. The study of Organization and Management provides professional and practitioners
the understanding of the bureaucracy in the traditions of Weber (1922), as well the
futuristic view of Bennis (1067). Particularly for management, Allison (1980) raised a
query on whether public and private management are fundamentally similar in all
unimportant aspects.

II A

Present the distinctive characteristics of bureaucracy with brief explanations. Describe

the internal and external position of the official, with attention to office holding and
personal position of the official (Weber in Shafritz and Hyde).

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Premises and Concerns

Bureaucracy is the most technically efficient form of organization possible. There

is a hierarchical structure of authority, creation of sub-units is based on differentiation of
functions or specialization and merit and fitness govern recruitment and promotion
process. It serves as a mechanism or medium by which functions of the state are
undertaken in civilized societies as derived from the character of public policy formulated
by the governmental system.

Outline for Answers

1. Meaning of bureaucracy – Max Weber
2. Characteristics of bureaucracy
 Principle of fixed and official jurisdiction areas, which are generally ordered
by rules
 Principle of office hierarchy and levels of graded authority
 Modern office is based upon written (‘the file”) which are preserved in their
original or draught form.
 Specialized office management usually presupposes thorough and expert
training.
 Official activity demands the full working capacity of the official.
 The management of the office follows general rules which are more or less
stable, more or less exhausted and which can be learned.
3. Internal and external position of the official
 office holding
 personal position

Explanation of Answers
1. Bureaucracy – represent large complex organizations characterized by “precision,
speed, unambiguity, knowledge of files, continuity, discretion, unity, strict
subordination, reduction of friction and materials and personal costs.

2. Characteristics of Bureaucracy
 Principle of fixed and official jurisdictional areas, which are generally ordered by
rules. (law or administrative regulations)
 regular activities are distributed in a fixed way as official duties.
 Only persons who have the generally regulated qualifications to serve are
employed.
 Principle of office hierarchy and levels of graded authority (a supervision of the
lower offices by the higher ones)
 with the full development of the bureaucratic type, the office hierarchy is
monocratically organized.
 The principle of jurisdictional “competency” is fully carried through
hierarchical subordination (does not mean that the “higher” authority is
simply authorized to take over the business of the “lower”. Indeed the
opposite is the rule.

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 Modern office is based upon written documents (“the files”) which are preserved
in their original or draught form.
 the body of officials actively engaged in a “public” office, along with the
respective apparatus of material implements and the files, make up a
“bureau”.
 The modern organization of the civil service separates the bureau from the
private domicile of the official.
 Specialized office management (distinctly modern) usually presupposes thorough
and expert training.
 Official activity demands the full working capacity of the official (irrespective of
the fact that his obligatory time in the bureau may be firmly delimited).

 The management of the office follows general rules, which are more or less
stable, more or less exhausted, and which can be learned.
 the theory of modern public management, assumes that the authority to order
certain matters by decree – which has been legally granted to public
authorities - does not only entitle the bureau to regulate the matter by
commands given for each case, but only to regulate the matter abstractly.

3. Position of the Official

 Office holding – “vocation” demands the entire capacity for work for a long
period of time, and in the generally prescribed and special examinations which are
prerequisites for employment.
 entrance into an office is considered an acceptance of a specific obligation of
faithful management in return for a secure existence.
 Personal position –
 Whether he is in a private office or a public bureau, the modern official
always strives and usually enjoys a distinct social esteem as compared with
the governed.
 The actual social position of the official is normally highest where the
following conditions prevail:
 A strong and stable social differentiation, where the official
predominantly derives from socially and economically privileged
strata because of the social distribution of power.
 A strong demand for administration by trained experts.
 The costliness of the required training and status conventions are
binding upon him.
 Usually the social esteem of the official as such is especially low where
the demand for expert administration and the dominance of status
conventions are weak.
 The pure type of bureaucratic official is appointed by a superior authority.
 An official elected by the governed is not a purely bureaucratic figure.
 The elected official does not derived his position “from above” but “from
below” or at least nor from a superior authority of the official hierarchy
but from powerful party men (bosses”), who also determine his further
career.
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 Normally, the position of the official is held for life, and this is increasingly
the case for all similar structures.
 The official receives the regular pecuniary compensation of a normally fixed
salary and the old age security provided by a pension.
 The salary is nor measured like a wage in terms of work done, but
according to the kind of function (the “rank”) and, in addition possibly,
according to the length of service.
 The official is set for a “career” within the hierarchical order of the public
service.
 He moves from the lower, less important and lower paid to the higher
position.
Significant Learning
Bureaucracy is a legal jungle of laws, policies and procedures to guide action and
behavior of public servants and citizens. Government is organized into departments,
bureaus, divisions, and sections, into regional and filed offices, and into national and
local government units so that delineation of functions can be determined. Authority of a
service provider in not owned by him but is bestowed to him by the position he occupies.
Faithful adherence to law and regulations governs security of tenure of officials.

II B

Provide indicators to illustrate that the bureaucracy is vulnerable or threatened. State the
fundamental changes in the basic philosophy in understanding managerial behavior.
Specify the human problems confronting contemporary organizations, with particular
identification of problems, bureaucratic solutions, and new 20th century conditions.
Describe the conditions that will determine organizational life in the next decades. Given
these conditions, what should be the training requirements for organizations of the
future? (Bennis in Shafritz and Hyde)

Premises and Concerns

Bureaucracy is the threatened and vulnerable. Contemporary organizations

experience problems under 20th century conditions. Organizational life and training
requirements will be different in the next two or three decades.

Outline for Answers

1 Indicators on the Vulnerability of bureaucracy
2 Change in Managerial Behavior
3 Human problems of contemporary Organizations
4 Conditions that will determine Organizational Life
5 Training Requirements for Organizations of the Future

Explanation of Answers
1. Indicators on the Vulnerability of Bureaucracy
The four indicators on the vulnerability of Bureaucracy are:
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 Rapid and Unexpected Change

o Knowledge and Population Explosion
o Productivity per man hour doubles almost every twenty years
o Time lag between a technical discovery and recognition of its commercial
use is shorter
o Eight cities in the world has more than one million people
 Growth in Size
o Organizations have grown larger, complex and international
 Today’s activities require persons of
o Very diverse
o Highly specialized competence
More people were employed in service occupations than in the production
of tangible goods. Examples: Field of education, health and financial
firms.
 Change in Managerial Behavior

2. Change in Managerial Behavior

In understanding managerial behavior, the fundamental changes in philosophy
are:
 A New Concept of Man
o Based on Increased knowledge of
o His Complex and shifting needs
 A New Concept of Power
o Based on Collaboration and Reason
 A New of Organizational Values
o Based on Humanistic Democratic Ideals

3. Human problems confronting Contemporary Organizations

Figure 1. Organizations of the Future – Warren Bennis

Human Problems confronting contemporary organizations

Problem Bureaucratic Solutions New 20th-Century Conditions
Integration. The No solution because of no Emergence of human sciences
problem of how to problem. Individual vastly and understanding of man’s
integrate individual oversimplified, regarded as complexity. Rising aspirations.
goals. passive instrument. Humanistic democratic ethos.
Tension between
“personality” and role
disregarded

Social Influence. The An explicit reliance on legal Separation of management from

problem of the rational power, but an ownership. Rise of trade unions
distribution of power implicit usage of coercive and general education.
and sources of power power. In any case, a Negative and unintended effects
and authority. confused, ambiguous, of authoritarian rule.
shifting complex of
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competence, coercion and

legal code.
.
Collaboration. The The “rule of hierarchy” to Specialization and
problem of producing resolve conflicts between professionalization and
mechanisms for the ranks and the “rule of increased need for
control of conflict. coordination” to resolve interdependence. Leadership
conflict between horizontal too complex for one man rule or
groups. “Loyalty”. omniscience.

Adaptation. The Environment Stable, simple, External environment of firm

problem of responding and predictable; tasks more “turbulent,’ less
appropriately to routine. Adapting to change predictable. Unprecedented rate
changes induced by the occurs in haphazard and of technological change.
environment. adventitious ways.
Unanticipated consequences
abound.

“Revitalization”. The Underlying assumption that Rapid changes in technologies,

problem growth and he future will be certain and tasks, manpower, raw materials,
decay. basically similar, if not norms and values of society,
more so, to the past. goals of enterprises and society
all make constant attention to
the process of revision
imperative.

4. Conditions that will determine Organizational Life

The following conditions will determine organizational life in the next two or
three decades:
 The Environment
o Interdependence rather than competition
o Turbulence and uncertainty rather than readiness and certainty
o Large scale rather than small scale enterprises
o Complex and multinational rather than simple national enterprises
 Population Characteristics
o Education
 Routine for experienced physician, engineer and executive to go back to
school for advanced training every two or three years.
 “Today the survival of the firm depends on the effective exploitation of
brainpower.”
o Job Mobility
 Ease of Transportation
 Needs of a Dynamic Environment
 Change the Idea of “owning” a job or “having roots”

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 Work Values
o Change in the Values we hold about work
 People’s commitment to professional careers
 More involvement, participation and autonomy
 People will be “other directed”
 Task and Goals
o Task will be more
 Technical
 Complicated
 Unprogrammed
o Reliance on intellect instead of muscle
o Collaboration of specialists – Project or team form
o Complication of goals
o Conflict and contradiction are expected
 Organization
o Social structures will be
 Temporary
 Adaptive
 Rapidly changing temporary systems
o Task force organized
o “executive” becomes coordinators or “linking pin:
o People evaluated by their flexibility and functionality
o “Organic-Adaptive Structure”
 Motivation
o Harmony between educated individual’s needs for
 Meaningful
 Satisfactory
 Creative tasks and
 A flexible organizational structure
o Reduced commitment to work values
o Loss of enduring work relationships
o Ambiguity of roles
 Discovery of appropriate organizational mix

5. Training Requirements for Organizations of the Future

The new requirements for training and development (of future organizations) are:
 Training for Change
o Should be trained in an attitude toward inquiry and novelty rather than the
particular content of the job
o Means developing “learning men”
 Systems Counseling
o A system viewpoint must be developed
o Systems counselors
o Changes in one subsystem will clearly affect other sub-systems
 Changing Motivations
o Strong urge to “make it: professionally
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o The quest for self actualization, for personal growth may not be task related
o Older forms of incentive will be reconstituted
 Socialization for adults
 Developing problem-solving teams
o Building synergetic teams
o Pseudo-democratic style
 Developing supra organizational goals and commitments
o Identify and support those individuals who are “linking pins”
o Crate more inter-group understanding and interface articulation

Significant Leaning
o There are indicators that threaten bureaucracy.
o The changes in the concepts of Man, Power and Organizational values has
embodied the changes in Managerial Behavior
o Aside from Human problems confronting 20th century organizations,
Organizational Life and Training requirements will be different in the next
few decades.

II C

Define ‘public management’ and its core and alternative elements. State the functions of
general management, considering the categories of strategy, managing internal
components, and managing external constituencies. Specify the similarities between
public and private management. On the other hand, specify the differences between
public and private management, on the bases of environmental factors, organization-
environment transactions, and internal structures and processes. Considering these
similarities and differences, suggest some research directions for developing knowledge
of and instruction about public management. (Allison in Shafritz and Hyde).

Premises and Concerns

There are positive suggestions on how to develop knowledge of and instruction in

managing public affairs. Managing public and private affairs has its common features as
well as differences in terms of environmental factors, transactions, and structures and
processes.

Outline for Answers

1. Definition of Public Management
1.1 Core elements of public management
1.2 Alternative elements
2. Functions of general management as to:
2.1 strategies
2.2 managing internal components
2.3 managing external constituencies
3. Similarities between public and private management
4. Differences between public and private management

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4.1 environmental factors

4.2 organization-environment transactions
4.3 internal structures and processes
5. Suggestions for developing knowledge of and instruction about public
management

Explanation of Answers
1. Definition of Public Management
Public Management -
 organization and
 direction
 of government resources
 to achieve a desired result

Core elements:
 Policy management
 identification of needs,
 analysis of options,
 selection of programs and
 allocation of resources
 on a jurisdiction wide basis
 Resource management
 establishment of basic administrative support systems,
 such as budgeting, financial management, procurement & supply, and
personnel management
 Program management
 implementation of policy or
 daily operation of agencies
 carrying out policy along functional lines
 (education, law enforcement, etc.)

Alternative elements:
 Personnel management
 Work force planning
 Collective bargaining and labor management relations
 Productivity and performance measurement
 Organization and reorganization
 Financial management
 Evaluation research, and program and management audit

2. Functions of general management as to -

Strategies:
 Establishing objectives and priorities
 Devising operational plans
Managing internal components:
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 in Organizing: manager establishes structure and procedures and staffing

 in Staffing: fitting the right persons in the key jobs
 Directing personnel and the personnel management system
 organization’s capacity: embodied in its members and their skills and
knowledge
 personnel management system – recruits, selects, socializes, trains,
rewards, punishes, and exits
 organization's human capital,
 which constitutes organizations capacity to act to achieve its goals and
 to respond to specific directions from management
 Controlling performance
 various management information systems -
 operating and capital budgets, accounts, reports and statistical system,
performance appraisals, and product evaluation
 assist management in making decisions and
 measuring progress towards objectives
Managing external constituencies:
 Dealing with external units of organization subject to some common authority
 general managers must deal with managers of other units within larger
organization
 above, laterally and below
 to achieve their unit's objective
 Dealing with independent organizations
 agencies from other branches or levels of government, interest groups,
private enterprises
 importantly affect organization's ability to achieve its objectives
 Dealing with the press and public
 whose action or approval or acquiescence is required

3. Similarities between public and private management

 Similar in management functions: Planning, Organizing, Staffing,
Delegating, Controlling, Reporting & Budgeting
 character and relative significance of various functions differ from one time to
another in the history of organization and
 between one organization and another but whether private or public setting,
the challenge for the general manager is to integrate all the elements so as to
achieve results

4. Differences between public and private management

(Please see next page)

190

Environmental Factors
TOPIC
Degree of market exposure
(reliance on appropriations)
Legal, formal constrains
(courts, legislature,
hierarchy)
Political influences
(discretion of LCEs to
choose)
Organization-Environment Transactions
TOPIC
Coerciveness (coercive,
monopolistic, unavoidable
nature of many government
activities)
Breadth of impact
(public policy vs social
responsibility)
Public scrutiny
Unique public expectations
191
PROPOSITION
 Less market exposure results in less incentive cost
reduction, operating efficiency, effective performance
 Less market exposure results in lower allocational
efficiency (reflection of consumer preferences,
proportioning supply to demand, etc
 Less market exposure means lower availability of
market indicators and information (profits, price, etc)
 More constraints on procedure, spheres of operations
(less autonomy of managers in making such choices)
 Greater tendency to proliferation of formal
specifications and controls
 More external sources of formal influence and greater
fragmentation of those sources
 Greater diversity of external informal influences on
decisions (bargaining, public opinion, interest group
reactions)
 Greater need for support of constituencies - client
group, sympathetic formal authorities, etc
PROPOSITION
 More likely that participation in consumption and
financing of services will be unavoidable or
mandatory (government has unique sanctions and
coercive powers)
 Broader impact, greater symbolic significance of
action of public administrators (wider scope of
concern, such as public interest)
 Greater public scrutiny of public officials and
their actions
 Greater public expectations that public officials
act with more fairness, responsiveness,
accountability, and honesty
 Distinction of higher accountability & efficiency –
on whom you should be accountable; public-
people, surplus vs private-stakeholder, profit
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Internal Structures and Processes

TOPIC PROPOSITION

Complexity of objectives,  Greater multiplicity and diversity of objectives and

evaluation and decision
criteria
Authority relations and the
role of the administrator
Organizational
performance
Incentive and incentive
structures
Personal characteristics of
employees
criteria
 Greater vagueness and intangibility of objectives and
criteria
 Greater tendency of goals to be conflicting (more trade-
offs)
 Less decision-making autonomy and flexibility on the
part of the administrators
 Weaker, more fragmented authority over subordinates
and lower levels (1.subordinates can by pass, appeal to
alternative authorities 2.merit system constraints)
 Greater reluctance to delegate, more levels of review,
and greater use of formal regulations
 More political, expository role of top managers
 Greater cautiousness, rigidity, less innovativeness
 More frequent turnover of top leaders due to elections
and political appointments results in greater disruption
of implementation of plans
 Greater difficulty in devising incentives for effective
and efficient performance
 Lower valuation of pecuniary incentives by employees
 Variations in personality traits and needs, such as higher
dominance and flexibility, higher need for achievement,
on part of government managers
 Lower work satisfaction and lower organization
commitment

5. Suggestions for developing knowledge of and instruction about public management

 Developing significant number of cases on public management problems and
practices
 Analyzing cases to identify better and worse practice
 Promoting systematic comparative research
 Linking to the training of public managers

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III. The implementation of RA 7160 (Local Government Code of 1991) has resulted in a
phenomenal expansion of the size of the local workforce due to the developed substantial
powers, functions, and responsibilities from the national government to the local
government units (LGUs).

III A

Trace the origins of human resource management (HRM) and state its importance.
Provide a schematic presentation of the functions of HRM with brief explanation of each
function. Describe the basic in seeking redress of grievances and complaints. For erring
employees, what are the causes of action and types of disciplinary actions that can be
imposed? Describe the manner by which an administrative investigation committee can
facilitate the investigation of cases filed against the erring personnel. Can you give at
least three (3) issues or problems related to: human resource planning, recruitment and
selection, detailing of personnel, compensation and benefits, performance evaluation,
human resource development, career development, and creation/strengthening the office
of HRM? (Sajo)

Premises and Concerns

The human resource management does not only deal with managing them well to
ultimately achieve organizational goals and objectives. Human resource being the “heart”
of the organization should be nurtured, cared and trained to keep pace with the changing
times.

Outline for Answers

1. Origin of HRM and its importance
2. Schematic presentation of HRM functions and its explanation
3. Basic Steps in seeking redress of grievances and complaints
4. Causes of action and types of disciplinary actions for erring employees.
5. Manner by which administrative investigation committee can facilitate the
investigation of cases filed against the erring personnel.
6. Issues and problems related to:
 Human resource planning
 Recruitment and selection
 Detailing of personnel
 Compensation and benefits
 Performance evaluation
 Human resource development
 Career development
 Creation/Strengthening of the HRM Office

Explanation of Answers
1. Origin of HRM and its importance
 Originated from the traditional Western – oriented personnel management
 That had its roots in the early 10th Century

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 The advent of scientific management

 People are the essence of an organization
 Human resources are the major contributors to organizational performance
and effectiveness.
 People are recognized as the “heart” of an organization

2. Schematic presentation of HRM functions and its explanation

 Human Resource Planning – foresee any conceivable situation that may crop
up, as well as the generation of alternative plans to respond to any situation
that may arise.
 Retirement and Selection – hiring the right people for the right job.
 Compensation and benefits – equal pay for equal work
 Performance Evaluation - assessment of employees performance vis-à-vis
assigned tasks.
 Human Resource Dev. – career – advancement procedures that help
employees become more effective in fulfilling orgn’l. goals.
 Career Dev. – upward movement of personnel in position or rank.
 Incentives/Awards System – financial/non-financial items given to either or to
all employees.
 Employee – management relations – harmony between the employees and
management in the interest of public service.

3. Basic Steps in seeking redress of grievances and complaints

 1st level – aggrieved employee may verbally air his/her complaint to his/her
immediate supervisor
 2nd level – written report to the Grievance Committee which should resolve
the complaint at the shortest period of time.
 3rd level – Regional Office of the CSC if dissatisfied with the 1st two levels.
 4th level – public Sector Labor Management Council through the Office for
Personnel Relations of the CSC.

4. Causes of actions and types of disciplinary actions for erring employees

 Causes of action
 Administrative Investigation
 Preventive suspension
 Disciplinary Penalties and Sanctions
 Disciplinary Action
 Dishonesty
 Oppression
 Neglect of Duty
 Falsification of official documents
 Misconduct
 Inefficiency and incompetence in the performance of official duties

5. Manner by which administrative investigation committee can facilitate the

investigation of cases.
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 If the LCE may authorize a person or a committee to conduct an

administrative investigation on the cases brought against appointive officials
and employees.

6. Issues and problems related to:

 Human Resource Planning
 LCE seldom give importance
 Constant change in local administration
 Financial Constraints
 Recruitment and selection
 Political Patronage
 Causes demoralization
 Due to political Accommodation many were unqualified in their position
 Compensation and Benefits
 Restricted by DBM and CSC
 Financial Constraints
 Restricted by 55% or 45% ceiling
 Detailing of personnel
 Non-performance of prescribed functions & duties
 Abuse of power
 Performance Evaluation
 Routinary activity
 Not always operationally and meaningfully applied
 LCE at times do not have the political will to impose
 Human Resource Dev.
 Dept. Heads & Elective Officials are send to training
 Career Development

Significant Learning

Due to political patronage the hiring of incompetent employee cannot be

eradicated. Hence, the LCE should take it by heart that the human resource is the most
important asset of the organization. Human Resources should be nurtured, cared and
trained to keep abreast with the changing environment.

III B

In assessing the civil service of the future, state the factors that contribute to the coming
crisis in workforce competence. Specify the major reasons why current problem with
recruitment and retention of quality employees will grow more severe. What are the
personnel policy directions in the 90s and beyond? Considering such directions, would
you expect more use of contracting out, delegated authority, and expanded employment
of women and the minorities? (Thompson)

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Premises or Concerns

As the labor markets become competitive, hiring of highly qualified workers are
becoming difficult. The kind of workforce we will have will affect the kind of civil
service we will be having. It is important that the government can assess the upcoming
crisis affecting its workforce competence, then draw personnel policy directions and what
to expect out of the policies it has established.

Outline for Answers

1. Factors that contributes to the crisis in workforce competence
2. Reasons why current problems recruitment & quality of employees will grow more
severe.
3. Personnel policy directions in the 90’s & beyond.
4. Expect more use of contracting out, delegated authority and expanded employment of
women & minorities.

Explanation of Answers
1. Factors that contributes to the crisis:
 High-skills job in expensive regions; gov’t. compensation is increasingly non-
competitive.
 Public esteem for civil servants is declining & prestige of gov’t. jobs are falling.
Problems of government is often equated with the unresponsiveness or
incompetence of civil servants. As public esteem for gov’t. employment has
eroded, fewer of the most talented individuals have entered government
service.
 Low pay & low prestige exacerbated by outdated management practices &
needless aggravations.

 inherent frustrations & constraints in large bureaucracies compounded by limited

advancement opportunities & poor working conditions.
 Many government offices are drab and even seedy.

 unproductive employees are retained; while, those making extra efforts are not
always rewarded.

 energy, initiative & risk-taking are less valued behavior than “going by the book”
& staying out of trouble.

2. Reasons why current problems will grow more severe.

 Competition for well-qualified workers will become more intense.
 Private employers will respond to changing labor markets by giving-- higher
entry-level wages; more recruitment & training of non-traditional workers; more
flexible packages & other adjustments—numbers of those joining workforce will
be slowing and the number of young people entering the workforce declining.
Unless the gov’t. will be unable to respond in similar ways it will be harder to
recruit & keep good employees.
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 Growing share of gov’t. jobs fall into the highest skill, most competitive
categories.
 More qualified people will be needed because – blue-collar jobs and direct
delivery of services will be contracted–out or shifted to local gov’t. resulting
direct delivery of services will shrink. Because of these gov’t. jobs will also shift
to a higher-skill levels such as research, program management, procurement,
monitoring & auditing responsibilities.

 Portable (Federal) Employees Retirement System will substantially reduce the

“golden handcuffs” that now tie senior employees to the (Federal) government.
Because of the highly portable retirement system, if gov’t. pay perceived to be
inferior, there will be higher level of turnover at senior levels. Recruiting and
keeping senior professionals & technical people will grow.

3. Personnel Policy Directions in the 90’s & beyond.

 Decentralized authority & responsibility for operations & hiring.
 Agencies must be given flexibility & freedom in personnel matters to
accomplish organizational goals. Standardized recruitment , testing,
competition, classification, and pay should give way to decentralized
personnel management.

 Giving agency managers full responsibility for human resources need--

decentralized personnel management.

Continue emphasis on the hiring, training and promotion of women &

minorities.

This is to attract more of the best-qualified members of the changing

workforce.
Substantially increase internal & external education of gov’t. workers.
The gov’t. should systematically invest more on the existing
workforces. This will not only make the government a more attractive
place to work, it will be a cost-effective way to build employees skills.

Upgrade gov’t. pay & make benefit packages more flexible. In return,
demand performance.

 Salaries that are comparable with those offered by other employers

 A small but important part of the task of building a quality workforce is
the flexibility to set high standards, and to fire those who do not measure
up.
4. Ways to implement changes
 Contracting out
 This is due to decentralization and it could mean further privatization or
contracting out of gov’t. activities.
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 But service providers shall be held accountable for the quality of their
services/products
 They shall be left free to manage their workforce but within the limits of laws
 There should be top-quality gov’t. manager to oversee to contracting process
 Gov’t. managers must be knowledgeable & capable as the contractors they
monitor—to ensure cost-effective & satisfactory performance.
 Delegated authority
 Top managers might have complete authority—recruitment, hiring, firing,
training, classification, pay & benefits
 Free to differentiate their agencies’ personnel from others to obtain the people
they need to perform their mission.
 Personnel managers should be highly competent.

5. Emphasize employment of Women & Minorities

 To be able to recruit talented parents
 Innovations to be made: flexible work schedules; extended leave policies; child care
benefits—for quality worklife of women
 Hiring of foreign nationals
 Complete decentralization of authority is not desirable
 Flexibility shall be within the constraints of equity for the country’s citizen,
national security concerns & other factors

Significant Learning

Reforms shall be made to maintain the competence of government workers, as

well as the government’s service. It can be done through decentralization of authority &
responsibility and continued emphasis on training, hiring and promotion of women &
minorities and upgrading of government pay & make benefit packages more flexible

III C

Describe the collective bargaining process, including the role of human resource
managers and the psychological aspect of collective bargaining. State what both labor
and management must do as they prepare for negotiation. Can you explain the typical
bargaining issues and the process of negotiation? Should breakdown in negotiations
occur, what are the ways to overcome it? Can you present the future of collective
bargaining? (Mondy and Noe)

Premises and Concerns

The role of human resource managers and the psychological aspect of

collective bargaining are vital for the success of collective bargaining process. Labor and
management should both take part in the negotiation. Breakdown occurs but there are
ways to overcome it. Management and labor have different strategies to overcome
breakdown for negotiations.

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Outline for Answers

1. Definition of collective bargaining
2. Role of human resource managers
3. Internal and external environmental factors influence the bargaining process
4. Six types of union management relations
5. Three categories in bargaining issues
6. Management and labor do in preparing for negotiations
7. Bargaining issues
8. Steps in bargaining process
9. Breakdown in negotiations
10. Union strategies for overcoming negotiation breakdowns
11. Management strategies for overcoming negotiation breakdowns

Explanation of Answers
1. Collective Bargaining
 A process in which a legitimate labor organization and the employer meet to
negotiate a contract or agreement, which specifies the nature of the employer-
employee union relationship concerning wages, hours of work and grievance
procedure.

2. Role of Human Resource Manager

 Gives advice on matters of discipline, works to resolve grievances, and helps first-
line managers to establish good working relationships with all employees affected
by the terms and conditions of the labor agreement

3. Internal and external environmental factors influence the bargaining process

 One company dealing with a single union.
 Several companies dealing with a single union.
 Several unions dealing with a single company.
 Several companies dealing with several unions.

4. Stone and Whitney list six types of union management relations:

 Conflict
 Arm Truce
 Power bargaining
 Accommodations
 Cooperation
 Collusion

5. Three [3] Categories in Bargaining issues :

 Mandatory Issues – Are those issues that fall within the wages, hours, and other
terms and condition of employment.
 Permissive bargaining issues – Are those issues that may be raised, but neither
side may insist that they be bargained over.
 Prohibited bargaining issues – Are those issues that are statutory outlawed.

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6. Management and labor do in preparing for negotiation

 Management can obtain a considerable amount of useful information from first-

line supervisors.
 Involves identifying various position that both union and management will take as
a negotiation progress. Each take initial position representing “utopia” the
condition or management would prefer.
 A major consideration in preparing for negotiations is the selection of the
bargaining teams.

7. Bargaining Issues
 Recognition
 its purpose is identify the union that is recognized as the bargaining
representative and to describe the bargaining unit that is the employees for whom
the union speaks
 Management Rights
 Freedom to select the business objectives of the company.
 Freedom to determine the uses to which the material assets of the enterprise
will be devoted.
 Power to discipline for cause
 Union Security
 The objective of union security provisions is to ensure that the union
continues to exist and perform its function. A strong union security provisions
makes its easier for the union to enroll and retain members.
 Closed shop – is an agreement whereby union membership is a prerequisite to
employment. Such provisions are generally illegal in the United States.
 Union shop – is a requirement that all employees become members of the
union after the specified period of employment or after a union shop provisions
has been negotiated.
 Maintenance of the membership shop – This form of recognition is also
prohibited in most states that have right- to do work laws and is rarely utilized
anymore.
 Agency shop – An agency shop provisions does not require employees to join
the union; however, the labor agreement requires, as a condition of employment,
that each nonunion member of the bargaining unit must “pay the union the
equivalent of the membership dues as a kind of tax, or service charge, in return
for the union acting as the bargaining agent.”

 Exclusive bargaining shop – Thirteen of the twenty-one states having right to

work laws allow only exclusive bargaining shop provisions. Under this form of
recognition, the company is legally bound to deal with the union that has achieve
recognition, but employees are not obligated to join or maintain membership in
the union or to financially contribute to it.

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 Open shop – The open shop is strictly defined, is employment that is open on
equal terms to union members and nonmembers alike. Under this arrangement, no
employee is require joining or financially contributing to the union, nor is any
union recognized as the bartgaini8ng representative.

 Dues check off – Another type of security that unions attempt to achieve is the
check off of dues.
 Compensation and benefits
 Wage rate schedule – These clauses are generally related to the Consumer
Price Index (CPI) prepared by the Bureau of Labor Statistics. Their purpose is to
ensure that a workers real wage to remain relatively constant.

 Overtime and premium pay – Provisions covering hours of work, overtime

and premium pay, such as shift differentials are included in this section.

 Jury pay –Some firms pay an employee’s entire salary when he or she is
serving jury duty. Others pay the difference between the jury pay and the
compensation that would have been earned. The precise covering procedure
covering jury pay is typically stated in the contract.

 Layoff or severance pay – The amount that employees in various jobs and / or
seniority level will be paid if they are laid off or terminated is presented in this
section.

 Holidays – The holidays to be recognized and the amount of pay that a worker
will receive if he or she has to work on a holiday are specified here. In addition,
the pay procedure for times when a holiday’s falls on a workers normal day off is
provided.

 Vacation – This sections spells out the amount of vacation that a person may
take, based on seniority. Any restrictions as to when the vacation may be taken
are also stated.

 Grievance procedure – It contains the means by which employees can voice

dissatisfaction with specific management actions. Also included in these sections
are the procedures for disciplinary action by management and the termination
procedure that must be followed.

 Employee security – Seniority and grievance handling procedures are the topics
related to employee security.

 Seniority – is determined by the amount of time that an employee has work in

various capacities with the firm. Establishment of seniority policy in the labor
agreement is quite important because the person with the most seniority, as
defined in the labor agreement, is typically the last to be laid off and the first to
recalled. The seniority system also provides a basis for promotion decisions.
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Employees with the greatest seniority will likely be considered first for promotion
to higher-level jobs.

 Job-related factors – Many of the rules governing employee actions while at work
are included here. Some of the more important factors are company work rules,
work standards, and rules related to safety. This section varies, depending on the
nature of the industry and the product manufactured.

8. Collective bargaining process

(Please see schema on the next page)

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COLLECTIVE BARGAINING PROCESS

Negotiation

EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENT

INTERNAL ENVIRONMENT
Preparing for Negotiation

Bargaining Issues

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Negotiation
Breakdowns?
Reaching the Agreement
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9. Breakdowns in Negotiation
 Third Party Intervention
 Mediation, a process whereby a neutral third party enters a labor dispute when
a bargaining impasse has occurred.
 Arbitration, a process in which a dispute is submitted to an impartial third
party to make a binding decision.

10. Union Strategies for overcoming negotiations breakdowns

 Strikes
 When union members refuse to work in order to exert pressure on
management in negotiations.
 The timing of a strike is important in determining its effectiveness.
 An excellent time is when business is thriving and the demand for the firms
product or services is expanding.
 Boycotts
 Involves an agreement by union members to refuse to used or buy the firms
products.
 Secondary Boycott, is the practice of a union attempting to encourage third
parties to stop doing business with the firm.

11. Management’s Strategies for overcoming negotiation breakdowns

 Lock out
 Management temporarily ceases operations of the business, the employee are
unable to work and do not get paid.
 Effective when dealing with a weak union, when the union treasury is
depleted, or when the business has excessiveness inventories.
 To keep the firm operating by placing management and non-union personnel in
the striking workers job.
 By hiring replacements for the strikers.

Significant Learning

Collective bargaining is important in labor management. Both labor and

management should work hand in order to maintain a good working relationship inside
an organization. In negotiation process, steps should be followed. Different strategies
are applied both by labor and management to overcome breakdown.

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