# COOLANT TEMPERATURE SENSOR:

It is one type of temperature sensor used to measure temperature of the

engine coolant. Hence it is known as coolant sensor or engine coolant
temperature (ECT) sensor. It is mounted into cylinder head of the engine. It is
used to turn on cooling fan or activate emission controls.

☆ Working of coolant temperature sensor;

Let us understand working of Coolant Temperature sensor.

➤As mentioned it is NTC type of sensor. Hence resistance drops when the
temperature increases and resistance increases when temperature decreases.

➤Due to above property of the coolant sensor, its voltage drops (due to
decrease in internal resistance) as engine warms up or reaches to operating
temperature. Moreover voltage increases when engine is cold. This is shown in
the curve.
➤As mentioned 5V is connected from PCM to one pin of the sensor and return
GND pin back to PCM. Due to change in resistance, voltage gets changed which
returns to PCM. This returned voltage is used by PCM to calculate the coolant
temperature.
➤The calcution is being applied as per application in the engine to switch ON
fan or to activate other emission controls.
# MANIFOLD ABSOLUTE PRESSURE (MAP) SENSOR:
A MAP (Manifold Absolute Pressure) sensor is an automotive component that
measures the air pressure inside the intake manifold of an engine. This
information helps the engine control unit (ECU) determine the optimal air-fuel
mixture for combustion. By monitoring the pressure changes in the intake
manifold, the MAP sensor assists in adjusting fuel injection and ignition timing,
ultimately enhancing engine performance and fuel efficiency.

☆ Working of MAP sensor;

The MAP sensor is an input sensor which detects an engine load and provides a
signal which is proportional to the sum of vacuum. After that, an engine
computer utilizes this data to alter explosion timing & fuel enhancement.
Whenever the engine works hard, ingestion vacuum falls because of the
throttle releases wide. The engine utilizes more air or more fuel to maintain
the air or the fuel ratio instability. In fact, once the computer examines a load
signal from the sensor, usually it makes the blend of fuel go somewhat richer
than regular thus the engine can generate extra power.
Simultaneously, the computer will hold up explosion timing a little to stop
ignition that can harm the engine & its performance. Whenever conditions
modify as well as the vehicle is traveling with below light load, and then low
power is required from the engine.

The choke cannot open extremely wide otherwise may be blocked to cause
intake vacuum to enhance. The MAP sensor detects this & the computer reacts
by leaning-out the blend of fuel to decrease fuel use & enhances ignition
timing for squeezing somewhat fuel economy outside the engine.

☆ features of MAP sensor;

1. Measurement Range: The sensor should have a wide measurement

range, typically from 0 to 5 volts, in order to accurately measure the
pressure difference between the intake manifold and atmospheric
pressure.
2. Accuracy: The MAP sensor should provide accurate readings even under
varying engine load conditions. This is necessary for the engine control
module to make precise adjustments to the air-fuel ratio and ignition
timing.
☆ Advantages and disadvantages of Coolant sensor;

Following are the advantages of Coolant Sensors:

• They just require two wire measurement of resistance in ohms.
• They provide fast response.
• They are very sensitive and provides large output change based on input
temperature.
• They are more accurate compare to RTDs and thermocouples.
• They are inexpensive and available in small sizes.
Following are the disadvantages of Coolant Sensors:
• They have limited temperature range.
• They require current source for its operation.
• They are fragile.
• The output is non-linear function.
• They gets self heated. In order to limit the self heating error, care must be
taken to limit the sensing current to lower value.
 1. Durability: The sensor needs to be durable enough to withstand the
harsh operating conditions of an internal combustion engine, including
heat, vibration, and exposure to contaminants.
2. Response Time: A fast response time is critical for the sensor to provide
accurate readings in real time. Slow response times can cause delays in
the ECM's response to changes in engine load.
☆ MAP Sensor Applications;
MAP sensors are used in a variety of applications where accurate measurement
of intake manifold pressure is required. Some common applications include:
Fuel Injection Systems: MAP sensors are used to provide input data to the
engine control module to determine the correct fuel/air mixture ratio for
optimal performance and fuel efficiency.
Turbocharger and Supercharger Control: In turbocharged or supercharged
engines, MAP sensors are used to monitor the boost pressure and help control
the amount of air entering the engine.
EGR Valve Control: Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR) valves are used to reduce
emissions by recirculating exhaust gases back into the engine. MAP sensors are
often used to measure the pressure difference across the EGR valve and help
regulate its operation.
Transmission Shift Pressure Control: In automatic transmissions, MAP sensors
are often used to measure the intake manifold pressure and help control the
shift points for smoother shifting.
# VEHICLE SPEED SENSOR:
A vehicle speed sensor, often referred to as a VSS, is a component in a vehicle's
drivetrain that measures the speed of the vehicle. It typically utilizes a sensor,
like a Hall-effect sensor or a magnetic pickup, to detect the rotation of a
designated part, such as the transmission output shaft or a wheel.

☆ Working / types of speed sensor; ( working bhanepaxi pani yei lekhni types
bhanepaxi pani yei lekhni)

a. Hall Effect Sensor:

Hall Effect sensors are highly sensitive to magnetic fields. They can be used to
measure linear and rotary as well as for speed and direction sensing. The main
component of these sensors is the Hall IC and the permanent magnet.
b. Inductive Sensor:
An inductive Encoder also known as an Incoder, is a contactless speed and
positioning sensor suitable for linear and angular displacements. Based on the
electromagnetic induction principle the sensor measures. Main components of
an inductive sensor are spools or printed circuits on board.
c. Optical sensor:
Optical sensors are usually known as encoders and incremental position
sensors for measuring angular and linear. They are also suitable for speed
measurement. Main components are an LED, a optical disk with a reference
mark, and as a photo sensor with a squaring circuit. 
D. Reed switch:
The reed switch can only detect the end position of a target, further it can be
used as a speed sensor as it counts switching operation over time. The
switching mechanism of the reed switch consists of two ferromagnetic blades
which are separated by a small gap. 
e. Potentiometers:
Potentiometers use a resistive element in the form of a mechanical sliding
contact for measuring linear or angular displacements. The slider is always in
contact with a resistance path. The extent of resistance changes according to
the movement of the slider.
# INTAKE AIR TEMPERATURE SENSOR:
An intake air temperature sensor is a device used in vehicles and engines to
measure the temperature of the incoming air that is being drawn into the
engine's combustion chamber. This information is crucial for the engine control
unit (ECU) to adjust the air-fuel mixture and ignition timing, optimizing the
engine's performance and efficiency. The sensor helps prevent issues like poor
combustion, excessive emissions, and potential damage to the engine.

☆ Working of IATS;

The intake air temperature sensor typically uses an electronic component

called a thermistor. This thermistor resistance value will change according to
changes in air temperature around it.

Mostly, the IAT sensor is used the Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC)
thermistor type, a thermistor in which the value ratio between the air
temperature and the resistance value has an inverse ratio.

An inverse ratio for IAT sensor means, the higher the air temperature that
enters the intake manifold, the lower the thermistor's resistance value. Vice
versa, the lower the temperature of the air that enters the intake manifold, the
higher the resistance value in the thermistor.
☆ Applications of speed sensor;
1.Automotive:
The applications of speed sensors in the automobile industry are innumerable,
in particular Crankshaft, Transmission speed, Engine speed, dynamometers,
and Performance vehicles, speed and position monitoring. 
2.Aviation/Aerospace:
The sensor is used to control and monitor the fan control, solenoid, test
equipment, antenna, engine control and switches.
3.Railroad:
Locomotive Speed control, Diesel engines, Transmission, Switches. Typically
magnetic speed sensors used for speed control of the diesel engines. There are
also some Hall Effect applications such as proximity switches for control
systems.
4.Power generation:
Gen-sets, Panels, Diesel engines, Power turbines, Wind Mills. Hall Effect speed
sensors are used for measuring the speed of the flywheel.
# DIFFERENTIAL PARTICULATE FILTER (DPF) SENSOR:
A diesel particulate filter (DPF) differential pressure sensor measures exhaust
backpressure and signals when the power-train control module (PCM) should
begin a regeneration process to clear the filter of diesel particulate matter
(DPM), or soot. The DPF differential pressure sensor plays an important role in
keeping the DPF functioning properly.

☆ Working of DPF;
The DPF differential pressure sensor is usually mounted in the engine
compartment to protect it from heat. The sensor is connected to the engine
control unit (ECU) by an electrical connector and connected to the DPF via two
silicon hoses. One hose connects before (upstream) the DPF, the other
connects after (downstream) the filter. By measuring and comparing the
difference in pressure of the exhaust gas before and after the filter, the sensor
can estimate the amount of DPM that is trapped in the filter and signal the
PCM to start the DPF regeneration process. 

☆ Benefits of DPF;
1. Reduced engine fuel consumption through optimized regeneration
intervals and duration
2. Advanced filter diagnostics with powerful particulate
filter measurement capabilities on the vehicle
3. Decreased warranty claims via more precise feedback control of
particulate filter operation
4. Lower maintenance costs by measuring ash directly, cleaning the
particulate filter only when needed
5. Extend component life by minimizing high temperature regenerations