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Psychology

Multicultural Families and Creative Children

Jen-Ho Chang, Chin-Chun Hsu, Nai-Hua Shih and Hsueh-Chih Chen
Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology 2014 45: 1288 originally published online 5 June 2014
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JCCXXX10.1177/0022022114537556Journal of Cross-Cultural PsychologyChang et al.

Article
Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology
2014, Vol. 45(8) 1288­–1296
Multicultural Families and Creative © The Author(s) 2014
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DOI: 10.1177/0022022114537556
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Jen-Ho Chang1, Chin-Chun Hsu1, Nai-Hua Shih1,

and Hsueh-Chih Chen1

Abstract
The link between multicultural experience and creativity is consistently supported by many
empirical studies. However, most of these results are limited to adult participants with foreign
living experience. The present study extended previous studies and investigated the positive
relationship between multicultural experience and creativity in Taiwan young adolescents
living in binational families. With more than 700 young adolescents, the results showed that
young adolescents from binational families had parents with lower socioeconomic status than
monocultural families. However, young adolescents from binational families performed better
on creativity tests (fluency, flexibility, and originality) than those from monocultural families.
In addition, when variables of family background and young adolescents’ personalities were
controlled for, the effect of binational families on creativity remained. The implications for
research on multicultural families and young adolescents’ creative performance are discussed.

Keywords
multiculturalism, binational families, creativity

Introduction
Current studies have revealed that multicultural experience can enhance creative performance
(for reviews, see Crisp & Turner, 2011; Leung, Maddux, Galinsky, & Chiu, 2008). For example,
compared with monocultural individuals, bicultural individuals performed better in multiple cre-
ative dimensions, including fluency, flexibility, and novelty (Maddux, Adam, & Galinsky, 2010;
Tadmor, Galinsky, & Maddux, 2012). In addition, Maddux and Galinsky (2009) observed that
living abroad was positively correlated with creativity and even controlled personality traits.
Moreover, students who studied abroad also performed better on creativity tasks (Lee, Therriault,
& Linderholm, 2012), and this effect was also replicated in expatriates compared with non-
expatriates (Fee & Gray, 2012). On the other hand, by using experimental manipulation, Leung
and Chiu’s (2010) research showed that primed individuals with dual cultural icons spontane-
ously (e.g., Chinese and American pictures, music, and videos) had better creative performances
than those primed with single cultural icons or an unprimed group. These results consistently
support the idea that multicultural experiences directly influence creative performance.

1National Taiwan Normal University, Taipei, Taiwan

Corresponding Author:
Hsueh-Chih Chen, Department of Educational Psychology and Counseling, National Taiwan Normal University,
Room 612, 162, Heping East Road Section 1, Taipei, Taiwan.
Email: chcjyh@ntnu.edu.tw

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Chang et al. 1289

However, most of these results were shown in adult participants who had personal foreign
living experience, therefore, ignoring the possibility that the relationship between multicultural
experience and creative performance could appear in young individuals, such as children and
young adolescents. In addition, based on the original definition of multicultural experience, the
definition of multicultural experience was not only restricted to foreign living experience but also
included connections to any type of multicultural information. Leung et al. (2008) use the term
multicultural experience “to refer to all direct and indirect experiences of encountering or inter-
acting with the elements and/or members of foreign cultures” (p. 169). Therefore, living abroad
is not necessary to absorb and interact with multicultural experiences. To resolve the two main
limitations discussed above, the current study aimed to investigate the positive relationship
between multicultural experience and creativity in young adolescents. In addition, the benefit of
focusing on young adolescents could provide more information to know whether the link between
multicultural experiences to creativity could be appeared or not in the early stage of human
development, as compared with focusing on adult participants. Specifically, we focused on the
multicultural home environment as a source for multicultural experience rather than an individ-
ual’s personal experience living abroad. We assumed that young adolescents from multicultural
families (parents from different nations) would have better creative performances than those
from monocultural families (parents from the same nation).
Because of globalization, multicultural experience not only occurs on an individual level
through multicultural information but also on a dyadic level by encountering other individuals,
which increases the possibility of “intermarriages.” This intermarriage refers to the term bina-
tional family, which indicates family partners born and raised in different nations. Cross and
Gilly (2013) supposed that children from binational families would be raised with multicultural
information and therefore enhance their creativity; however, they did not provide direct evidence
to confirm their perspective. To address the underline psychological processes that multicultural
family enhance child creative performance, we take Crisp and Turner’s (2011) perspective, they
proposed that individuals immersed in cultural diverse stimulus can provide many opportunities
to challenge their mindset (e.g., stereotypes). With repeated exposure to diverse stimuli, indi-
viduals could engage in the process to solve this inconsistent information, therefore bringing out
the process that integrated different ideas within themselves. This integrating process could be
indicated by individuals’ cognitive complexity, that is, individuals can hold opposing or different
elements within themselves. Corresponding with Crisp and Turner’s (2011) perspective, research
conducted by Benet-Martinez, Lee, and Leu (2006) showed that bicultural individuals had higher
cognitive complexities than monocultural individuals for interpreting different cultural informa-
tion. Therefore, bicultural individuals can enhance their creative performance through interaction
with different cultural information to broaden their integrative complexity (Tadmor et al., 2012;
Tadmor & Tetlock, 2006).
If there is a positive link between multicultural experience and creativity in young adolescents
of binational families, then this result not only enlarges the scope of previous studies restricted
by adult participants with foreign living experience but also provides empirical evidence to con-
firm Cross and Gilly’s (2013) perspective, namely, that children of binational families have a
direct creative advantage. Moreover, most of these studies were conducted in Western countries
(e.g., America), ignoring the possibility the link between multiculturalism and creativity could
reveal in other non-Western countries. Therefore, in the current study, we recruited our partici-
pants in an Eastern country, namely Taiwan, which has an increasing rate of intercultural mar-
riage. A recent survey showed that in 2012, the intercultural marriage in Taiwan was 14% of the
total newly married population (Ministry of Interior in Taiwan, 2013b), and the children born in
binational families from 2002 to 2012 were close to 10% of the total child population (Ministry
of Interior in Taiwan, 2013a). In addition, recent survey in Taiwan also showed that binational
families lived in relatively poor socioeconomic environments, and their children also had worse

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1290 Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology 45(8)

academic performance and psychological adjustments compared with monocultural families

(Ministry of Education in Taiwan, 2005). Therefore, our study also tried to provide a bright side
for young adolescents living in binational families in Taiwan, and even if they might have poten-
tial disadvantage with lower socioeconomic status of their growth environment as compared with
monocultural families, their multicultural home environment could provide more fruitful and
diverse information and therefore enhance their creative performance.
To address the idea that young adolescents living in binational families are more creative than
those living in monocultural families in Taiwan, we used a standardized creativity measurement
and then controlled several possible influential variables. In addition, we controlled both intrap-
ersonal and background factors that might influence creativity. For the intrapersonal level, open-
ness to experience and conscientiousness that is based on the big five personality perspective
could be influential factors affecting creativity (Feist, 1998; McCrae & John, 1992). Previous
studies showed that openness to experience and extraversion positively correlated with creative
performance, whereas conscientiousness and agreeableness were negatively correlated (Feist,
1998; George & Zhou, 2001; McCrae, 1987). To rule out the effect of big five personality on
creativity, we would compare the mean level of big five personality in young adolescents from
monocultural and binational families, and then control the effect on creativity. With regard to
young adolescent home background factors that might influence creativity, Dai et al. (2012)
observed that teenagers who had richer families or parents with higher educational levels had
higher creative performance levels than teenagers who had poorer families or parents with lower
education levels. In addition, the number of siblings (Baer, Oldham, Hollingshead, & Jacobsohn,
2005) in child’s birth order (Eisenman & Schussel, 1970) and gender (Lin, Hsu, Chen, & Wang,
2012) could also influence their creative performance. To investigate the relationship between
young adolescents of binational families and creativity, to be more convinced, the present study
would measure young adolescents’ personalities and their family background variables as men-
tioned above to control their effects on creative performance. We hypothesized that young ado-
lescents from binational families would perform better on creativity tests than those from
monocultural families, and the effect remained even when controlling for the adolescents’ per-
sonalities and their family background factors.

Method
Participants
Through the Child and Family Study of the National Science Council and the Ministry of
Education in Taiwan, 710 young adolescents were recruited from 15 junior high schools based
on the geographical distribution in Taiwan, ranging from seventh to ninth grade. Two hundred
ninety young adolescents were from binational families, and 420 young adolescents were from
monocultural families. The adolescents from binational families were paired with adolescents
from monocultural families in the identical class to reduce sampling bias. Binational families
were defined as parents who came from different countries. With regard to binational family’s
parents, most of these families had a Taiwanese father (88.4%). In addition, most of the foreign
mother or father was born in Southeast Asian (included Philippines, Myanmar, Thailand,
Vietnam, Malaysia, Kampuchea, and Indonesia, n = 218), East Asian (include Japan, Korean,
and Mainland China, n = 67), and the others (included some Westerner countries, n = 5). With
regard to binational family, the parents’ born countries and the non-Chinese parent is father or
mother did not influence their child’s creativity in the present study, Fs < .19, ps > .14. Therefore,
we omitted these variables in further analysis. All the adolescents from binational and monocul-
tural families lived with their parents. Each adolescent completed his or her demographic infor-
mation, included numbers of siblings, birth order (1 = born first, 2 = second, 3 = third, . . ., etc.),

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Chang et al. 1291

Table 1.  The Demographics of the Two Groups.

Binational families Monocultural families

(n = 290) (n = 420)
Gender (female %) 50.0  49.8
Age 13.22 (0.91) 13.19 (0.91)
Siblings 1.89 (1.18) 1.98 (1.09)
Birth order 1.78 (0.83)a 1.54 (0.93)b
Father ethnicity (born in Taiwan %) 88.4 100.0
Mother ethnicity (born in Taiwan %) 11.6 100.0
Socioeconomic status 2.62 (1.28)a 2.91 (1.39)b
Father educational level 3.08 (0.96) 3.19 (0.88)
Mother educational level 2.97 (0.93) 3.01 (0.91)
Openness to experience 4.47 (0.97) 4.38 (0.91)
Extraversion 4.61 (1.13) 4.69 (1.14)
Agreeableness 5.08 (0.83) 5.05 (0.88)
Emotional stability 4.24 (0.93) 4.16 (0.96)
Conscientiousness 3.78 (0.93) 3.83 (0.91)

Note. The standard deviations are provided in parentheses. Within a row, means with different superscripts are
significantly different (p < .05).

parents’ educational level, and socioeconomic status, and then completed their personality
inventory and creativity test. The participants rated their parents’ educational level on a 5-point
scale ranging from 1 = primary school, 2 = junior high school, 3 = high school, 4 = college or
university, 5 = graduate school. The socioeconomic status of the young adolescent’s family was
a standardized index based on their parents’ occupation level of Taiwan social context and was
then transformed into five levels, ranging from 1 = lowest to 5 = highest (Huang, 2003). The two
groups differed in socioeconomic status, in which monocultural families had a significantly
higher socioeconomic status than binational families, as determined by a Levene’s test with
equal variances not assumed, t(652.22) = −2.94, p = .003, d = .23, and birth order, t(708) = 3.58,
p < .003, d = .28, in which monocultural families had a significantly higher birth order than
binational families, and the other demographic variables were not significantly different, ps >
.10, as reported in Table 1.

Measurements
New version of the Chinese Creative Thinking Test.  Wu et al. (1999) modified Torrance’s (1974)
Test of Creative Thinking into Chinese version that participants were shown many differently
sized versions of the Chinese character “人,” which indicates human, and were provided 10 min
to draw as many creative figures with “人” as a part of the figure. Three indices were assessed:
(a) fluency (the number of responses), (b) flexibility (the number of response categories), and (c)
originality (unusual responses). The scores of the new version of the Chinese creative thinking
test were derived by the standardized grading norms by Wu et al. (1999) and showed high inter-
rater reliability (rs > .94, ps < .001) and test–retest reliability (rs = .42~.60, ps < .001). In addi-
tion, these subscales positively correlated with Torrance Test of Creative Thinking–Figural
version (rs = .57~.75, ps < .001) in a large sample composed of more than 2,000 participants,
including children and adults (Wu et al., 1999). In the present study, two independent trained
raters, blind to the participant’s background information, revealed high consistency in all indices,
rs = .91~.99, ps < .001.

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1292 Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology 45(8)

Figure 1.  The creative performances of young adolescents from binational and monocultural families.
Note. The error bars represent ±1 SE.

Chinese Mini-Marker Scale.  We used the Mini-Marker Scale (Saucier, 1994) to measure young
adolescent’s personality. This scale had great reliability and validity to capture the big five per-
sonality traits: extroversion, contentiousness, agreeableness, openness to experience, and emo-
tional stability. The participants rated how well each adjective described them on a 7-point
Likert-type scale (from 1 = not at all to 7 = very well) for 40 items (8 items for each subscale).
The Chinese version of the Mini-Marker scale showed acceptable internal and test–retest reli-
ability and revealed the identical factor structure as the English version (Shih & Chuang, 2012;
Teng, Tseng, Li, & Yu, 2011). Cronbach’s alphas in the present study were .76 for extroversion,
.73 for contentiousness, .70 for agreeableness, .60 for openness to experience, and .78 for emo-
tional stability.

Results
The intercorrelations were high among fluency, flexibility, and originality, rs = .59~.81, ps < .001.
Therefore, we used a MANOVA to control for variance and revealed that young adolescents from
binational families had higher creative performances in fluency, F(1, 708) = 11.36, p = .001, ηp2 =
.02; flexibility, F(1, 708) = 4.60, p = .03, ηp2 = .01; and originality, F(1, 708) = 6.01, p = .02, ηp2 =
.01, compared with young adolescents from monocultural families, as illustrated in Figure 1.
However, the big five personality traits did not differ in young adolescents from binational
and monocultural families, ps > .10, as shown in Table 1. Corresponding with previous results,
openness to experience and extraversion were positively correlated with all creative indices,
whereas conscientiousness was negatively correlated with all creative indices. In addition, socio-
economic status of an adolescent’s family was positively correlated with originality, and the
mother’s educational level was positively correlated with fluency, as shown in Table 2. Therefore,
we conducted a MANOVA with young adolescents’ age, gender, siblings, birth order, socioeco-
nomic status of the family, parents’ educational levels, and all five personality traits as covariates.
The results showed that young adolescents from binational families performed better in fluency
(mean adjusted: binational families = 13.31 vs. monocultural families = 11.93), F(1, 696) =
10.49, p = .001, ηp2 = .02, flexibility (mean adjusted: binational families = 8.95 vs. monocultural
families = 8.38), F(1, 696) = 4.27, p = .04, ηp2 = .01, and originality (mean adjusted: binational
families = 9.69 vs. monocultural families = 8.52), F(1, 696) = 6.68, p = .01, ηp2 = .01, than young
adolescents in monocultural families. This analysis provided further support for our central

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Chang et al. 1293

Table 2.  Measurement Correlations in Total Participants (n = 710), Young Adolescents From Binational
Family (n = 290) and Monocultural Family (n = 420).

Fluency Flexibility Originality

Family background variables
 Age −.01/−.03/.01 −.01/−.01/−.01 −.06/.01/−.06
  Gender (female = 0, male = 1) −.07*/−.08/−.10* −.03/.10/−.08 −.08*/−.05/−.04
 Siblings −.03/.01/−.03 −.06/−.02/−.07 −.03/−.04/−.01
  Birth order −.02/−.02/−.03 −.06/.02/−.06 −.01/−.03/.02
  Mother born in Taiwana .03a .01a .06a
  Socioeconomic status .05/−.02/.14** .07/.03/.13** .10**/.10/.12**
  Father’s educational level .03/.03/.05 .04/.01/.08 .06/.07/.07
  Mother’s educational level .09*/.06/.12* .05/.03/.08 .07*/.07/.09
Personality variables
  Openness to experience .27**/.37**/.23** .26**/.32**/.19** .22**/.18**/.26**
 Extraversion .11*/.10/.13** .12**/.11/.15** .07*/.02/.15**
 Agreeableness .06/.01/.10* .03/.01/.04 .06/.01/.11*
  Emotional stability .02/.02/.02 .01/.03/−.01 −.01/.02/−.03
 Conscientiousness −.12**/−.16**/−.08 −.11**/−.15**/−.06 −.08*/−.08/−.09

Note. The coefficients from left to right in each cell represent the correlations of total participants, young adolescents
from binational family, and from monocultural family, respectively.
aBecause parents from monocultural families were all born in Taiwan, only correlations with mother born in Taiwan

(dummy code: father born in Taiwan = 0, mother born in Taiwan = 1) were examined in the binational family.
*p < .05. **p < .01.

hypothesis, namely, young adolescents raised in binational families had better creative perfor-
mances than those from monocultural families.

Discussion
The present study with a large and representative sample provided initial support that young
adolescents from multicultural families were more creative than those from monocultural fami-
lies. Moreover, this effect remained when controlling for the adolescents’ family background
factors and their personality traits. To increase the application of recent perspectives and results
(Leung et al., 2008; Tadmor & Tetlock, 2006), our study observed that the effect of multicultural
experiences on creativity could not only occur in adulthood but also during childhood and ado-
lescence. Most importantly, this effect was not restricted to individuals who lived abroad, and
could occur on a family level in the home environment, namely, binational parents influence their
child’s creativity using multicultural information.
Recent studies and surveys showed that multicultural families live in relatively poor socioeco-
nomic environments, and their children also had worse psychological adjustments compared
with monocultural families. These effects were consistently revealed across the United States and
Taiwan (Ministry of Education in Taiwan, 2005; Pearce-Morris & King, 2012). Consistent with
these results, our results also revealed that binational families had relatively low socioeconomic
statuses than monocultural families. However, young adolescents from binational families had
better creative performances than monocultural families, and this advantage remained prominent
when controlling for personality, socioeconomic status, and parental educational level. Along
similar lines, Engel de Abreu, Cruz-Santos, Tourinho, Martin, and Bialystok (2012) observed a
stable cognitive control benefit in bilingual children living in poorer home environments com-
pared with monolingual children living with richer families. Compared with Engel de Abreu et

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1294 Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology 45(8)

al. (2012), our study had a relatively large sample size of young adolescents and echoed their
results that young adolescents from relatively low socioeconomic binational families benefit
creatively from their multicultural environment.
Despite the general result that adolescents from binational families had better creative perfor-
mance than those from monocultural families, some limitations emphasize the importance of
future investigations. It was mentioned above that bilingualism enhances cognitive flexibility
and creativity. Previous studies have shown that bilingual individuals were more creative than
monolinguals (Cushen & Wiley, 2011). Other studies have also indicated that bilinguals cre-
atively outperform monolinguals, which can be explained by bilinguals’ superior attention abili-
ties (Kharkhurin, 2011). Because our study did not measure adolescents’ bilingual mastery of
their parents’ native languages, further studies are necessary to differentiate or integrate the rela-
tionship between bicultural experience and bilingual ability. In addition, the percentage of
Taiwanese fathers is 88.4% in the bicultural sample; within this unequal distribution, our results
cannot be completely generalized to bicultural families with Taiwanese mothers. Further studies
are needed to include more young adolescents from bicultural families with Taiwanese mothers.
However, with regard to the effect of macro level, further studies could also examine the effect
on environmental and contextual factors, for instance, ratio of binational versus monocultural
individuals in each school, and profiles (e.g., regular program vs. academic oriented) of target
schools. Combining all the variables in the further studies can provide a global picture of their
relationships and underlying mechanisms of the link between multiculturalism and creativity at
both the micro and the macro levels.

Conclusion
The study of multicultural experience and creativity is new, particularly in children and young
adolescents. Our results suggest many opportunities for further investigation. Although the pres-
ent study observed a reliably beneficial effect of binational parents on adolescents’ creative per-
formance, the mechanism underlying this benefit remains unclear. Future studies are necessary
to further understand the relationship between multicultural experience and creativity.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or
publication of this article.

Funding
The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publi-
cation of this article: This research is partially supported by the “Aim for the Top University Project” and
“Center of Learning Technology for Chinese” of National Taiwan Normal University (NTNU), sponsored
by the Ministry of Education, Taiwan, R.O.C. and the “International Research-Intensive Center of
Excellence Program” of NTNU and Ministry of Science and Technology, Taiwan, R.O.C. under Grant no.
NSC 103-2911-I-003-301 and 99-2511-S-003-036-MY3.

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