Mathematics for Economics

ECON106

1
 Why study Mathematics?
• Understanding mathematics enhances the
understanding of economics especially when
dealing with arguments that have been
formalised and developed into theories.
Complex ideas and interrelationships can be
expressed in precise ways. If we want to know
how variables interact then we have to use
mathematical models.

2
 Example

• Suppose the government intends to resettle

people. It will need a model that will show;
– how many people it is possible to resettle, i.e.
what effect the resettlement programme will
have on the economy.
– How employment is affected and the subsequent
chain reaction and effect on leading sectors can all
be expressed and quantified using mathematical
models.

3
 Algebra
• By the end of this section, students should be
able to;
– Understand the number system
– Work out problems involving integer and fractional
powers
– Expand and simplify algebraic expressions including
fractional expressions.
– Apply exponential functions to the time value of
money
– Factorise expressions
– Rationalise denominators of expressions with root
signs in the denominator.
4
 Algebra

• Real number System

• The Natural Numbers
• The natural (or counting) numbers are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, etc. There are infinitely many
natural numbers. The set of natural numbers is sometimes written N for short.
• The sum of any two natural numbers is also a natural number (for example,
4 + 2000 = 2004), and the product of any two natural numbers is a natural number
(4 × 2000 = 8000). This is not true for subtraction and division, though.
• The Integers (whole numbers)
• The integers are the set of real numbers consisting of the natural numbers, their
additive inverses and zero. The set of integers is sometimes written J or Z for short.
The sum, product, and difference of any two integers is also an integer. The positive
integers, together with o and the negative integers make up the integers 0, 1, 2…
The integers can be represented on a number line.
• But this is not true for division... try 1 ÷ 2.

5
 The Rational Numbers

• The rational numbers are those numbers which can be expressed as a ratio
between two integers. For example, the fractions 1/3 and –1111/8 are both
rational numbers. All the integers are included in the rational numbers,
since any integer z can be written as the ratio z/1.
• All decimals which terminate are rational numbers (since 8.27 can be
written as 827/100.) Decimals which have a repeating pattern after some
point are also rationals: for example,
• 0.083333333... = 1/12.
• The set of rational numbers is closed under all 4 basic operations, that is,
given any two rational numbers, their sum, difference, product, and
quotient is also a rational number (as long as we don't divide by 0.) Note
that 0/0 is not defined as any real number. For example, if a car requires 60
litres of fuel to go 600 kilometres, then its fuel consumption is 60/600 = 10
litres per 100 kilometres. However, if told that a car uses 0 litres of fuel to
go 0 kilometres, we know nothing about its fuel consumption: and
therefore 0/0 is completely undefined.

6
 The Irrational Numbers

• An irrational number is a number that cannot be

written as a ratio (or fraction). In decimal form, it
never ends or repeats. The ancient Greeks discovered
that not all numbers are rational; there are equations
that cannot be solved using ratios of integers.
• The first such equation to be studied was 2 = x2. What
number times itself equals 2?
• is about 1.414, because 1.4142 = 1.999396, which is
close to 2. But you'll never hit exactly by squaring a
fraction (or terminating decimal). The square root of 2
is an irrational number, meaning its decimal equivalent
goes on forever, with no repeating pattern:

7
• An Irrational number cannot be written as a
b
It is a non periodic decimal,
• e.g.  = 3.141592, 2 = 1.313213 , 3 = 1.442249
• Rational and irrational numbers = real
numbers

8
 Exercise
True/False
1. 4212 is a natural number.
2. -1/4 is rational.
3. All rational number are real.
4. -7 is greater than -6.
5. All natural numbers are rational.
6. -2 is a natural number.
7. 3.1415 is not rational,
8. the sum of two irrational numbers is irrational.
9. Explain why the infinite decimal expansion
1.01001000100001000001....... is not a rational number.

9
 Integer powers
• The expression an reads as “a to the power
n” in which case a is any number (base) and
n is a natural number (exponent)
• Such that an =a.a.----a for “n” factors.

10
 Properties of exponents
• an  am = an + m
an
• am
= a n−m

• (an )m = an m
• (a b)n = an bn
• a0 = 1
• 0a is undefined

11
 Example 1
• Given y2z−3 = 3. Find y−6z9 and
• 3y4z−6 + 2(y−6z9 )−1
• Solution: y−6z9 = (y2z−3)−3 = 3−3 = 1/27,
(y−6z9 )−1 = 27.
• y4z−6 = (y2z−3)2 = 32 = 9
• 3y4z−6 + 2(y−6z9 )−1 = 3(9) + 2(27) =81

12
 Exercise
1. Compute x 3 y 3 if xy = 3

2. Compute (ab) 4 if ab = −2

3. Compute (a ) 8 0
if a2 = 4

13
 Exercise
1. Compute x 3 y 3 if xy = 3
xy = 3  x 3 y 3 = ( xy) 3 = (3) 3 = 27

2. Compute (ab) 4 if ab = −2
ab = −2  (ab) 4 = (−2) 4 = 16

3. Compute (a ) 8 0
if a2 = 4

a 2 = 4  (a 8 ) 0 = 1 for all a  0

14
 Exercise: Properties of Exponents
• Which of the following equalities are true and
which are false? Justify your answers. (Note: a
and b are positive, m and n are integers).
1. a0 = 0
2. a m .a m = a 2 m

3. a m .b m = (ab) 2 m

4. a n .b m = (ab) n+ m

15
 Exercise: Properties of Exponents
• Which of the following equalities are true and
which are false? Justify your answers. (Note: a
and b are positive, m and n are integers).
1. a 0 = 0 False , a 0 = 1
m+ m
2. a .a = a
m m 2m
True, a m
.a m
= a = a 2m

3. a m m
.b = ( ab ) 2m
, False, unless, m = 0 or ab = 1
otherwise, a m b m = (ab) m
4. a n .b m = (ab) n+m False, unless, a b = 1 for example,
m n

a 2 b 3  (ab) 2+3 = (ab) 5 = a 5 b 5

16
 Exercise : Integer powers
• Compute

1. 10 3
2
2. (−0.3)
−2
3. 4

4. (0.1) −1

17
 Solutions: Integer powers
• Compute
1.
10 = 10.10.10 = 1000
3

2. (−0.3) = (−0.3)( −0.3) = 0.09

2

−2 1 1
3. 4 = 2 =
4 16

1
4. (0.1) −1 = = 10
0. 1

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Application: Time Value of Money
• On compound interest
• Deposit $1000 at 20% per year.
• At the end of the year obtain
• $1000 +(20/100) 1000 = 1000 (1 +0 .2)
• At the end of the second year obtain
• 1000 (1 +0 .2)+(20/100) 1000(1 + 0.2) = 1000(1 + 0.2)(1 + 0.2) =
1000(1 + 0.2)2
• After 3 years obtain 1000(1 + .2) 3.
• After t years obtain 1000(1 + .2)t.
• When the initial amount is K, after t years we obtain K(1 + .2)t.
• When interest rate is p% per annum we obtain K(1 +p/100 )t.
• (1 +p/100 ) is the growth factor.

19
 Example
• $12000 is deposited in an account earning 4%
interest per year. What is the amount after 15
years?
$12000.(1.04)  $21611.32
15

20
 Negative exponents

• How much money should you have deposited

in a bank 4 years ago in order to have $1000
today given that the interest rate has been
50% per year over this period?
• Solution: Amount required x(1.5)4 = 1000.
1000
x= 4
= 197.53
(1.5)

• Generally A = P(1 +
p −t
100
)

21
 Example
• b) If the interest rate is 6% each year, how
much money should you have deposited in a
bank account 5 years ago to have $50000
today?

$50000.(1.06) −5  $37362.91

22
 Exercise
• Write as powers of 2:
1. 4
2. 1
3. 64
1
4. 16

23
 Exercise Solutions
• Write as powers of 2:
1. 4 = 2 2

2. 1 = 2 0

3. 64 = 2 6
4. 1 = 1 = 2 −4

16 24

24
 Exercise
• Write as powers;
1. 15.15.15
 1  1  1 
2.  − 3  − 3  − 3 

1
3.
10
4. 0.0000001
5. (a − b)( a − b)( a − b)

25
 Exercise Solutions
• Write as powers;
1. 15.15.15 = 153
3
 1  1  1   1 
2.  − 3  − 3  − 3  =  − 3 

1
3. = 10 −1
10
4. 0.0000001 = 10 −7
5. (a − b)(a − b)(a − b) = (a − b) 3

26
 Exercise
• Expand and Simplify
1. 2 5 .2 5

2. (−3xy2 ) 3

p 24 p 3
3. p4 p

( x + 1) 3 ( x + 1) −2
4. ( x + 1) 2 ( x + 1) −3

27
 Exercise Solution
• Expand and Simplify
1. 2 5.2 5 = 2 5+5 = 210

2. (−3xy 2 ) 3 = (−3) 3 x 3 ( y 2 ) 3 = −27 x 3 y 6

p 24 p 3 24+ 3− 4 −1
3. = p = p 22

p4 p

( x + 1) 3 ( x + 1) −2 ( x + 1) 3−2 ( x + 1)
4. = =
( x + 1) 2 ( x + 1) −3 ( x + 1) 2−3 ( x + 1) −1
= ( x + 1) 2

28
 Powers with fractional exponents

• Expressions such as K1/4L3/4 where K is capital

and L is labour.
• Define ax = a1/2 as equal to - square root of
a.
• A real number multiplied by itself must always
be  0.
• a is defined as the non negative number
that when multiplied by itself gives a.

29
• For non-negative a and b
• a.b = a b e.g. (−2)(−2) = 4 = 2 But −2 −2 is
undefined.
• a
=
a
b b

30
 Exercise
Compute;
1
1. 9 + 16 2. 1
36 2

3. 0.01 1
4. 25

True/False
5. 25.16 = 25. 16
1 1 1
6. 25 + 16 = 25 + 16
7. (a + b) = a + a
2 2 2
8. (a + b) = ( a + b )
1
2 −1

Solve for x x −1
9. x . 4 = 4 10. 2 x
− 2 =4

31
 Exercise Solutions
Compute;

9 + 16 = 25 = 5
1 1
1. 2. 1
=
36 2 6

3. 0.01 = 0.1 4. 1
=
1
25 5
True/False
5. 25.16 = 25. 16 True 6. 25 + 16 = 25 + 16 False
7. (a + b) = a + a False
1
2
1
2
1
2 8. (a + b) = ( a + b )
1
2 True−1

Solve for x
9. x . 4 = 4 10. 2 − 2 x −1 = 4  2 x − 2 x −1 = 2 2  2 x (1 − 2 −1 ) = 2 2
x

 4x = 42  x = 4  2 x ( 1 ) = 22
2
 2 x = 21.2 2  2 x = 2 3  x = 3

32
 Rationalising denominators

• Getting rid of the root sign in the

denominator.
• Example1:
6 6 7
6 7
= . =
7 7 7 7
7
• Since multiplying by 7 is the same as
• multiplying by 1, it does not change the
original expression.
33
• Example 2:
3 3 3 32 96 4 6 6
= = . = = =
4 2 4 2.2 32 32 32 4.8 8

• Example 3:
54 − 24 54 − 24 6 6 ( 54 − 24 ) 6 (3 6 − 2 6 )
= . = =
6 6 6 6 6
3 36 − 2 36 36 (3 − 2) 6(1)
= = = =1
6 6 6

34
 Further examples
• Example 4:

1 1 7− 5 7− 5 7− 5
= . = =
7+ 5 7+ 5 7− 5 7−5 2
• Example 5:
x y−y x x y − y x x y − y x x 2 y − xy x y − xy x y + y 2 x
= . = 2
x y + y x x y + y x x y − y x x y − xy x y + xy x y − y 2 x
x 2 y − 2 xy x y + y 2 x xy( x − 2 x y + y ) x − 2 x y + y ( x − y ) 2
= = = =
x2 y − y2 x xy( x − y ) x− y x− y

35
 n-th root
• If a is positive and n is a natural number then
a1/n is the unique positive number that when
raised to the n-th power gives a.
• i.e. (a1/n)n = a.
• ap/q is defined for p an integer, q a natural
number and a > 0.
p ( 1 )p
=a = ( a) p
q q q
a

• e.g. 27
2
3
= (3 27 ) 2 = 9

36
• If q is an odd number and p is an integer ap/q
can be defined even when a < 0.
• e.g. (−27) = − 27 = −3 because (−3)3 = −27.
1
3 3

37
 Rules of Algebra

• a +b = b+a
• (a + b) + c = a + (b + c)
• a +0 = a
• a + (−a) = 0
• a b = ba
• (a b) c = a (b c)
• 1 a = a
• a a −1 = 1 for a  0
• −a b = a (−b) = − a b
• −a(−b) = a b
• a ( b + c) = a b + a c
• (a + b) c = ac + b c

38
 Expand and simplify the following
algebraic expressions;
1 − 3 + (−4) − (−8) = −3 − 4 + 8 = 1
1
(−3)( −12)( − ) = −3(6) = −18
2
2 5a 2 − 3b − (−a 2 − b) − 3(a 2 + b)  5a 2 − 3b + a 2 + b − 3a 2 − 3b = 3a 2 − 5b

3 r 3 − 3r 2 s + s 3 − (− s 3 − r 3 + 3r 2 s)
 r 3 − 3r 2 s + s 3 + s 3 + r 3 − 3r 2 s = 2r 3 − 6r 2 s + 2s 3

( x + y + z) 2 − ( x − y − z) 2
4  ( x + y + z )( x + y + z ) − ( x − y − z )( x − y − z )
= x 2 + xy + xz + xy + y 2 + yz + xz + yz + z 2 − ( x 2 − xy − xz − xy + y 2 + yz − xz + yz + z 2 )
= x 2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2 xy + 2 xz + 2 yz − x 2 + 2 xy + 2 xz − 2 yz − y 2 − z 2
= 4 xy + 4 xz

39
 Important identities
Expand each of the following;
1 ( x + 2 y) 2  ( x + 2 y) = ( x + 2 y)( x + 2 y) = x + 2xy + 2xy + 4 y
2 2 2
= x 2 + 4 xy + 4 y 2

2
2 1  1 
2
1  1  1
2

 − x x x 1 1
  − x  =  − x  − x  =   − − + x 2 = 2 − 1 − 1 + x 2 = 2 − 2 + x 2
x  x  x  x   x x x x x

 (3u − 5v)(3u − 5v) = 9u 2 − 15uv − 15uv + 25v 2 = 9u 2 − 30uv + 25v 2

3 (3u − 5v) 2

4 (2 z − 5w)(2 z + 5w)  4 z 2 + 10 zw − 10 zw − 25w 2 = 4 z 2 − 25w 2 (diff of 2

squares)

40
 Verify the following cubic identities, which are
occasionally useful:

1 (a + b) 3 = a 3 + 3a 2 b + 3ab 2 + b 3

(a + b)( a + b)( a + b) = a 2 + 2ab + b 2 )(( a + b) = a 3 + 3a 2 b + 3ab 2 + b 3

2 (a − b) 3 = a 3 − 3a 2 b + 3ab 2 − b 3
(a − b)( a − b)(a − b) = a − 2ab + b )(a − b) = a − 3a b + 3ab − b
2 2 3 2 2 3

3 a − b = (a − b)(a + ab + b ) (expand the right hand side)

3 3 2 2

4  a 3 + a 2 b + ab 2 − a 2 b − ab 2 − b 3 = a 3 − b 3 (expand the right hand side)

a 3 + b 3 = (a + b)( a 2 − ab + b 2 )

 a 3 − a 2 b + ab 2 + a 2 b − ab 2 + b 3 = a 3 + b 3

41
 Factoring

• (a + b)2 = (a+b)(a+b)=a(a+b)+b(a+b)
= a2 + 2ab + b2
• (a − b)2 = (a-b)(a-b) =a(a-b)-b(a-b)
=a2 − 2ab + b2
• (a + b) (a − b) = a(a-b)+b(a-b)=a2 − b2

42
 Examples
Factor the following (express as a product of simple
factors)
1. 25a2 − 4b2 = (5a + 2b) (5a − 2b) (diff of 2 squares)
2. 4x2 − y2 + 8x2 + 4xy = 4x2 − y2 + 4x(2x + y)
=(2x + y) (2x − y) + 4x(2x + y)
=(2x + y) (2x - y + 4x)
=(2x + y) (6x - y)
3. Check by multiplying the factors
• K2 L − 4K2 L 2 + 4K L 3 = K L (K2 − 4KL + 4 L 2 ) = K L (K −
2L)2

43
 Factorise the given expressions;

1 7 x − 49 xy  7 x( x − 7 y)
2

2 x − 4x + 4  x − 2x − 2x + 4 = x( x − 2) − 2( x − 2) = ( x − 2)( x − 2)
2 2

Note: in this case find 2 variables which when

you add them they give you the middle term
and when you multiply them they give you the
first multiplied by the last term)
3. P + Q + Q P + P Q  P + P Q + Q + Q P
3 3 2 2 3 2 3 2

= P 2 ( P + Q) + Q 2 (Q + P)
= ( P + Q)( P 2 + Q 2 )

44
 Properties of fractions
• Rules
a c a − a (a) (−1) a
1. b . c = b ; (b  0; c  0) 2. = . =
− b (b) (−1) b
a a −a
3. − b = ( −1)
b
=
b
4. a + b = a + b
c c c
5. a + c = a.d + b.c 6. a + b = a.c + b
b d b.d c c

b a.b a c a.c
a. = . =
7. c c 8. b d b.d

9. a c a d a.d
 =  =
b d b c b.c

45
 Simplify the following fractional
expressions;
3+ 4−5 2
1 3 4 5
+ −  =
7 7 7 7 7

3 4 3.3 + 4.4 − 12 9 + 16 − 12 13
+ −1  = =
2 4 3 12 12 12

2 1 8 + 3 11
+
3. 3 4  12 = 12 = 11 . 4 = 11
3 3 3+6 9 12 9 27
+
4 2 4 4

46
 3a − 2 2b − 1 4b + 3a
− +
4 3a 2b 6ab
2b(3a − 2) − 3a(2b − 1) + 1(4b + 3a)

6ab
6ab − 4b − 6ab + 3a + 4b + 3a
=
6ab
6a 1
= =
6ab b

2t − t 2  5t 2t 
. − 
t + 2 t −2 t −2
5 2t − t 2  3t  6t 2 − 3t 3
  =
t + 2  t − 2  (t + 2)(t − 2)
3t 2 (2 − t ) − 3t 2 (t − 2) − 3t 2
= = =
(t + 2)(t − 2) (t + 2)(t − 2) t + 2
47
 Inequalities
• Fundamental property of the set of positive numbers
• a > 0 and b > 0 imply a + b > 0 and ab > 0.
• a > b ( a is strictly greater than b)
• a  b ( a is greater than or equal to b)
• If the two sides of an inequality are multiplied by a positive number the
direction of the inequality is preserved.
• If we multiply an inequality by a negative number the direction of the
inequality is reversed.
• e.g 4  2
• Multiply by positive (3)4  (3)2 i.e. 12  6 (preserve)
• Multiply by negative (−3)4  (−3)2 i.e. −12  −6 (reverse)
• If the two sides of an inequality are divided by a positive number the
direction of the inequality is preserved.
• If we divided both sides of an inequality by a negative number the
direction of the inequality is reversed.

48
 Properties of inequalities

1. a > 0 and b > 0 imply a + b > 0 and

ab > 0.
1. a > b, b > c  a > c. (transitivity)
2. a > b, c > 0  ac > bc. (multiply by +ve number)
3. a > b, c < 0  ac < bc. (multiply by –ve number)
4. a > b, c > d  a + c > b + d.

49
 Example
Find the values of x satisfying
7x − 3 > x + 9.
• Solution: Add −x + 3 to both sides to obtain
• 7x− x − 3 + 3 > x− x + 9 + 3
• 6x > 12
• Divide by a positive number 6
• x > 2.
• Solution of an inequality is a solution set.

50
 Exercise
• Decide which of the following inequalities are
true or false:
1. − 6.15  −7.16
2. (−5)  0
2

1 1
3. −
2
  −
3


4. −3
2 3 −2

1 2 1 1
5. 2 − 3  4 − 3

51
 Exercise Solutions
• Decide which of the following inequalities are
true or false:
1. − 6.15  −7.16 ;True
2. (−5)  0
2
;False
1 1
3. −
2
  −
3
 ;True
4. −3
2 3 −2
;False
1 2 1 1
5. 2 − 3  4 − 3 ;True

52
 Exercise
• Solve the inequalities;
1. − x − 3  5
2. 3x + 5  x −13
3. 3x − ( x − 1)  x − (1 − x)
1
4. 3 (1 − x)  2( x − 3)
t 3t 5
− (t + 1) +  (t + 1)
5. 24 8 12

53
 Exercise Solutions
• Solve the inequalities;
1. − x − 3  5  −x  8  x  −8
2. 3x + 5  x − 13  2x  −18  x  −9
3x − ( x − 1)  x − (1 − x)  3x − x + 1  x − 1 + x
3.  2x + 1  x − 1 + x  2x + 1  2x − 1 Valid for all x

4. 1 (1 − x)  2( x − 3)  1 − x  6 x − 18  7 x  19  x  19
3 7

t 3t 5
− (t + 1) +  (t + 1)  t − 24(t + 1) + 3(3t )  2(5)(t + 1)
5. 24 8 12
34 17
 t − 24t − 24 + 9t  10t + 10  24t  −34  t  − t −
24 12

54
 Sign diagrams
• Suppose we want to find the solution set of the
following inequality; 2 x − 3  3 − x
x −1

• In this case its tempting to want to multiply

throughout by x − 1
• However the problem is that we do not know
whether x − 1 is positive (in which case we
preserve the sign of the inequality) or it is
negative (in which case we reverse the sign of
the inequality).
55
 Procedure
• To get around this problem we use an alternative method
in which case we must ensure that we have a zero (0) on
the right hand side of the inequality.
• This is possible if we add x − 3 to both sides of the
inequality.
• After this we put everything on the left hand side under
one common denominator.
• Next, we find critical values. These are the values of x we
get by equating both the numerator and the denominator
equal to 0.
• Then lastly, we use the critical values to construct a sign
diagram which will make a determination on the solution
set of the inequality.

56
• Solve the inequality;
2x − 3
 3− x
x −1
2x − 3 2 x − 3 + ( x − 3)( x − 1) 2x − 3 + x 2 − 4x + 3
 + x−3 0 0 0
x −1 x −1 x −1
x 2 − 2x x( x − 2)
 0 0
x −1 x −1

• Critical values
• From numerator: x( x − 2) = 0  x = 0; x = 2
• From denominator: x − 1 = 0  x = 1

57
 Sign diagram
• Sign diagram:
0 1 2

x ( x − 2)

x −1 o
-ve +ve -ve +ve
x ( x − 2) o o
f ( x) = *
x −1

Solution set 0  x  1 and x  2

58
• Solve the inequality;
x+2
0
x −1

• Critical values;
x + 2  x = −2
x −1  x = 1

59
 Sign diagram
• Sign diagram:
-2 1

x+2

x −1 o
+ve -ve +ve
x+2 o
f ( x) = *
x −1

Solution set − 2  x 1
60
• Solve the inequality;
2x + 1
1
x−3
2x + 1 2 x + 1 − 1( x − 3) 2x + 1 − x + 3 x+4
 −1  0  0  0
x−3 x−3 x−3 x−3

• Critical values;
x + 4 = 0  x = −4
x −3 = 0  x = 3

61
 Sign diagram
• Sign diagram:
-4 3

x+4

x −3 o
+ve -ve +ve
x+4 o
f ( x) = *
x−3

Solution set x  −4 and x  3

62
• Solve the inequality;
120
+ 1.1  1.85
n
120 120 120 − 0.75n
 + 1.1 − 1.85  0  − 0.75  0  0
n n n

• Critical values;
120 − 0.75n = 0  0.75n = 120  n = 160
n=0

63
 Sign diagram
• Sign diagram:
0 160

120 − 0.75n

n o
120 − 0.75n -ve +ve -ve
f ( n) = ●
n *

Solution set n0 and n  160

64
• Solve the inequality;
3x − 1
 x+3
x
3x − 1 3x − 1 − x( x + 3) 3x − 1 − x 2 − 3x − x2 −1
 − ( x + 3)  0  0 0 0
x x x x

• Critical values;
− x 2 − 1 = 0  x 2 = −1 undefined
x=0

65
 Sign diagram
• Sign diagram:
0

− x2 −1

x o

− x2 −1 +ve -ve
f ( x) =
x *

Solution set x0

66
• Solve the inequality;
x−3
 2x − 1
x+3

x−3 x − 3 − ( x + 3)( 2 x − 1) x − 3 − (2 x 2 + 5 x − 3)
 − (2 x − 1)  0  0 0
x+3 x+3 x+3
x − 3 − 2 x 2 − 5x + 3 − 2x 2 − 4x
 0 0
x+3 x+3
• Critical values;
• − 2x − 4x = 0  2x + 4x = 0  2x( x + 2) = 0  x = 0 or x = −2
2 2

x + 3 = 0  x = −3

67
 Sign diagram
• Sign diagram:
-3 -2 0

− 2x 2 − 4x

x+3
+ve -ve +ve -ve
− 2x − 4x
2
f ( x) = * ● ●
x+3

Solution set − 3  x  −2 and x  0

68
 Double inequalities
• Two inequalities valid simultaneously
e.g. a  z and z < b implies a  z < b.
• Example: Solve the inequality
6  14 (3 y − 1) + 54 (3 − y )  54
 6  34 y − 14 + 154 − 54 y  54
 6  − 24 y + 144  54
 24  −2 y + 14  216
 10  −2 y  202
 −5  y  −101
 −101  y  −5
69
 Exercise
• The temperature for storing potatoes should
be between 4°C and 6°C. What are the
corresponding temperatures in degrees
Fahrenheit?
• b) The freshness of a bottle of milk is
guaranteed for 7 days if it is kept at between
36°F and 40°F. Find the corresponding
temperature variation in degrees Celsius.
Note: the relationship between degrees Celsius and degrees Fahrenheit is given
by 9 5
F = C + 32  C = ( F − 32)
5 9

70
 Exercise solution
a.
5
4  ( F − 32)  6
9
 36  5 F − 160  54
 196  5 F  214
 39.2  F  42.8
Thus the temperature should be between 39.2°F
and 42.8°F

71
 Exercise solution contd
9
b. 36  C + 32  40
5
 180  9C + 160  200
 20  9C  40
 2.2  C  4.4

Thus the temperature should be between 2.2°C

and 4.4°C

72
 Exercise
Solve the double inequalities;
1. 1  13 (2 x − 1) + 83 (1 − x)  16

2. −5
1
0
x

73
 Exercise solutions
1 8
1. 1  (2 x − 1) + (1 − x)  16  3  2 x − 1 + 8(1 − x)  48
3 3
 3  2 x − 1 + 8 − 8 x  48  3  7 − 6 x  48
−4 41
 −4  −6 x  41  x
−6 −6
2 41 41 2
 x− − x
3 6 6 3
−1
1 1 −1
2. −1
− 5   0  (−5)    ( 0 is undefined)
x  x
1 1
− xx−
5 5

74
 Intervals
• Sets of numbers that lie between a and b.
• bounded
• (a, b) open interval from a to b a < x < b
• [a, b] closed interval from a to b a  x  b
• (a, b] half-open interval from a to b a < x  b
• [a, b) half-open interval from a to b a  x < b
• unbounded
• [a, ) - all numbers x with x  a
• (−, b) all numbers x with x < b
• The symbol  is not a number
• We can present solutions to inequalities using the interval
notation.
75
 Absolute value

-a 0
a

The distance between a (−a) and 0 is the absolute value of a.

a if a  0
a =
− a if a  0

e.g. 5 = − 5 = 5
It is a useful convention to define variable so that, as far as
possible their value are positive rather than negative

76
Note:
|x | < a means −a < x < a.
|x |  a means −a  x  a.

Example: Compute |x −5| for x= 0, x = 3 and x

= 4.
Solution:
|−5| = −(−5) = 5
|3 −5|= −(−2) = 2
|4 −5|= −(−1) = 1.
77
 Examples
1. Find all x such that |8x −4|  12.
Solution: −12  8x −4  12
−8  8x  16
−1  x  2.
2. Determine x such that |8x −4| = 12.
Solution: either 8x −4 = 12
or -(8x −4) = 12
x = 2 or −1

78
4. x  2 means that x  2 or x  − 2
5. |x2 − 4|  2 means −2  x2 − 4  2
2  x2  6
2  x  6 and − 2  x  − 6 = − 6  x  − 2

79
 Exercise
1. Calculate 5 − 3x , for x=-1, 2 , and 4
2. Solve the equation 5 − 3x = 0 for x.
3. Rewrite 5 − 3x by using the definition of
absolute value.
4. Determine x such that,
a. 3 − 8x  5
b. x − 2  1
2

80
 Exercise solutions
1. 5 − 3x
For x=-1: 5 − 3(−1) = 5 + 3 = 8 = 8
For x=2: 5 − 3(2) = 5 − 6 = − 1 = 1
For x= 4: 5 − 3(4) = 5 − 12 = − 7 = 7
5
2. 5 − 3 x = 0  − (5 − 3 x ) = 0  3 x − 5 = 0  3 x = 5  x =
3
3. 5 − 3x = 5 − 3x
5 5
 5 − 3 x = 5 − 3 x for x  and 5 − 3x = 3 x − 5 for x 
3 3

81
4. a. 3 − 8x  5
 −5  3 − 8 x  5  −8  −8 x  2
1 1
1 x  −  −  x 1
4 4

b. x 2 − 2  1  −1  x 2 − 2  1  1  x 2  3
1 x  3
and − 3  x  −1

82