Richard Hyde A study of buildings in moderate and hot humid climates

DESIGN
CLIMATE
RESPONSIVE
Climate Responsive Design
This page intentionally left blank
Climate Responsive Design

A study of buildings in moderate

and hot humid climates

Richard Hyde

Spon Press
Taylor & Francis Group

LONDON AND NEW YORK

 First published 2000
by E & FN Spon
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, 0 X 14 4RN

Sim ultaneously published in the USA and Canada

by E & FN Spon
711 Third Avenue, New York NY 10017

E & FN Spon is an imprint o f the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

® 2000 Richard Hyde

All rights reserved. No part o f this book m ay be reprinted or reproduced or utilised

in any form or by any electronic, m echanical, or other means, now know n or
hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any inform ation
storage or retrieval system, w ithout perm ission in w riting from the publishers.

The publisher makes no representation, express or implied, w ith regard to the

accuracy o f the inform ation contained in this book and cannot accept any legal
responsibility or liability for any errors or omissions th a t m ay be made.

Publisher's Note
This book has been designed and typeset by the author

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book has been requested

ISBN 10: 0-419-20970-0

ISBN 13: 978-0-419-20970-6
Contents

Contributors vi

Foreword vii

Preface ix

Acknowledgements xi

Part 1 Design issues

1 Introduction 3
2 Warm climates andthe building context 15
3 Climate responsive design 45

Part 2 Strategies
4 Building structure 97
5 The building process 121
6 The roof 137
7 The external wall 161
8 Floors and internal walls 183
9 The veranda 203
10 Courtyards 221

Index 241
C ontributors

Michael Docherty, BArch, MArch, Lecturer, D epartm ent o f Architecture

University o f Queensland
Professor Peter Woods, B Arch, PhD, School of Architecture, Universiti of
Malaya
Foreword

Students in schools of architecture in tropical countries often seem hell bent

on mentally dragging their project sites several thousand miles north or south.
The result is designs that in their construction, fenestration, massing and
planning ape environmentally defensive models sitting in benign temperate
climates. I wish I could say the same is not true for many practising archi-
tects in tropical countries. Textbooks on environmental design have often
tended to treat warm climates as an interesting side issue to the main stream
of climatic architecture. Warm climates are not a marginal concern to the
increasing portion of the world population living in the tropics, where a
great amount of construction activity in the world will have to take place in
the next century.
This book makes frequent reference to the work of Maxwell Fry and Jane
Drew, and in many ways it is resonant with their observations of forty years
ago. Recognition, that it is always the site and the climate that provides both
the opportunities and problems for design in tropical countries, is the start-
ing point. The other realities of programme, aspiration and economics are
not ignored, this is always a practical book, but the climatic and context
imperatives remain foremost. Descriptions of site and microclimate evidence
the sensibilities of architects designing with the sun on their back, knowing
the essential need for shade, understanding the violence and subtleties of the
various warm climates. The book helps to dispel some of the gross generali-
zations and myths about tropical climates, identifying design strategies that
work for one but are ineffective in another. The necessary architectural phys-
ics is introduced as is required, and the relevance is thus made clear. It is
impossible to design with a serious regard for the environment without un-
derstanding these principles. The case studies are also introduced to illumi-
nate, rather than promote, hence the choice ranges from the mundane and
common place to some of the best examples of responsive design in the
tropical region.
By far the most significant feature of this book is the extensive use of the
building section to explain the climate modification, the idea that the edge
between inside and outside is where all the action is. This has to be a large
step forward if designers can be persuaded to consider both the plan and
section in the microclimate of the site. Climate responsive design is at least
three-dimensional, frequently four.

Peter Woods
Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, 1998
This page intentionally left blank
Preface

The inspiration for this work has come from the many fine buildings that
have been visited over the last three years and the enthusiastic interaction
with the many building designers, clients and users of these buildings. It is
also evident that there is an emerging design culture which focuses on the
environmental design of buildings. The thrust of this design direction is to
utilize concepts that minimize environmental impacts of buildings through
selecting an appropriate response to the climate.
The intentions are therefore to provide a description of buildings which
can be defined as climate responsive design, that is those that have used a
climate-based design process and climate response concepts as major gen-
erators of the architecture. Furthermore, the framework departs from the tra-
ditional discussion climate and architecture which normally starts with an
analysis of climates and finally examines the synthesis of climate and build-
ing form. In this case a more practise-based approach is taken which exam-
ines specific design issues, strategies, architectural elements and built exam-
ples. The foci is on moderate and hot humid climate types. The benefit of this
framework is that the resulting climate response can be seen in a more holis-
tic context thus providing a better understanding of design synthesis in the
architecture.
Therefore, it is not an exhaustive review of the architectural science theory
and practice, there are many excellent texts available for that purpose and read-
ers are directed to these for further amplification of the scientific basis for this
knowledge.
It should also be noted that this is a primer for design use and that wider
generalizations based on the cases may not be appropriate to specific to
different design problems. Therefore, since climate responsive design is
microclimate, function and context specific, designers should carefully ex-
amine the application of the concepts used in this text to the particular prob-
lem in hand. It is intended that the following discussion is an illustration of
strategies applicable in climate responsive design rather than a textbook of
solutions. A careful consideration and analysis of the utilization of these
strategies in specific projects in hand is advisable. It is hoped that the build-
ings discussed here will inspire and encourage responsible environmental
design practice and thus minimize negative building impacts for users and
the broader environment.

Richard Hyde
This page intentionally left blank
Acknowledgements

The author would like to thank the many people who have contributed to the
text. It is impossible to list all those involved with the production. Important
support has come from the following organizations.
The Australian Research Council for funding the research projects from which
evidence of the effectiveness of climate responsive design is used.
The University of Queensland Special Studies Program for the teaching re-
lief to make this manuscript possible.
The Department of Architecture, The University of Queensland, for assist-
ance in the production of the manuscript.
Special thanks should be given to Professor Emeritus Henry Cowan, for re-
viewing the manuscript and his many constructive comments. Also thanks to
Professor Peter Woods for his advice on the text and assistance with issues of
content.
Caroline Mallinder and Rebecca Casey from E8tFN Spon, without whose
continued support for this project it would not have been possible.
The many colleagues who have contributed advice and in particular Helmut
Ranch who worked on the electronic camera ready form of the manuscript and
Paul Raynis who edited the text.
This page intentionally left blank
Design Issues PART 1
This page intentionally left blank
Introduction CHAPTER 1

Clim ate is clearly one o f the prim e factors in culture, and therefore b u ilt form. I t is
the m ainspring fo r a ll the sensual qualities th a t add up to a v ita l tro p ica l arch itec-
ture, Tan Hock B eng.1

1.1 Definition
C lim ate responsive d esign is based o n th e w a y a b u ild in g form an d stru ctu re
m od erates th e clim ate fo r h u m a n good an d w ell-b ein g . A n y cu rso ry e x p lo ra -
tio n o f th is co n c ep t reveals th a t th e re is a stro n g form d eterm in a n t asp ect to
th e relatio n sh ip . The p rag m a tic an d phy sical p ara m eters asso ciated w ith th is
aspect o f arc h ite ctu ral design are c o n stan ts th a t tra n sc e n d tim e an d are re g u -
la ted b y th e law s o f science, in p a rtic u la r th e law s o f th erm o d y n am ics.
Yet th e p rag m a tic s are also b alan c ed b y a desire to resp o n d to th e p o etic
aspects o f clim ate. M an y arch itects seek to use th e b u ild in g as a n im plem ent,
n o t ju s t to m o d erate clim ate, b u t to en h a n ce a n d exp o se th e senses to th e
sp ectru m o f th e rm al an d v isu a l delight. W arm clim ates h av e a p o te n tia l far
b ey o n d th a t fo u n d in m ore te m p era te a n d cool clim ates. U nlike cool clim ates
w here th e sense o f en closure requires a defensive strategy, th e w arm clim ate

1.1 In this tropical Queenslander

house, the form determ inants o f
clim ate are found; the elevated
floors, lightw eight construction
an d th e w ind ow s open to th e
m icroclim ate o f the site for ven-
tilation
4 INTRODUCTION

buildings open and filter the climate in a multitude of ways. Thus the archi-
tecture responds to climate as one further vehicle for extending people’s
experience of the building. These intangible aspects of architecture provide
an additional palette of aesthetic and creative concepts. The harnessing of
these concepts in architectural design requires careful consideration. This
comes from both the timing of the consideration of climatic issues in the
design process and the procedure by which it is synthesized with the range of
issues that present themselves in the design problem.
Climate responsive design, by definition follows the latter course, and
requires of the architect both analytical and synthesis skills to optimize the
relationship between the site, climate and briefing requirements. In addition,
those buildings which use climate as a form determinant in both the prag-
matic and poetic sense result in climate responsive architecture.

1.2 Moderate and hot humid climates

Global climatic parameters

If climate responsive design uses climate as a form determinate then the first
issue to be addressed is defining the nature of warm climates. Climate can be
defined as the broad meteorological conditions pertaining to a region. Warm
climates are near to the Equator, receive high levels of solar radiation and
therefore are in heat surplus for a large proportion of the year. The higher
temperatures allow the air to hold more moisture and therefore have greater
relative humidity.
The seasonal variation increases further from the Equator and therefore
climates nearer to it have little seasonal change and stable temperatures with
large variations in rainfall during the year (some have one or two mon-
soons). Further away from it greater seasonal variation occurs with cooler
winters which can present an under-heating problem. This global heating
pattern is modified by differences in land and ocean effects.
Land dominated climates such as the interior of Australia have larger
diurnal ranges in temperatures and low rainfall whilst ocean dominated ar-
eas have smaller diurnal ranges and higher rainfall. Yet in spite of these
modifying effects, the first major difference between warm and cold climates
is the amount of solar radiation that is received, thus a classification by
temperature and humidity is used. Three climate types are defined - hot
humid, hot dry and moderate. These classifications are purely descriptive and
provide a convenient nomenclature in the text. This is not to say that more
climates cannot be defined, but for clarity three suffice.
This classification defines the the global climatic parameters in which the
building is located. The significance of the classification from the design point
of view is that some designers see these parameters as physical constraints;
others as a challenge and use them to establish contrast in the building. For ex-
ample, the physical characteristics of climate can be defined and related to
thermal comfort which gives the design basis of selecting climate modifica-
 CLIMATE RESPONSIVE AND ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABLE DESIGN 5

tion strategies in a building. These basic climate modification strategies in-

volve the use of airflow, solar gain, evaporative cooling and thermal mass.
The more challenging design problems are where there is an inherent conflict
between the design objectives and climatic factors. For example, it may be
that the best views from the building face west so the constraint of trying to
reduce high solar gain can be contrasted with the need to respect the view.
This presents the designer with a particular challenging climate design prob-
lem. A discussion of the physical determinants of climates, climate modifica-
tion strategies and the resulting design challenges forms the first part of
Chapter 2.

Building context and microclimate

Yet even with these basic strategies, the question arises of how to integrate
them within the building and building context. It is useful to focus on how
this can be addressed by comparing the building response with that of build-
ings in cooler climates where there is a heat deficit. Invariably in these cooler
climates the designer looks for a solution inside the building. For example,
Frank Lloyd Wright designed many of his houses with the fireplace in the
conceptual centre of the building. In practice this serves to heat the house
efficiently; other strategies can be used such as the use of insulation and
mass for the walls and roof, a reduction in the window size can also be used.
The overall effect of these strategies is to reduce heat loss. In warm climates
this pattern is not followed; the methods of reducing heat gain come from
without, in particular from the use of the site and its immediate microcli-
mate. The main passive method of cooling is ventilation, therefore the build-
ing requires careful design, as well as site planning for an optimum orienta-
tion. The avoidance of heat gain can also be effected at the site level through
shading from the landscape. Thus the building context becomes a major
factor in the climate response of the building. The second part of Chapter 2
examines the relationship between building, site and context. This discus-
sion leads to a broader focus of climate responsive design and to the ap-
proach taken in design and its relationship to the evolving field of environ-
mental design.

1.3 Climate responsive and environmental sustainable

design
The increasing concern for environmental impacts of buildings and the quality
of their internal environments has raised the debate as to the role architects should
play in the environmental design of buildings. In particular, attention is drawn to
the case for the ‘Green’ building. The Green perspective makes the environ-
mental issues related to building design of prime importance. Indeed some
have challenged the concern for aesthetics from the Green perspective.
The Vales have examined the relationship between the goals of design
6 INTRO DUCTIO N

1 .2 The s ite a n d c lim a te is th e

v ie w fro m th e w in d o w s o f th e
re so rt s h o w n to th e r ig h t R e-
search in to users p e r c e p tio n s o f
c lim a te in tropical reso rts q u e s -
tio n s th e n e e d fo r th e u s e o f
a c tiv e a n d h ig h ly d e fe n s iv e
b u ild in g skin a im s to c o n n e c t
th e building to s ite a n d c lim a te

a n d th e u s e r e s o u r c e s , s u g g e s tin g th e f o llo w in g : 'M o n u m e n ta l a r c h ite c tu r e ,

f r o m i t s b e g i n n i n g s , i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a p r o f l i g a t e a t t i t u d e t o r e s o u r c e s .'
T h e i r m a i n a r g u m e n t is t h a t ' t r u e a r c h i t e c t u r e ' h a s f a i l e d t o l i n k r e s o u r c e s
w ith d e s ig n a n d c o n s e q u e n tly w ith e n v ir o n m e n ta l im p a c t. T h u s th e y m a in -
t a i n t h a t t h e f i r s t m a j o r a x i o m o f G r e e n d e s i g n is c o n c e r n e d w i t h r e s o u r c e
u til i z a t i o n . T h e re is a ls o c o n c e r n f o r t h e p r o f l i g a t e u s e o f r e s o u r c e s f o r p u r e l y
c o n c e p t u a l a n d a e s t h e t i c p u r p o s e s , a n d m o r e f o c u s o n a r c h i t e c t u r e t h a t is
m o r e h o l i s t i c a l l y o r i e n t a t e d t o i t s e n v i r o n m e n t a l r o l e . I n t h i s v ie w , t h e d e -
s i g n e r is c o n c e r n e d f o r t h e ' t h e w e b ' t h a t m a k e s u p t h e b u i l d i n g a s w e l l a s t h e
o b j e c t q u a l i t y o f b u i l d i n g .2
C le a rly th is r e p r e s e n ts a p a r a d ig m o f th in k in g c o n c e rn in g d e s ig n a n d
r e q u i r e s a p h i l o s o p h i c a l a n d e t h i c a l c o m m i t m e n t f r o m t h e d e s i g n e r . T h is e t h i c a l
p o s itio n h a s b e e n e n d o r s e d b y m a n y a r c h ite c ts a n d f o llo w s t h e le a d o f p r o -
fe s s io n a l b o d ie s . T h e se b o d ie s h a v e d e v e lo p e d p o lic ie s a n d g u id e lin e s to r e -
d u c e n e g a tiv e e n v ir o n m e n ta l im p a c ts . F o r e x a m p le , th e R o y a l A u s tr a lia n
I n s titu te o f A r c h ite c ts h a s d e v e lo p e d th e f o llo w in g e n v ir o n m e n ta l p rin c ip le s :

1. M a i n t a i n a n d , w h e r e i t h a s b e e n d i s t u r b e d , r e s t o r e b i o d i v e r s i t y
2. M in im iz e th e c o n s u m p tio n o f re s o u rc e s , e s p e c ia lly n o n - r e n e w a b le re s o u rc e s
3 . M i n i m i z e p o l l u t i o n o f s o i l, a i r a n d w a t e r
4. M a x im iz e th e h e a lth , s a fe ty a n d c o m f o rt o f b u ild in g u s e rs
5. I n c re a s e a w a r e n e s s o f e n v ir o n m e n ta l is s u e s 2

I n d iv id u a l a r c h ite c ts n e e d to im p le m e n t th e s e p r in c ip le s w ith in th e fo l-
lo w in g fra m e w o rk :

- h o lis tic c o n s id e ra tio n o f n e g a tiv e e n v ir o n m e n ta l im p a c ts th a t a ris e in th e

c o n s tr u c tio n o f th e b u ild in g a n d its in f r a s tr u c tu r e
 C LIM A T E R E S P O N S IV E A N D E N V IR O N M E N T A L S U S T A IN A B L E D E S IG N 7

1 .3 The s k in a s a s e p a r a to r to
- m ake d e s ig n re c o m m e n d a tio n s , w h ic h m in im iz e th e n e g a tiv e e n v iro n - c r e a te a n a r tific ia l c lim a te in s id e
m e n ta l e ffe c ts o f b u ild in g a n d b u ild in g s th e b u ild in g , s e p a r a te s u s e r s
fr o m th e e n v i r o n m e n t t h e y h a v e
A s c a n b e s e e n , p r i n c i p l e 2 is c o n c e r n e d w i t h r e s o u r c e u t i l i z a t i o n a n d is c o m e to e n jo y, c lim a te r e s p o n -
f u r th e r d e fin e d w ith r e g a r d to c lim a te : s iv e b u ild in g d e s ig n e x p l o its th is
p o te n tia l
1. U s e o f r e n e w a b l e r e s o u r c e s i n p r e f e r e n c e t o f i n i t e r e s o u r c e s

2. E n c o u ra g e th e r e d u c tio n o f p o w e r c o n s u m p tio n b y , fo r e x a m p le , m a x im iz -
in g p a s s iv e th e rm a l c o m fo rt a n d e n a b lin g u s e r s to m a k e e ffic ie n t u s e o f
b u ild in g a p p lia n c e s 3

C lim a te r e s p o n s iv e d e s ig n is t h e r e f o r e a n i n t e g r a l p a r t o f t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l
f r a m e w o r k t h a t is b e i n g d e v e l o p e d t o r e d u c e e n v i r o n m e n t a l i m p a c t s a n d p r o v i d e
f o r h u m a n w e l l - b e i n g . O n e m a i n f e a t u r e is t o u s e p a s s i v e c l i m a t e c o n t r o l
s y s te m s r a th e r t h a n r e ly o n a c tiv e e n e r g y s y s te m s t h a t c o n s u m e n o n -re n e w -
a b le re s o u rc e s . T r a d itio n a lly d e s ig n e d b u ild in g , th e m o d e ls f o r w h ic h p r e d a te
th e p o w e r r e v o lu tio n , a re a ls o a u s e f u l b a s is f o r e x a m in in g th e r e la tio n b e -
tw e e n b u ild in g a n d c lim a te . A s h a s b e e n s e e n , th e u s e o f c lim a te re s p o n s iv e
d e s i g n is a s u b s e t o f t h e w i d e r is s u e s o f e n v i r o n m e n t a l d e s ig n , t h e r e f o r e t h e
p h ilo s o p h y o f c lim a te d e s ig n h a s a s its f o u n d a tio n th e h o lis tic o r ie n ta tio n o f
e n v i r o n m e n t a l d e s ig n . H e n c e it is a p p r o p r i a t e t o c o n s i d e r i n p a r t i c u l a r t h e
n a tu re o f tra d itio n a l b u ild in g s a n d th e ir e n v iro n m e n ts . T h e se b u ild in g s e n -
c a p s u la te th o u s a n d s o f y e a rs o f u n c o n s c io u s re s e a rc h in to th e re la tio n s h ip
b e tw e e n b u ild in g and c lim a te a n d r e p r e s e n t m o re h o lis tic m o d e ls f o r th e
d e v e lo p m e n t o f a c lim a te re s p o n s iv e a rc h ite c tu re . T h e se tra d itio n a l m o d e ls
c a n b e e x a m in e d a s p re c e d e n ts , w h ic h in fo r m th e a rc h ite c tu re , r a th e r th a n to
8 INTRODUCTION
B iology
B uilding
C o n te x t
C lim ate
1 .4 Bioclim a tic a n d c lim a te re-
sp o n s iv e desig n. In b io c lim a tic
design th e p ro c ed u re is to s ta r t
w ith an a n a lysis o f th e c lim a te
a n d th e n m o v e to design sy n th e -
sis. C lim a te resp o n sive desig n is
fo cu sed on th e sy n th e sis a n d th e
se le c tio n o f c lim a te resp o n sive
str a te g ie s to m e e t d esign o b je c -
tives
A rc h ite c tu r e
B iolo gy A rc h ite c tu r e
T ech n o lo g y
C lim ate
T echnology
p ro v id e a s e t o f r e a d y -m a d e s o lu tio n s . A n a ly tic a l s tu d ie s o f th e tr a d itio n a l
b u ild in g s o ffe r a n u n d e r s ta n d in g o f th e r e la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n c u ltu re , c lim a te
a n d b u ild in g fo rm . In d e e d th e h is to r ic a l a s p e c ts o f tr a d itio n a l a rc h ite c tu r e
a re fo u n d e d in th e c o n c e rn s fo r a re g io n a l a rc h ite c tu re .
R e g i o n a l a r c h i t e c t u r e is d e f i n e d a s t h e a r c h i t e c t u r e o f t h e p l a c e , w i t h t h e
f o r m a n d c h a r a c t e r g e n e r a t e d o u t o f t h e c u l t u r e , c l i m a t e a n d t h e r e g i o n . T h is
is a p a r t i c u l a r p r o b l e m f o r t h e d e v e l o p i n g n a t i o n s o f t h e w o r l d s u c h a s S o u t h -
e a s t A s ia , w h e r e t h e tid e o f i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n a n d w e s t e r n i z a t io n h a s s w e p t
a w a y t h e t r a d i t i o n a l a r c h i t e c t u r e . T h is h a s c a u s e d a q u e s t i o n i n g o f t h e l a c k
o f i d e n t i t y a n d h i s t o r i c a l l i n k a g e s i n t h e a r c h i t e c t u r e ,4 t h u s T a n H o c k B e n g
s u g g e s ts :
'M a n y a r c h i t e c t s w o r k i n g i n t h e r e g i o n t o d a y h a v e f o r g o t t e n h o w t o d e s i g n
b e a r in g in m in d th e c lim a te a n d la n d s c a p e . T h e y a re n o w c a u g h t in th e h o m o g -
e n iz in g fo rc e s o f m a s s m e d ia a n d a re r e p e a tin g th e b u ilt m e d io c ritie s o f in te r n a -
t i o n a l f a s h i o n . E a c h c o m m i s s i o n is s e e n a s a v e h i c l e f o r e g o i s t i c s e l f - e x p r e s s i o n
w h i l e l i t t l e i m p o r t a n c e is a t t a c h e d t o m e m o r y a n d c o n t i n u i t y .'5
Y e t t h e p r o b l e m is t h a t t h e c o n t e x t i n w h i c h t h e s e b u i l d i n g s h a v e b e e n b u i l t
h a s c h a n g e d . F a c t o r s s u c h a s t h e u r b a n i z a t i o n o f t h e c i ty , t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f
te c h n o lo g y a n d th e r e d u c tio n in a v a ila b ility o f re s o u rc e s b r in g in to q u e s tio n th e
u s e o f tr a d itio n a l m o d e ls a s s e t-p ie c e s o lu tio n s .
T h e 'm a n - m a d e u n iv e r s a l c lim a te ' a n d th e n a tu r a l c lim a te
T h e s e l f - e v i d e n t f e a t u r e o f t r a d i t i o n a l a r c h i t e c t u r e is t h a t i t u s e s t h e n a t u r a l
c l i m a t e . T h e m o d i f i c a t i o n o f c l i m a t e is t h r o u g h t h e b u i l d i n g f o r m , f a b r i c a n d
la n d s c a p e . T h e re c e n t u s e o f p la n t a n d e q u ip m e n t in b u ild in g s to m o d ify
c lim a te h a s le d to th e p r o b le m o f th e m a n - m a d e c lim a te - th e a b ility to u s e
a ir -c o n d itio n in g to m o d ify c lim a te to 2 5 d e g re e s C a n d 5 0 p e r c e n t h u m id ity
c re a te s a n in te r n a l c lim a te w h ic h c a n b e re p lic a te d a r o u n d th e w o rld , in d e e d
i t c a n b e c o n s t r u c t e d i n o u t e r s p a c e . H e n c e i t is n o t o n l y m a n - m a d e b u t a l s o
 CLIMATE RESPONSIVE AND ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABLE DESIGN 9

1 . 5 L e ft a n d m id d le : a c h u r c h in
C airns, A u s tr a lia u s in g a b u f f e r -
in g s t r a t e g y o f t h e v e r a n d a to
p r o t e c t t h e b u ild in g s k in fr o m
h e a t g a i n a n d a ls o p r o v i d e a
s e m i-o u td o o r sp a ce:
r ig h t: th e c h u r c h m a k e s u s e o f
t h e s t r a t e g y o f s in g le s k in c o n -
un iv ersal. D esigners can now reach for th e en erg y so lu tio n to clim ate m o d i- s tr u c tio n o f tim b e r s tu d s a n d
fica tio n w ith ease, p assin g on ru n n in g costs to co n su m ers a n d d esig n in g w e a th e r b o a r d s le a d in g to a s k in -
b u ild in g s w ith o u t co n cern for place. E xam ples o f th is ap p ro a ch ca n be fo u n d c o o le d b u ild in g t h a t h a s a q u ic k
in m a n y places, one case is fo u n d in som e o f th e h o lid ay reso rts b u ilt in r e s p o n s e to t h e h o t h u m i d c li-
n o rth e rn tro p ic al Q ueensland. The practice is to use air-c o n d itio n in g p la n t m a te , a ls o th e c o n s tr u c tio n e a s -
a n d eq u ip m en t to reg u la te com fort. In additio n , h ig h ly d efensive skins w ith ily d is s ip a te s th e o c c a s io n a l h ig h
larg e am o u n ts o f m ass a n d so la r glass are u sed to red u ce en erg y c o n su m p - c a s u a l h e a t g a in s fr o m th e o c -
tio n . The use o f th e u n iv e rsa l clim ate in th is c o n te x t is a lo st o p p o rtu n ity for c u p a n ts
clim ate responsive architecture. First, th e arch ite ctu ral co n seq u en ce o f th is is
th a t b u ild in g form a n d fabric creates a b a rrie r to th e ex terio r a n d th e c o n n e c-
tio n to clim ate is lost. Second, a fu rth e r co n seq u en ce o f th is is to se p arate th e
v isito rs from th e p lace th e y h av e com e to ex perience, clearly d efeatin g th e
pu rp o se o f th e building.
The design o f th ese resorts is b ased on th e assu m p tio n th a t v isito r’s e x -
p ec ta tio n s re g a rd in g th e th e rm al com fort o f th e in te rn a l en v iro n m en t are for
th e ‘u n iv e rsa l clim a te’. Yet research h as sh o w n th a t v isito rs ex p e ctatio n s m ay
be v e ry differen t a n d th a t acceptable co m fo rt levels can be p ro v id ed b y p a s -
sive m e a n s .6 This suggests th a t th e re is th e p o te n tia l to use m ore passive
m ean s a n d avoid design co n d itio n s w here th e b u ild in g is clearly o u t o f p lace
w ith in its co n tex t. Indeed, th e b u ild in g separates th e v isito r from th e co n te x t
w h ich h e or she h as com e to experience a n d enjoy. The arg u m e n t here is n o t
th a t air-c o n d itio n in g as a m e th o d o f clim ate co n tro l is less ap p ro p riate th a n
n a tu ra l clim ates, ra th e r th a t th e d esigner h as to co n sid er m ore h o listically
th e strategies used for en v iro n m en ta l control g iven a p articu la r b u ild in g fu n c-
tion, design a n d co n tex t.
1 0 IN T R O D U C T IO N

1 . 6 The la n d s c a p e o f w a te r a n d
v e g e ta ti o n , w h e n c o m b in e d w ith
t h e n e e d fo r s h e l t e r a s fo u n d a t
t h e K u r a n d a r a ilw a y s t a t i o n in
C airns, A u s tr a lia , d r a w o n b o th
ta n g ib le a n d in ta n g ib le a s p e c ts
o f c lim a te r e s p o n s e

B io c lim a tic d e s ig n a n d s tra te g ic d e s ig n

I t is c l e a r f r o m t h i s c a s e t h a t t h e d e s i g n e r h a s t o c o n s i d e r q u i t e c l e a r l y t h e
o v e r-a rc h in g d e s ig n d e c is io n s r e g a rd in g th e b u ild in g c o n te x t. T h e s e c e n tre
o n th e re q u ir e m e n ts o f th e b rie f, th e s ite a n d th e c lim a te th a t fo r m th e p o in t
o f d e p a rtu re a n d d ire c tio n o f th e p ro je c t. T h e se d e c is io n s a re p a rtic u la rly
im p o r ta n t in la r g e n o n - d o m e s tic b u ild in g s w h e r e th e s iz e o f th e e n v ir o n -
m e n ta l in te rv e n tio n is b o t h e x te n s iv e and c o s tly . A w ay o f a rtic u la tin g
d e c i s i o n m a k i n g i n t h e d e s i g n p r o c e s s is to s u g g e s t t h a t t h e s e a r e la r g e c o m -
p le x b u ild in g s re q u irin g c a re fu l a p p lic a tio n o f a p p ro p ria te e n v iro n m e n ta l
s tra te g ie s .
S tr a te g ie s a re b a s ic d ire c tio n s th a t c a n b e ta k e n w ith r e g a rd to o p tim u m
c lim a tic p e rfo r m a n c e o f th e b u ild in g . T h u s o p tim u m o rie n ta tio n is a k e y
s tr a te g y in w a rm c lim a te s w h ic h m a y s u g g e s t th a t b u ild in g s s h o u ld b e p o s i-
tio n e d so th a t th e y re c e iv e th e c o o lin g b re e z e s in s u m m e r. T h u s th e s tr a te g y
h a s a p a r tic u la r p la n n in g im p lic a tio n f o r th e d e s ig n e r. It a ls o h a s ta c tic a l
c o n s e q u e n c e s f o r th e b u ild in g fa b ric ; th e f e n e s tr a tio n s h o u ld b e d e s ig n e d to
a c c o r d w i t h t h e c l i m a t i c c o n d i t i o n s . T h e r e is a ls o a r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h e u s e r
to a p p re c ia te th is s tra te g y a n d u s e th e b u ild in g s k in to m a k e th e m o s t o f
s u m m e r b re e z e s . F in a lly , th e e f f e c tiv e n e s s a n d e ff ic ie n c y o f s tr a te g ie s a n d
ta c tic s can b e e x a m in e d in te rm s o f b o th ta n g ib le and in ta n g ib le d e s ig n
co n seq u en ces.
I n t h e o r y t h e r e is a le v e l o f c l a r i t y a n d r a t i o n a l i t y i n t h i s a p p r o a c h , b u t it
b e lie s a c o m p l e x i t y t h a t e x i s t s i n t h e w a y b u i l d i n g s a r e d e s ig n e d . I t is a
s im p lis tic a s s u m p t i o n to t h i n k t h a t a c lim a te d e s ig n is j u s t a c o lle c t io n o f
s t r a t e g i e s ; r a t h e r i t is a s y n t h e s i s o f a r a n g e o f f a c t o r s t h a t a r e b o t h w i t h i n
 CLIMATE RESPO NSIVE AND ENVIRO NM ENTAL SUSTAINABLE DESIGN 11

a n d o u ts id e th e d o m a in o f c lim a te r e s p o n s iv e d e s ig n . T h e a r g u m e n t f o r th e
s t r a t e g i c f r a m e w o r k is e m b e d d e d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g c a s e :
‘I n h o t w e a t h e r , w h e n t h e e x t e r n a l t e m p e r a t u r e is h i g h , t o o m u c h h e a t
m a y e n te r th e sp a c e . I f th is h e a t c a n b e a b s o rb e d b y th e fa b ric o f th e b u ild -
in g , t h e p e a k a ir t e m p e r a tu r e d u r in g th e d a y w ill b e le s s. I f n i g h t tim e v e n t i -
l a t i o n is p o s s i b l e , t h e h e a t a b s o r b e d b y t h e f a b r i c c a n b e l o s t a t n i g h t w h e n
te m p e r a tu r e s a r e lo w e r. B u t i f b u ild in g s a r e lig h tw e ig h t a n d s e a le d , t h e y a r e
lik e ly to o v e r h e a t a n d a n e e d f o r a ir - c o n d itio n in g w ill r e s u lt.’ 7
I f t h i s s t r a t e g y is u n p a c k e d i n t o i t s c o n s t i t u e n t a r g u m e n t s , i t c a n b e s e e n
to h a v e a n u m b e r o f p r e re q u is ite s , a r a n g e o f a r c h ite c tu r a l s c ie n c e c o n c e p ts
a n d c e rta in lim ita tio n s .
F i r s t , t h e t e r m ‘h o t w e a t h e r ’ s h o u l d b e e x a m i n e d . T h is is a g e n e r a l d e -
s c rip tio n a n d th e r e fo r e r e q u ire s q u a lif ic a tio n o f th e ty p e o f c lim a te w ith in
th e c la s s if ic a tio n o f w a r m c lim a te s , m o d e ra te , h o t d r y a n d h o t h u m id .
S e c o n d , t h e b u i l d i n g ‘f a b r i c ’ i s u s e d t o m o d i f y c l i m a t e b y w a y o f t h e
t h e r m a l f l y w h e e l e f f e c t . T h is u s e s h i g h - m a s s m a t e r i a l s f o r h e a t s t o r a g e t h u s
p r o v i d i n g a p a s s i v e h e a t i n g a n d c o o l i n g s y s t e m . T h is is n o t a s i m p l e s t r a t e g y
to u s e p a r tic u la r ly in w a r m c lim a te s w h ic h h a v e little d iu r n a l r a n g e o f te m -
p e r a tu r e . T h u s th e r e a re a n u m b e r o f f a c to rs t h a t m a k e th is s tr a te g y e ffe c tiv e .
F u rth e rm o r e , a c u r s o r y e x a m in a tio n o f b u ild in g s in w a r m c lim a te s , te lls u s
t h a t t h i s s t r a t e g y is b y n o m e a n s g l o b a l l y u s e d . F o r e x a m p l e a t r a d i t i o n a l
c h u r c h i n C a ir n s , A u s t r a l i a , i n a n a r e a w i t h a h o t h u m i d c l i m a t e , u s e s a l a r g e
v o lu m e o f s p a c e a n d a lig h tw e ig h t tim b e r s in g le - s k in c o n s tru c tio n . T h e th e r -
m a l lo a d s a re re c e iv e d fro m th e e x te r n a l e n v ir o n m e n t a n d th e in te r n a l h ig h
c a s u a l g a in s c a u s e d b y th e c o n g re g a tio n a t w e e k ly m a s s. V e n tila tio n a n d
s k in c o o lin g d is s ip a te th e h e a t lo a d s f ro m th e la tte r.
T h ir d , th e r e f e r e n c e to l i g h t w e i g h t s e a le d b u il d i n g s t h a t a r e p r o b le m a tic
a n d n e e d a i r - c o n d i t i o n i n g . T h is a s s e r t i o n c a n e q u a l l y b e l e v e l l e d a t s e a l e d
h e a v y w e ig h t b u ild in g s . T h e re fo re a r a n g e o f q u e s tio n s r e la te d to th e re la tiv e
e ffe c tiv e n e s s o f m ic ro c lim a te , fa b ric a n d u s e o f a ir - c o n d itio n in g p la n t s h o u ld
b e c o n s id e re d in th e a s s e s s m e n t o f b u ild in g s tra te g ie s . In a d d itio n to th e
p h y s ic a l a ttr ib u te s o f th e s e s tr a te g ie s , t h e r e a r e a ls o o th e r c o n s id e r a tio n s .

In ta n g ib le a n d ta n g ib le q u a litie s

F u rth e r e x a m p le s o f b u ild in g s f o u n d in th e s e h o t h u m id c lim a te s re fle c t th e in -

ta n g ib le q u a litie s th a t c o m e fro m r e s p o n s e o f b u ild in g s to th e c lim a te s : th e
m in im a l u s e o f s h e lte r a n d th e c o n n e c tio n w ith th e lu s h la n d s c a p e .
T h e se a s p e c ts r e fle c t th e q u a lity o f p la c e w ith r e g a r d to th e n e e d fo r a
c l i m a t e r e s p o n s i v e d e s i g n a p p r o a c h . K u r a n d a r a i l w a y s t a t i o n i n C a ir n s is a
u s e f u l e x a m p le . A l i g h t s te e l s t r u c t u r e is u s e d to p r o v id e t h e n e e d s f o r s h e lte r.
T h is is t h e n u s e d a s a n a r m a t u r e f o r a m y r ia d o f p l a n t s t h a t e n j o y t h e s h a d e .
T h is t r a n s f o r m s t h e b u i l d i n g i n te r m s o f e x p e r i e n c e f r o m a u tilita ria n
s tr u c tu r e to a n in te g r a tio n o f b u ild in g a n d m ic ro c lim a te . I n d e e d it ta k e s
a d v a n ta g e o f th e m ic r o c lim a te c r e a te d b y th e b u ild in g to d e v e lo p th e l a n d -
s c a p e . T h e se la n d s c a p in g e le m e n ts s o f te n th e lig h t a n d g la re a n d p ro v id e a n
1 2 IN T R O D U C T IO N

e n v i r o n m e n t t h a t is s o m e t h i n g q u ite u n e x p e c te d . T h u s w h ils t th e re a re a
n u m b e r o f ta n g ib le fa c to rs th a t e x p la in th e s c ie n tif ic b a s is o f c lim a tic r e -
s p o n s iv e a r c h ite c tu r e th e r e a re a ls o a n u m b e r o f q u a lita tiv e a s p e c ts t h a t c o n -
trib u te to th e e x p e rie n c e o f th e b u ild in g .
T h e s e c o n d p a r t o f C h a p te r 2 e x a m in e s th e is s u e s c o n c e r n e d w ith th e
c lim a te re s p o n s iv e d e s ig n fro m th e s ta n d p o in t o f e n v iro n m e n ta l d e s ig n a n d
tra d itio n a l a rc h ite c tu re a n d h o w th e p rin c ip le s fro m th e s e s o u rc e s c a n fe e d a
s tr a te g ic a p p r o a c h to c lim a te r e s p o n s iv e d e s ig n .
F in a lly , th e ta n g ib le a n d in ta n g ib le m e a s u r e s t h a t a re a v a ila b le to d e s ig n -
e rs a s a w a y o f a s s is tin g w ith th e e v a lu a tio n o f th e s e s tr a te g ie s a re d is c u s s e d
in s u b s e q u e n t c h a p te rs o n b u ild in g s tra te g ie s .

1 .4 D e s ig n is s u e s a n d b u ild in g e le m e n ts

T h e e x a m in a tio n a n d re f le c tio n o f c lim a te d e s ig n fo llo w s a s tr a te g ic f r a m e -

w o rk . T h e f ir s t tw o c h a p te r s d is c u s s th e b r o a d d e s ig n is s u e s re la te d to c lim a te
ty p e s a n d b u ild in g fo rm . T h e s e c o n s titu te th e firs t p a r t o f th e te x t. T h e re -
m a i n i n g p a r t is c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e s t r a t e g i e s u s e d f o r t h e d e s i g n e le m e n t s .
T h is s ta r ts w ith a d is c u s s io n o f s tr u c tu r a l s y s te m s f o r w a r m c lim a te b u ild -
in g s . L ittle w o r k h a s b e e n c a r r ie d o u t o n th e u s e o f d if f e r e n t ty p e s o f s tr u c -
tu r a l s y s te m fo r c lim a tic a d v a n ta g e , a lth o u g h th e re h a s b e e n c o n s id e ra b le
a s s e s s m e n t o f th e u s e o f m a te ria ls fo r th e rm a l p e rfo rm a n c e .
T h e n e x t c h a p te r e x a m in e s th e e ffe c t o f c lim a te o n b u ild in g d e s ig n a n d
c o n s tr u c tio n a r g u in g f o r s tr a te g ie s t h a t a v o id la b o u r in te n s iv e s y s te m s , u s e a
to p - d o w n c o n s tr u c tio n s y s te m w ith e a r ly r o o f c o m p le tio n to p ro te c t b u ild in g
w o rk e rs a n d th e fa b ric o f th e b u ild in g fro m c lim a tic e ffe c ts . T h e is s u e o f
h e a l t h a n d s a f e t y i n t h e b u i l d i n g w o r k p l a c e is o f i n c r e a s i n g c o n c e r n , a n d t h e

1 . 7 A c o lo n ia l h o u s e in S i n g a -
p o re u ses a vera n d a s tr a te g y as
a b u f f e r z o n e fo r c lim a te m o d i-
fic a tio n . The d e s ig n m e t h o d o l -
o g y o f p la c in g s tr a te g ie s in c o n -
t e x t in th is w a y g iv e s a h o lis tic
u n d e r s ta n d in g o f c lim a tiv e r e -
s p o n s iv e d e s ig n
 DESIGN ISSUES AND BUILDING ELEMENTS 13

systems th a t provide protection from the extrem es o f climate are advanta-

geous. The analysis o f the building process identifies the roof as a dom inant
elem ent in the w arm climate building.
The ro o f provides the imagery, w hich is articulated in m any cultures, and
this is hardly surprising as it is a highly defensive m echanism in the climatic
control system o f the building. The types o f roof are discussed in relation to
climate types and the section of the building. As will be seen in Chapter 6 , the
importance o f the building section in conjunction with the roof demonstrates the
climate control features in the building, in particular ventilation, solar access and
lighting.
The section o f the building comprises walls and floors b ut different strat-
egies apply to the external walls th an to the internal walls. Therefore the
external wall is exam ined separately in Chapter 7. The relationship betw een
external wall and plan depth is discussed here from the point o f view o f the
differing zones for climate control. The problem w ith the external w all is
com plex due to differing and com peting perform ance requirem ents. There is
the need to m axim ize transparency for light and ventilation yet also the need
for closure and shading to prevent solar gain. Strategies for accom m odating
these conflicting requirem ents are discussed specific to orientation. A n argu-
m ent is also m ade for classifying buildings according to exterior or interior
dom inance. The exterior dom inant buildings are those th at rely more on
exterior factors for their climate control w hilst the interior dom inant build-
ings use internal factors such as the m oderating influence o f fabric w ithin
the walls and floors.
Floors and internal walls are exam ined in the Chapter 8. The floors in
w arm clim ate buildings are conceptually seen as platform s th at are ju x ta -
posed in space for clim atic advantages such as accessing ventilation and
shade. The com bination o f floor and wall can also act as a therm al m oderator
if built o f mass construction such as concrete or masonry. Therefore, this
chapter exam ines the role o f the floor in interior dom inant buildings w here
the mass o f the interior construction is used to assist w ith controlling inter-
n al tem peratures. The principles o f m ass charging and decharging are
considered.
Various additional strategies are found in the design o f w arm climate
buildings for providing transition spaces betw een the building from the cli-
mate. This involves adding sem i-outdoor areas such as verandas and court-
yards to the basic building form. The use o f these strategies is exam ined in
Chapters 9 and 10. These spaces are im portant forms o f buffer zoning provid-
ing privacy and varying degrees o f shading to the building and glare control.
In larger com plex buildings these form ducts and re-entrant spaces for v en -
tilation. The airflow around this open type o f space is im portant so as to
m aintain the climate control function. In particular the use o f types o f solar
driven chim ney are discussed. The efficiency o f these systems is questioned
as it relies extensively on natural forces and is therefore unpredictable. Thus,
w hilst these systems m ay be practicable on a small scale, the effectiveness of
using these systems on large buildings is debatable. Thus, these external
spaces provide a useful m icroclim ate th a t m oderates the climatic extrem es of
14 INTRODUCTION

the site and also orchestrates the moderating effects of climate to provide the
optimum response from the building.

1.5 Case studies

The method used in discussing the respective strategies is through a series of
case studies. In all chapters these are used to identify and explain the strate-
gies identified. Each case is examined selectively, depending on the issues in
the chapter. The range of cases is based on both traditional and modem
buildings; the traditional buildings demonstrate that the climate response
has been optimized over time whilst the modem buildings help examine the
way the traditional approaches have been adapted to the modern context. In
this way the use of strategies can be seen in the context in which they are
applied. This reinforces the notion that climate responsive design comes not
from a potpourri of strategies but from a synthesis of a number of underlying
concepts on which these strategies are based. The effective practice of cli-
mate responsive architecture lies in the generation and evaluation of strate-
gies applicable to the particular building context.
The selection of these case studies and the scope of the book focuses on
examples from mainly the hot humid and moderate climates. This is due to
the fact that a large part of the population inhabits these less arid areas. The
hot arid climates are less populated as they sustain little agriculture and
people live in these areas mainly for the extraction of mineral resources.

1.6 References
1. Tan Hock Beng, Tropical Architecture and Interiors, Page One Books,
1994, p.13.
2. B. Vale, and R. Vale, Green Architecture, Thames and Hudson,1996, p. 5.
3. K. Harman, The Environmental Design Guide, Royal Institute of
Australian Architects, 1995, General 1, pp. 1-3.
4. R. Powell, Architecture and Identity, Exploring Architecture inIslamic
Cultures 1, The Aga Khan Award for Architecture, Concept
Media, 1983.
5. Tan Hock Beng, op. cit., pp. 14-15.
6 Z. Bromberic, 'Passive climate control for tourist facilities in the coastal
tropics,’ unpublished thesis, Department of Architecture,
The University of Queensland, 1995.
7 M. Fordam, ed., Environmental Design, E&F Spon, 1996, p. 4.
Introduction
Tan HockBeng , Tropical Architecture and Interiors, Page One Books, 1994, p. 13.
B.Vale , and R.Vale , Green Architecture, Thames and Hudson, 1996, p. 5.
K.Harman , The Environmental Design Guide, Royal Institute of Australian Architects, 1995, General 1, pp. 1–3.
R.Powell , Architecture and Identity, Exploring Architecture in Islamic Cultures 1, The Aga Khan Award for Architecture,
Concept Media , 1983.
Tan HockBeng , op. cit., pp. 14–15.
Z.Bromberic , ‘Passive climate control for tourist facilities in the coastal tropics,’ unpublished thesis, Department of
Architecture, The University of Queensland, 1995.
M.Fordam , ed., Environmental Design, E&F Spon, 1996, p. 4.

Warm climates and the building context

M.Fry , and J.Drew , Tropical architecture, Batsford, 1956, p. 24.
G.Lippsmeier , Building in the Tropics, Munchen: Callway, 1969, p. 28.
S.V.Szokolay , Climate, Comfort and Energy, Design of Houses for Queensland Climates, Architectural Science Unit ,
The University of Queensland, 1991, p. 6.
S.V.Szokolay , Climate, Comfort and Energy, Design of Houses for Queensland Climates, Architectural Science Unit ,
The University of Queensland, 1991, p. 6.
I.Koenesberger , et al., Manual of Tropica I Housing and Building, Longman, 1973, p. 13.
Lippsmeier , op. cit., 1969, p. 57.
Olgay, V. , Design with Climate
J.Hall et al., DA Sketch Pad, Computer Program, Department of Architecture , The University of Tasmania.
Olgay , op. cit.
Hall and Szokolay , op. cit.
Szokolay , 1991, op. cit., p. 13.
J.Greenland , Foundations of Architectural Science, University of Technology, Sydney, pp. 7/11.
Greenland , op. cit., pp. 7/17–21.
Koenesberger et al., op. cit., p. 27.
B.Givoni , Climate Considerations in Building and Urban Design, Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1998, p. 241.
Givoni , op. cit., p. 275.
Givoni , op. cit., p. 241.
Givoni , op. cit., p. 242.
Givoni , op. cit., p. 244.
Koenesberger et al., op. cit., p. 27.
Givoni , op. cit., p. 278.
Givoni , op. cit., p. 247.
J.R.Goulding , ed. et al., Energy in Architecture. The European Passive Solar Handbook, Commission of European
Communities, 1993, pp. 117–118.
Koenesberger , op. cit., p. 37.

Climate responsive design

P.O'Sullivan , ‘The Building as a Climatic Filter’, Built Environment, July 1972, pp. 267–269.
B.Lawson , ‘Embodied Energy of Building Materials’, Environment Design Guide, Pro.2, RIAI, 1995, pp. 1–6.
V.Papanek , The Green Imperative: Ecology and Ethics in Design and Architecture, Thames and Hudson, London,
1994.
G.Treloar , ‘Assessing the Embodied Energy Savings from Recycling Alternate Materials in Buildings’, Solar 95,
Renewable Energy: The Future is Now, 33rd Annual Meeting, Tasmania, 29 Nov.–1 Dec. 1995, pp. 213–218.
Treloar , op. cit., p. 214.
P.A.Mitchell , ‘Ecological Sustainability and Innovative Potential of Plywood’, 1995, Plywood Association of Australia
Annual Convention, Gold Coast, Qld., Nov. 1995. pp. 24–26.
Lawson , op. cit., p. 68.
S.Baggs and J.Sand , The Flealthy Flouse, Harper Collins, 1996, p. 153.
Baggs and Sand , op. cit., pp. 217–220.
Lawson , op. cit., p. 62.
PittsG. , Energy Efficient Housing – A Timber Frame Approach, Timber Research and Development Association, 1987,
p. 8.
O'Sullivan , op. cit., p. 267.
H.Fathy , Natural Energy and Venacular Architecture, Principles and Examples in Hot Arid Climates, University of
Chicago Press, 1986, p. 9
H.Fathy , Natural Energy and Venacular Architecture, Principles and Examples in Hot Arid Climates, University of
Chicago Press, 1986, p. 9
N.V.Baker and K.Steemers , ‘LT Method 3.0 – a Strategic Energy Design Tool for Southern Europe’, Energy and
Buildings, Vol. 23, 1996, pp. 251–256.
R.A.Hyde , ‘Lighting, thermal and ventilation (LTV) design tool for non-domestic buildings in tropical and subtropical
regions: preliminary assessment of design integration’, Proceedings of the ANZAScA Conference, The University of
Queensland, 1998, pp. 41–48.
MichaelHopkins and Partners, ‘Research into Sustainable Architecture’, Architectural Design, 1997, pp. 27–38.
M.Hiller and M.Schuler , ‘Energy concepts for low energy buildings-an interdisciplinary process’, in Proceedings of Solar
99, Geelong, Australia, 1999.
S.Coldicutt S. and T.J.Williamson , Design Guide for Energy Efficient Housing Adelaide, Department of Architecture ,
The University of Adelaide, 1986.
R.A.Hyde and A.Pedrini , ‘An architectural design tool (LTV) for nondomestic buildings in tropical and subtropical
regions: critique of the solar design strategies for energy efficiency,’ proceedings of the Solar 99 Conference, Geelong,
Australia, 1999, p. 52.
S.Szokolay , Climate Comfort and Energy, Architectural Science Unit, The Department of Architecture , The University
of Queensland, 1991, p. 16.
Z.Bromberek , ‘Passive climate control for tourist facilities in the coastal tropics’, unpublished PhD thesis, The
Department of Architecture, The University of Queensland, 1995, p. 237.
E.Harkness , Precast Concrete Energy – Cost-Effective Building Façades, The Precast Concrete Manufacturers
Association of New South Wales, 1987.
Baker and Steemers , op. cit., p. 273
R.A.Hyde , ‘An architectural energy conservation tool (LTV) for nondomestic buildings in subtropical and tropical
climates,’ presentation at the Australian Building Energy Council seminar on Energy Tools, Dec. 1999.
O.H.Keonigsberger et al, Manual of Tropical Flousing and Building, 1973, Longman, p. 23.
I.Edmunds , ‘Advanced glazing systems for subtropical and tropical climates’, unpublished paper, School of Physics,
Queensland University of Technology, 1997.
R.Aynsley , ‘Tropical daylighting strategies’, Australian Institute of Tropical Architecture, James Cook University,
unpublished paper, 1997, p. 1.
N.V.Baker , Energy and Environment in Non-domestic Buildings, Cambridge Architectural Research, 1994.
B.Givoni , Man, Climate and Architecture, Van Nostram Reinhold, 1969, p. 259.
Givoni , op. cit., Chapter 15.
R.A.Hyde and M.Docherty , Computer Simulation Study of Queensland Schools, Education Portfolio , Queensland State
Government, 1998.
R.Thomas , ed. Environmental Design, E&FN Spon, 1996, p. 119.
R.P.Parlour , Building Services: Engineering for Architects, 1994, Integral Publishing, p 1.
Parlour , op. cit., pp. 2–4.
R.de Dear and A.Auliciems , ‘Air-conditioning in Australia II – User Attitudes,’ Architectural Science Review, Vol. 31,
1998, pp. 19–27,.
de Dear , ‘Criteria for the management of indoor climates’, unpublished paper, the National University of Singapore.
De Dear and Auliciems , op. cit., pp. 19–27
De Dear and Auliciems , op. cit., pp. 19–27
Discussion with Professor Peter Woods on air-conditioning practice in hot humid climates.
R.Thomas , ed. op. cit., p. 120.
Parlour , op. cit., p. 4.
Parlour , op. cit., p. 4.
J.B.Jones et al, Energy Conscious Residential Design for a Tropical Isle, Guam Energy Office, 1989, p. 59.
T.J.Williamson and A.B.Coldicutt , ‘Comparisons of Performance of Conventional and Solar Houses – Computer
Simulation Study’, in Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineering Symposium on Solar Energy Utilisation in
Dwellings, Melbourne, 1974.
Jones et al, op. cit., p. 76.
R.Aynsley , ‘Cool Pools for Buildings in Warm Climates’, in Designing the Well Tempered Environment, ANZAScA
Conference, Perth, 1992, pp. 121–125.
Aynsley , op. cit., p. 124.
Aynsley , op. cit., p. 124.
Jones et al, op. cit., p. 77.

Building structure
M.Fry and J.Drew , Tropical Architecture in the Humid Zone, Batsford, 1956, p. 62.
B.N.Sandaker and P.Eggen , The Structural Basis of Architecture, Whitney Library of Design, 1992, 7, pp. 12–13.
A.Ogg , Architecture in Steel, the Australian Context, Royal Australian Institute of Architects, 1987, p. 222.
Sandaker and Eggen , op. cit., p. 12
Timber Research and Development Advisory Council of Queensland, Timber Framing Manual, W50, Queensland, 1990,
p. 7.
R.Aynsley et al, Architectural Aerodynamics, 1984, p. 116.
Bureau of Meteorology , Understanding Cyclones, Commonwealth of Australia , Global Press.
R.A.Hyde and M.Docherty , ‘Thermal performance of housing in the hot-humid tropics of Australia,’ Architectural
Science Review, 1997, 40, pp. 105–112.
Timber Research and Development Advisory Council of Queensland, op. cit., p. 18
Sandaker and Eggen , op. cit., pp. 16–17.
P.R.Skinner , ‘A Design Investigation of Critical Regionalism Theory: Light Timber Portal Housing for South East
Queensland’, unpublished PhD thesis, Department of Architecture, The University of Queensland, 1996, p. 99.
Skinner , op. cit., p. 103.
B.Saini and R.Joyce , The Australian Flouse, Lansdowne Press, 1988, p. 20
B.Saini and R.Joyce , The Australian Flouse, Lansdowne Press, 1988, p. 20
I.O.Koenigsberger et al, Manual of Tropical Housing and Building, Longman, 1973, p. 217.
Koenigsberger , op. cit., p. 219.
Fry and Drew , op. cit., p. 60.
R.A.Hyde , ‘Application of Composite Steel and Glue Laminated Timber to Skeletal Frame Housing Systems for Warm
Climates’, World Conference on Timber Engineering, Montreux, Switzerland, 1998, pp. 2–516.
Queensland Health , Shade for Public Pools, Guidelines for Shade Protection Against Ultraviolet Radiation at Outdoor
Public Pools, Bookmark Publishing, 1996, p. 22.

The building process

H.Fathy , Guest lecture to the School of Architecture, National University of Singapore, 1982.
Lim JeeYuan , The Malay House, Institute Masyarakat , 1987, Pulan Penang, p. 104.

The roof
Discussions with Professor Peter Woods, 1994.
B.Givoni , Man, Man, Climate and Architecture, Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1969, p. 156.
Givoni , op. cit., p. 158.
BHP , Roofing and Walling Manual, JohnLysaght (Australia), Sydney, pp. 38–39.
Design and Building of Energy Efficient Housing, papers presented at a seminar sponsored by the Energy Management
Sub-program of the Queensland Department of Resource Industries, internal publication, Queensland State
Government, Brisbane, 1992.
National Energy Research Unit , Roof Insulation Saves Cooling Energy, Research Bulletin, Solarch, the Univerity of
New South Wales, Sydney, 1998.
K.Harman , ed. Environmental Design Guide, Royal Australian Institute of Architects, Canberra, 1997, Pro7, p. 3.
Givoni , op. cit., p. 378.
J. R.Goulding , ed., et al, Energy Conscious Design, A primer for Architects, Department for Education, Architects and
Building Division , HMSO, London, 1992, p. 65.
M.Fiy and J.Drew , Tropical Architecture in the Humid Zone, Batsford, London, 1956, p. 56.
Discussion with Professor R. Aynsley, Principles and Practice Conference, Australian and New Zealand Architectural
Science Association, 1998.
Fourth year student project , Department of Architecture, The University of Queensland.
Givoni , op. cit., p. 153.
R.Powell , K.Yeang . The Rethinking the Environmental Filter, Landmark Books, Singapore, 1989, p. 15.
Spot measurements by the author.
Department of Education , Passive Design of Schools, HMSO, London, 1994, p. 32.
Lysaght Building Industries , The Referee, BHP, Sydney, 1988, p.73.
O. H.Koenigsberger et al, Manual of Tropical Housing, Longmans, 19, p. 199.
Lysaght Building Industries , op. cit., p. 72.
Lysaght Building Industries , op. cit., p. 74.
P.Drew , Leaves of Iron. Glen Murcutt, pioneer of an Australian architectural form, Sydney: Law Book, 1985.

The external wall

M.Fry and J.Drew , Tropical Architecture, Batsford, 1954, p. 56.
J. R.Goulding (ed) et al, Energy in Architecture. The European Passive Solar Handbook, Commission of the European
Community , The University of Dublin, 1993, p. 3.
N.Baker and T.C.Steemers , LT Method version 2.0, Cambridge Architectural Research, Martin Centre for Architectural
and Urban Studies , University of Cambridge.
N.Baker et al, Passive and Low Energy Design for Island Climates, Commonwealth Science Council , London, 1987.
Baker and Steemers , op. cit. p. 5.
E.L.Harkness , Precast Concrete Energy-Cost-Effective Building Façades, Precast Concrete Manufacturers Association
of New South Wales, Sydney, 1986, p. 2.
E.L.Harkness , Precast Concrete Energy-Cost-Effective Building Façades, Precast Concrete Manufacturers Association
of New South Wales, Sydney, 1986, p. 2.
V.Keneally , ‘An Introduction to Energy Efficiency in Air-conditioned Tropical Buildings’, Environmental Design Guide,
Royal Australian Institute of Architects, Canberra, 1997, Gen. 14. p. 2.
J.Greenland , Foundations of Architectural Science, University of Technology, Sydney, 1991, 3, p. 20.
J.Greenland , Foundations of Architectural Science, University of Technology, Sydney, 1991, 3, p. 20.
D.Button and B.Pye et al, Glass in Building, Pilkington Glass and Butterworth, Oxford, 1993, p.160.
Button and Pye et al, op. cit., p. 165.
C.Kabre , ‘Trends in Solar Glass Control in Contemporary Buildings,’ in Principles and Practice Conference, Australian
New Zealand Architectural Science Association, Department of Archicture, The University of Queensland, 1998, p. 18.
Harkness , op. cit., p. 5
Lim JeeYuan , The Malay House, Institut Masyarakat , Pulau Penang, 1987, pp. 71 and 111.
P.Holigan , ‘Energy Loads in Buildings,’ in Asean-Australian, Energy Cooperation Program, Energy Conservation
Program, Energy Management Centre, Gas and Fuel Corporation of Victoria, 1985, p. 6.
Kabre , op. cit., p. 22.
Button and Pye , op. cit., p. 154
B.Lim , ‘Energy-efficient House Design, Natural Ventilation and Sun Protection’ in Design and Building of Energy-
Efficient Houses, papers presented at a seminar sponsored by the Energy Management Sub-program of the
Queensland Department of Resource Industries, internal publication Queensland State Government, Brisbane, 1992.
N.Baker and K.Steemers , ‘Lt Method 3.0 - a Strategic Energy-Design Tool for Southern Europe.’ in Energy and
buildings, Vol. 23, 1996, pp. 254–255.
N.Baker and K.Steemers , ‘Lt Method 3.0 - a Strategic Energy-Design Tool for Southern Europe.’ in Energy and
buildings, Vol. 23, 1996, pp. 254–255.
Button and Pye , op cit., p. 174.
Baker and Steemers , op. cit., p. 255.
Fry and Drew , op. cit.
See Chapter 6 for details of lighting in verandas.
Floors and internal walls
L.Heschong , Thermal Delight in Architecture, MIT Press, 1979, p. 7.
M.Fry and J.Drew , Tropical Architecture in the Hot Humid Zone, Batsford, London, 1958, p. 58.
A.E.Delsante , ‘Building Materials: Heavyweight or Lightweight?’ in the Design and Building of Energy Efficient Houses,
papers presented at a seminar sponsored by the Energy Management Sub-program of the Queensland Department of
Resource Industries, internal publication Queensland State Government, Brisbane, 1992.
J.R.Goulding (ed) et al, Energy in Architecture. The European Passive Solar Handbook, Commission of the European
Community, 1993, p. 78
Energy Victoria , ‘Thermal Insulation in Domestic Buildings for Temperate Climates: An Introduction,’ Environmental
Design Guide, 1996, Pro 7, p. 3
R.A.Hyde and M.Docherty , ‘Climatic Design in the Hot Humid Tropics: A study of housing in the “Top End” of Australia’,
in Proceedings of the 30th Conference of the Australian and New Zealand Architectural Science Association
Conference, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, July 1996, pp. 41–50.
R.A.Hyde , ‘Thermal Performance of Innovative Lightweight Construction Systems: “Building Response in the
Queensland Climate”, in Proceedings, Ecological Perspectives and Teaching Architectural Science, ANZAScA
Conference, Canberra, Australia, 1995, pp. 171–179.
ERDAC Final Study Report , Tropical Buildings Innovation Program: Phase 1, Energy Research and Development
Corporation, Canberra, 1997.

The veranda
P.Drew , Veranda Embracing Place, Angus Robinson, Pymble, Australia, 1992, p. 4.
Drew op. cit., p. 3.
Drew op. cit., Appendix A.
Drew op. cit., Appendix A. p. 47.
Drew op. cit., Appendix A. p. 53.
‘Rippled Soul’, in Steel Profile, BHP Steel, Melbourne, No. 42, December, 1992, p. 14.
R.A.Hyde and M.Docherty , ‘Thermal Performance of Housing in the Hot Humid Tropics of Australia’, Architectural
Science Review, 1997, Vol. 40, pp. 105–112.
Drew op. cit. p. 216.
Lim JeeYuan , The Malay House, Institute Masyarakat, Pulau Penang, 1987, p. 24.

Courtyards
L.Heschong , Thermal Delight in Architecture, MIT Press. 1979, p. 45.
P.Gurstein ,‘Traditional Shop Houses of Peninsular Malaysia,’ UIA International 6, London 1984, pp. 21–22.
B.Givoni , Man, Climate and Architecture, Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1976, p. 305.
Givoni op. cit., p. 294.
L.Vogt , New Orleans Houses, Pelican Publishing, Gretena, Louisiana, 1992, pp. 22–23.
B.Y.Sullivan , ‘Living in Hong Kong: A Typological Study of Living Patterns in Small Flats’, Proceedings of the European
Conference, American Collegiate Society of Architects, London, May 1994, p. 1.
B.Y.Sullivan , ‘Inhabiting Public Housing in Hong Kong’, unpublished paper, Department of Architecture, Chinese
University of Hong Kong, 1994, pp. 2–4.
D.Cronin , ‘Investigation into the Dynamics of Waste Air Dispersal from High-rise Residences’, in Proceedings of 30th
Conference, Australian New Zealand, Architectural Science Conference, The Chinese University of Hong Kong 1996,
pp. 85–92.
R.Salleh , ‘Wind ventilation of terrace housing in Malaysia,’ in Proceedings of Towards Better Buildings in the Tropics,
Institute Sultan Iskandar-Universiti Technologi Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur, 1994.
C.Able , ‘Cool high-rise’, Architectural Review, September 1994, pp. 23–29.
R.Aynesley , ‘Natural Ventilation in Passive Design,’ Environmental Design Guide, Royal Australian Institute of
Architects, 1996, TEC 2: 5.
B.Lim , Environmental Design Criteria of Tall Buildings, Lehigh University Bethlehem, Pennsylvania 1994, p. 218.