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They allow learners to ‘ofttea ers. become more self-directed. They e They are probiem-oriented, ‘They are specific ac They involve many aspectée sr 1 ? They support te: cats doth di Theg arg fe: a They de thiiuented ; wef ambunt of ongoing resea the nature of learning strategies and into naan teafaing thet are effective for different purposes (Vann and Abraham 1990). Oxford (1993) identifies sixigenetal types of learning strategie ao a irq egigs, which help studepts to stoi"-a setrieve information. + Memo es. Which enable learners to ¥aderstand and pro-duce new language. learners 1 commiinicate despite deficiencies in Cognitive strategis 2 Compensation strategies, which all their Janguag: . ive strategie which “allow: Sones toe ‘control. their own? learning through . ani and evaluating. 4, ‘ ‘i fraregies, which. a ag: sain scontro}! over “their emotions, attitudes, and values. : @ Lovivation: . capil a “which help learners Peery me. ceases ives the Following examples of eensai > Ele Be wT Ww ooo ——— { as tySeven StarCommunicative Language Teaching Finocchiaro and Brumfit (1983) contrast the major distinctive features of the Audiolingual Method and the Communicative Approach, ac- cording to their interpretation: Audio-lingual 1. Attends to structure and form more than meaning. Demands memorization of structure-based dialogs. 3. Language items are not necessarily contextualized. 4, Language learning is learning structures, sounds, or word: . Mastery, or “over-learning” is sought 6. Drilling is a central technique. Native-speaker-like pronunciation is sought. 8. Grammatical explanation is avoided. 9. Communicative activities only come after a long process of rigid drills and exercises. 10. The use of the student’s native language is forbidden. {1, Translation is forbidden at early levels. 12, Reading and writing are deferred till speech is mastered, 13, The target linguistic system will be learned through the overt teaching of the patterns of the system 14, Linguistic competence is the ired goal. Varieties of language are recognized but not emphasized. of linge ely by principles Communicative Language Teaching Meaning is paramount Dialogs, if used, center around communicative functions and are not normally memorized. Contextualization is a basic premise, Language learning is learning to communicate Effective communi ation is sought. Drilling may occur, but peripherally. Comprehensible pronunciation is sought Any device which helps the learners is accepted — varying according to their age, interest, etc Attempts to communicate may be encouraged from the very beginning. Judicious use of native language is accepted where feasible. Translation may be used where students need or benefit from it Reading and writing can start from the first day, if desired. ‘The target linguistic system will be learned best through the process of strugglin 0 communicate Communicative competence is the I (i.e. the ability to use the linguistic system effectively and appropriately Linguistic variation is a central concept in materials and methodology Sequencing is determined by consideration of con desired go ent, function, or meaning whichApproaches & methods in language teaching 17. The teacher controls the learners and prevents them from doing anything that conflicts with the theory 18. “Language is habit” so errors must be prevented at all costs. 19. Accuracy, in terms of formal correctness, is a primary goal. 20. Students are expected to interact with the language system, embodied in machines Teachers help learners in any way that motivates them to work with the language. Language is created by the individual often through trial and error. Fluency and acceptable language the primary goal: accuracy is judged not in the abstract but in context, Students are expected to interact with other people, either in the flesh, through pair and group is or controlled materials work, or in their writings. 21. The teacher is expected to The teacher cannot know exactly specify the language that what language the students will students are to use. use. 22. Intrinsic motivation will spring Intrinsic motivation will spring from from an interest in the structure an interest in what is being of the language. communicated by the language. (1983: 91-3) Apart from being an interesting example of how proponents of Com- municative Language Teaching stack the cards in their favor, such a set of contrasts illustrates some of the major differences between commu- nicative approaches and eatlier traditions in language teaching, The wide acceptance of the communicative approach and the relatively varied way in which it is interpreted and applied can be attributed to the fact that practitioners from different educational traditions can identify with it, and consequently interpret it in different ways. One of its North Amer- ican proponents, Savignon (1983), for example, offers as a precedent to CLT a commentary by Montaigne on his learning of Latin through conversation rather than through the customary method of formal anal- and translation, Writes Montaigne, “Without methods, without a book, without grammar or rules, without a whip and without tears, 1 had learned a Latin as proper as that of my schoolmaster” (Savignon 1983: 47). This antistructural view can be held to represent the language learning version of a more general learning perspective usually referred to as “learning by doing” or “the experience approach” (Hilgard and Bower 1966). This notion of direct rather than delayed practice of com- municative acts is central to most CLT interpretations. The focus on communicative and contextual factors in language use also has an antecedent in the work of the anthropologist Bronislaw Malinowski and his colleague, the linguist John Firth. British applied 68i | Lesson Planning Lesson Planning . f foo ry € Cosheete 4 3 — —i ela Lesson plans provide a framework for an individual lesson. Successful teachers are invariably good planners and thinkers. They did not reach there overnight; the road to success requires ‘commitment and practice. Planning lessons is a fundamental skill all teachers must develop an effective lesson plan format is a core skill for all who teach. sht ask, The purpose of a lesson plan is really quite simple; itis to communicate. But, you communicate to whom? The answer to this question, on a practical basis, is “YOU"! The lesson plans you develop are to guide you in organizing your material and yourself for the purpose of helping your students achieve intended learning outcomes. * A lesson plan is a written description to teach academic content. ‘+ Allesson plan helps teachers organize their objectives and methodologies. ‘+ Allesson plan determines the purpose, aim, and rational of the class activity. * Allesson plan also provides focus for the lesson you are presenting. © A lesson plan is a fairly detailed plan of instruction. © Ithelps you think through the best way to present the information to the students * A lesson plan needs clear and specific objectives. ‘You must follow the following important components while designing your lesson plans: Pre Planning ‘+ Itis important to know the subject matter you will be teaching © List the important facts key concepts, skills, or vocabulary terms that you intend to cover. ‘© Identify the aims or outcomes you want the student to achieve.‘+ Have a clear idea of what you want students to learn fA ‘+ Write objectives that describe learning outcomes. The objective of lesson is thatthe | students demonstrate a specific skill e.g. how to express greetings. a * Make sure that in the end of your lesson your objectives were met. Y ‘+ Objectives should also be directly measurable, finish the task, exercises, or assignments ‘© _Listall the aids or equipment to be used by the students and the teacher. Also describe how and why the aids or equipment will be used. . Whether your students were able to ‘So what we were trying to tell you is that the developing of a lesson plan begins somewhere, and a good place to start is with a list or description of general information such as; a b c a e £ 8 h ‘The name of a teacher Date Grade\ level ofthe student Course ttle and specific lesson Goals and objectives List of activities Evaluation procedures ‘Materials or resources needed ‘+ Students need warming up. Decide on the signal for attention, e.g. good morning, Lets get started © Explain the rules and procedures. Begin your lesson with an energetic activity. © Create expectations in a positive manner, create on optimistic and encouraging ‘atmosphere, show enthusiasm and friendliness and you will notice the upbeat outcome.* Explain your expectations for learning at each transition of the lesson, rather than stating G them all atthe beginning, + Language must be age appropriate, specific, and clear. ‘+ Always connect the present lesson to the previous oF with yesterday’slesson, + Reviewed what has already been learned * Your lesson plan should have techniques and strategies that motivate and get student focused on the lesson * Provides, a detailed, step-by-step, description of everything you will do in your lesson plan. Include a description of how you will introduce the lesson. ‘Tell the actual techniques you will see. ‘+ Plan frequent and varied opportunities for the students to be involved * Include specific things that the student will do during lesson. * Check for student understanding from time to time. ‘+ Use multiple methods to check for student understanding, ‘+ Describe how this material ean be presented to ensure each student will have a good learning experience. ‘+ Provide enough practice opportunities prior to evaluation ‘© Monitor this practice session and give students feedback. ‘+ Describe how to provide opportunities practice during and following the lesson. ‘+ Extend classroom practice into homework’ or follow-up-practice’ © Provide a great deal of additional practice. ‘* Review the key points of the lesson. Give students opportunities to draw conclusions from the lesson. Give a meaningful end to the lesson. ‘The closing can create a smooth transition from one lesson to the next lesson. Assessment \ eval ‘© You must evaluate the objectives that you had determined earlier. © Clear descriptions of the method that will help you accurately determine whether or not the students have mastered the lesson objective Describe the ways you will provide opportunities for the students to practice and asses them later on.* eseribe the ways you will provide opportunities forthe students to practice and assess them later on, Recap!!!! Objeetives- what students will be able to doas a result ofthe lesson. Materiats-needed for the class period or any special equipment Lesson description Lesson procedure- what the teacher will do Follow up lessons / act Assessment opportunities- what the teacher can do to see if the lesson was taught effectively: watching students work, assigning activities, getting feedback ete, Input process Poutput Presentation practice——=+ production/ free Let's look at each part separately. ‘The input/ presentation part refers to the information that the teacher presents before students actually start work. It’s a warm up stage where the teachers sets the stage and raises student's awareness and expectations about what is going to come. ‘The process/ practiceare the core of the lesson plan, This stage means a description of the activities the teacher will do or use. What you as a teacher wants your students to do during the {esson and how you will be helping, guiding, or executing your planned activities? ‘The output/ production’ free stage allow your students bility to work independently. How well you have taught the lesson and how successfully your lesson plan was carried out. This is the time when you as a teacher will assess how far your students have comprehended the lesson and whether they are able to now solve the tasl/ assignment or a project that you have assigned, Of course, there is an immense difference between being able to plana lesson and actually being able to carry out the plan. However, ifyou have thought carefully about where to begin, how clear you are in your objectives and strategies, the chances of your success, as well as the success of your students, are much greater. As you design your lesson, please consider the following questions What is the subject area for your lesson? What is the grade level for your lesson? What are your learning objectives? How will you design your student's activities? ‘What resources will you use to implement your lesson? ——i, &- How will you assess your student's performances? 7. How will you assess your student's performances? § How will you evaluate the effctiverece of your lesson? Lesson Plan Format ee a Specificlessom; Level: a Mimo required; Date: ee Summary/rationale: Give an overview of your lesson plan Objective: indicate what isto be learned- this must bea complete objective. Write this objective in terms of what an individual student will do, the purpose of today’s lesson, and why the Students need to leans i. Use actions verbs which are measureable, such as: use, writ, identify, demonstrate, perform, extend, develop, add, express, talk, et Students wil be able to Write Explain . Wdentity Materials, equipment, and resources: list all materials, equipment and resourses o be used, Fhow and for what purposes they will be used. Procedures/ activities: description of what you will doin teaching the lesson, and, as ‘appropriate, include a description of how you will introduce the lesson to the students, what actual instructional techniques you will use, and how you will bring closure tothe lesson, include hat specific things students will actually do during the lesson, Follow-up Activities: indicate how other activities will be used to reinforce and extend the lesson. Include homework, assignments, and projects ya Plan Format Teacher: Iqbal NacemSubject: English Literature Specific lesson: Poem by Robert Frost Level: Intermed te Time req One hour Date: January 8, 2007 Summary! rationale: By introducing great poet Boing deeper into the lan, connecting the content o combines the language of Americas best write Another partis to enco have not yet experienc don’t have the literal a Ty to our students, we can begin to lead them to appreciate poetry by 'guage analysis. As teachers our job is to guide our students in great poems and experiences in their own lives. This lesson plan ‘and personal growth approaches to teaching literature. Student read one "poem and analyze it in terms of language the poet uses (Stylistics). turage students to use their imaginations to comprehend that which they "ed. Sometimes people have problems understanding poetry, because they ind figurative language skills they need, this lesson plan will address both. Objective Students will * Apply a wide range of strategies to comprehend, interpret, evaluate, and appreciate the poem; ‘+ Draw on their own experiences, and connect the content of the poems of their own life experiences; ‘+ Work word meanings and their understanding textual features eg, spelling and Punctuation, figurative language. ‘* Participate as knowledgeable, reflective, creative, and critical thinkers, Materials, equipment, and resources: List all materials, equipment, resources to be used, how and for what purposes they will be used. Procedures’ Acti Tell students that they are going to discuss the characteristics of Robert Frost poem. “The Road Not Taken’ and try and learn some strategies for reading and analyzing it Warm Up: + Ask students about what kind of choices do they have to make in life? Can they lst any five choices and then ask them in order from most important to leas important Nl 7aGrassy Diverged Read together the poein ma the main characte evra times to beter grasp its meaning. Review wih students ist "eS of the poem, the layout or format oF the poem and how itis written in ‘When students have read the poem ask them to answer these comprehension questions: What are the differences between the two roads? |s the author happy with his choice? Do you think it was a difficult decision? ‘What is the message of the poem? peep Language Work What words does the author use to avoid repeating “The Road"? The author had made several sentences much shorter and also has changed the word order in ‘some cases. Can you rewrite the following in Standard English? '* And sorry I could not take both © And be one traveler, long I stood ‘© Then took the other, as just as fair © And having perhaps the better claim * Yet knowing how way leads on to way Read this line; “two roads diverged in a wood, and I— T took the one less traveled by, ‘Why does the author repeat the word “I’ twice? What effect does it have on the poem? Follow-up Activiti Either do it in pairs or small groups or collectively. 8, Doyou like or do not like the poem? WHY? Express your OPINION.do you think so? . Does a poem have a moral? ‘What are the t hree examples of personal ness and emotion used by Frost? Discuss the different int interpretations giv diffrent people indiren vay by each student. Explain how a poem can effect ce eh Ls 1874-1963 ‘Two roads diverged in a yellow wood, ‘And sorry I could not travel both And be one traveler, long I stood ‘And looked down one as far as { could ‘To where it bent in the undergrowth; ‘Then took the other, as just as fair, ‘And having perhaps the better claim, Because it was grassy and wanted wear, “Though as for thatthe passing there Had worn them really about the same,And both that morning equally lay 'm Teaves no step had trodden black Ob, Tepe the first for another day! ‘Yet knowing how way leads on to way, doubted if I should ever come back 1 shall be telling this with a sigh Somewhere ages and ages hence: ‘Two roads diverged in a wood, and I— 1 took the one less traveled by, ‘And that has made all the difference.Description: Definition: "In the study of language, description or descriptive linguistics is the work of objectively analyzing and describing how language is actually used (or how it was used in the past) by a speech community." Explanation : >it seeks to describe reality, without the bias of preconceived ideas about how it ought to be. > descriptive approach employed in academic linguistics, which observes and records how language is actually used without any judgment. >All academic research in linguistics is descriptive; like all other scientific disciplines >Modern descriptive linguistics is based on a structural approach to language, as exemplified in the work of Leonard Bloomfield and others. >This type of linguistics utilizes different methods in order to describe a language such as basic data collection, and different types of elicitation methods. > Descriptive grammarians examine the principles andpatterns that underlie the use of words, phrases, clauses, and sentences of the particular speakers or the users of the language. >Since this approach basically focuses on identifying and explaining the varied use of the language according to the user, this discipline does not explain what is correct and what is incorrect. In other words, one can also describe this approach as an ‘objective description of the grammatical constructions of the language’. Prescription: Definition: "Linguistic prescription, or prescriptive grammar, is the establishment of rules defining preferred usage of language." >These rules may address such linguistic aspects as spelling, pronunciation, vocabulary, syntax, and semantics. Sometimes informed by linguistic purism, such normative practices often suggest that some usages are incorrect, inconsistent, illogical, lack communicative effect, or are of low aesthetic value, even in cases where such usage is more common than the prescribed usage. > They may also include judgments on socially properand politically correct language use. Aim of prescriptive approach: > Linguistic prescriptivism may aim to establish a standard language, teach what a particular society or sector of a society perceives as a correct or proper form, or advise on effective and stylistically felicitous communication. > The chief aim of linguistic prescription is to specify socially preferred language forms (either generally, as in Standard English, or in style and register) in a way that is easily taught and learned. Prescription may apply to most aspects of language, including spelling, pronunciation, vocabulary, syntax, and semantics. >Prescription is useful for facilitating inter-regional communication, allowing speakers of divergent dialects to understand a standardized idiom used in broadcasting, for example, more readily than each other's dialects. >Some authors define "prescriptivism' as the concept where a certain language variety is promoted as linguistically superior to others, thus recognizingthe standard language ideology as a constitutive element of prescriptivism or even identifying prescriptivism with this system of views. > the prescriptive attitude is an approach to norm- formulating and codification that involves imposing arbitrary rulings upon a speech community. Description vs Prescription: Principle: Descriptive approach takes the principle that the language usage can vary according to varied speakers. Thus, it does not consider what is ‘correct’ or incorrect grammar whereas prescriptive approach takes the principle that the long existed grammar rules created by the native speakers are the ‘correct’, and the variations are ‘incorrect.’ Grammar Rules: The rules are made according to the daily usage of the language by the speakers. Therefore, no specific or standard rules are there in descriptive grammar, rather the rules describe and explain the speaker's manner of language usage. On the contrary, there are specified and standard set or grammar rules in prescriptive grammar that should be followed by the speaker in their usage.Example: For example, if a person says; “He and me were arguing about the presentation”. A descriptive grammarian will explain this sentence as grammatical while a prescriptive grammarian will say this sentence is incorrect since it has violated the standard grammar rules with the incorrect usage of ‘me’ with “He” (where it should be He and 1). Therefore, prescriptive grammar attempts to establish the standard in the language. Conclusion: Description and prescription are two approaches to grammar in a language. While descriptive grammar is a subjective study of the use of language by speakers, descriptive grammar attempts to impose certain normative grammar rules on the speakers in order to reach the accepted standard of that language.COMMUNICATION LANGUAGE TEACHING ‘Communicative language teaching (CLT), is an approach to language teaching that emphasizes interaction as both the means and the ultimate goal of study ‘The communicative approach has been designed for speaking and for them to use the language as much as possible so new skills are born. learning a language isa skill-based activity. And skils can only be developed from practice, The communicative approach, which started as a reaction against the grammar translation method, is based on the idea that learning language successfully comes through having to communicate real meaning. When learners are involved in real communication, their natural strategies for language acquisition will be used, and this will allow them to learn to use the language. Main Features: + Communicative interaction for communicative activities . + Target language used as a natural medium for classroom management and instruction. + Classroom should provide opportunities for rehearsal of real-life situations and provide opportunity for real communication + Emphasis on oral and listening skills in the classroom + Use of everyday language + Use of authentic resources such as newspaper, magazines , manuals, recipes, videos, etc. + Communicative competence is the desired goal (i.e., the ability to use the linguistic system effectively and appropriately) + CLT emphasizes to engage the learners in real-life situations in the classroom so that they can understand how to communicate in the real world. + Normally CLT focuses on the fluency of the learners rather than the accuracy of the grammar and learners acquire their accuracy gradually and naturally. * CLTalso believes that communication is the fundamental objectives of language end the learners need to develop all the skills of language (reading, writing, listening and speaking) + It offers the opportunity to join in teacher-learner and learner-learner interaction in the classroom + It focuses on the use of techniques which encourage the learners in participating in the natural environment, for instance, group and pair work etc.* In communicative language teaching, grammar is the second option of the learners and they discover and internalize the grammatical rules and functions themselves. + Ituses authentic language materials so that the students find the similarity between the classroom activities and the real world, HISTORY : The origins of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) are to be found in the changes in the British language teaching tradition dating from the late 1960s. Until then, Situational Language represented the major British approach to teaching English as a foreign language. In Situational Language Teaching, language was taught by practicing basic structures in meaningful situation-based activities. Language teaching has seen many changes in ideas about syllabus design and methodology in the last 50 years, and CLT prompted a rethinking of approaches to syllabus design and methodology. We may conveniently group trends in language teaching in the last 50 years into three phases: Phase 1: traditional approaches (up to the late 1960s) Phase 2: classic communicative language teaching (1970s to 1990s) Phase 3: current communicative language teaching (late 1990s to the present) Objectives : + The main objective is to prepare students for real-life communication through oral practices and cooperation + CLTimproves communicative proficiency of all the skills including reading, writing listening and speaking. * Gradually it focuses on the grammatical, discourse, functional, sociolinguistic of communicative competence. * Itused to engage the learners in the pragmatic and functional use of language. + Itenhances the productivity of the language in scientific ways. + CLT usually appreciates the learners to engage in linguistic interaction with real-life objectives. + Fluency is the first priority rather than accuracy. * CLT increase the communication ability of the learners in order to enable them to cope with their communicative needs in target situation . * Adopting this approach allow students how to use language for a range of different purposes and functions and how to vary the language according to settingTechniques Teachers have to use any activity that engages learners in authentic communication . Functional communication activities in which communication is involved Social interaction activities such as conversation and discussion session and dialogue Have plenty of communicative student-student activities (pair discussions, role-playing, puzzle-solving, and other collaborative tasks) so that each student is constantly exposed to the target language Practice different formal and informal interactions through games, role-play, and problem-solving tasks. ASSUMPTIONS : There are some core assumption of CLT: Second language learning is facilitated when learners are engaged in interaction and meaningful communication ‘© Effective classroom learning tasks and exercises provide opportunities for students to negotiate meaning, expand their language resources, notice how language is used, and take part in meaningful intrapersonal exchange Meaningful communication results from students processing content that is relevant, purposeful, interesting and engaging “© Communication is a holistic process that often calls upon the use of several language skills or modalities “ . Language learning is facilitated both by activities that involve inductive or discovery learning of underlying rules of language use and organization, as. well as by those involving language analysis and reflection ‘Language learning is a gradual process that involves creative use of language and trial and error. Although errors are a normal product of learning the ultimate goal of learning is to be able to use the new language both accurately and fluently “Learners develop their own routes to language learning, progress at different rates, and have different needs and motivations for language learning ‘Successful language learning involves the use of effective learning and communication strategies *& The role of the teacher in the language classroom is that of a facilitator, who creates a classroom climate conducive to language learning and provides opportunities for students to use and practice the language and to reflect on language use and language learning ‘The classroom is a community where learners learn through collaboration and sharingADVANTAGES: CLT delivers a clear and obvious benefit to learners — they're actually able to use the skills they've learnt to communicate in their target language _ CLT is not about learning just for learning's sake, it has a clear and definable purpose. Students become competent communicators, able to use the right grammar, vocabulary and sentence structure in different real-life contexts. Communicative approach is much more learner-orientated, because it is based on learners’ needs and interests. Seeks to use authentic resources. And that is more interesting and motivating for children Learners acquire grammar rules as a necessity to speak so is more proficient and efficient. CLT is a powerful teaching approach to encourage the development of the four macro skills in language learning— speaking, listening, reading and writing CLT also has a highly positive impact on the relationships between teachers, students and their peers, CLT typically places less emphasis on learning of detailed grammatical rules in favour of gaining greater fluency in the target language. Students are assessed on their level of communicative competence rather than on their ability to regurgitate information. This approach also enables learners to quickly gain confidence when interacting with other people, which helps them enjoy using their new-found language skills. DISADVANTAGES Lack Of Context The context of the learning and teaching atmosphere is not taken into account. False Interpretation The approach is often interpreted as “if the teacher understands the student we have good communication” but native speakers may not understand them.Lack of Accuracy The main focus of the approach is on fluency rather than language accuracy. Lack of Errors Reduction The approach does not focus much on removing the errors of the learners, Incoherence Since their errors aren't corrected, learners are likely to produce incorrect grammatical sentences. The communicative approach to teaching English is used worldwide. It is easier to incorporate it in a class with few students and with trainer teachers, this strength can increase -CONCLUSION CLT became something usual already; however it is not recognised by all specialists in the language teaching sphere. Many teachers still find it hard to use the CLT method in the class, because of having too different personalities among students. , communicative language teaching has become popular in the 21st century because of its success in helping .Learners, using this methodology feel more comfortable which increases their language productivity, Student’ input increases which results in increasing the output.The Audiolingual Method The Audiolingual Method has also been called audiolingualism, the aural-oral approach and — reflecting its military roots ‘Audio-lingualism is a method of foreign language teaching where the emphasis is on learning grammatical and phonological structure, especially for speaking and listening. It is based on. behaviourism and so relies on formation as a basis for learning, through a great deal of mechanical repetition. Example The teacher spends most of the time in the class drilling the learners on grammatical and phonological structures. Error correction is also important. History > World War Il suddenly necessitated the United States to produce a band of orally proficient speakers of different foreign languages. The US government then commissioned the American universities to develop a special language course for the army officials that would focus on aural or oral skills. This project was established in 1942 and labelled as the Army Specialized Training Programme (ASTP). > Towards the end of the 1950s, there had been an increased attention to foreign language teaching in educational institutions. Therefore, the educational planners came forward to develop a new method of language teaching. » This combination of the trio of approaches led to the development of the Audio-lingual Method (a term coined by professor Nelson Brooks in 1964), which was widely adopted for teaching foreign languages in North ‘American colleges and universities. Structuralism The structural view to language is the view behind the audio-lingual method. This approach focused on examining how the elements of language related to each other in the present, that is, ‘synchronically’ rather than ‘diachronically’. It was also argued that linguistic signs were composed of two parts, a signifier (the sound pattern of a word) and a signified (the concept or meaning of the word). The study of language aims at describing the performance ,the’parole” as it is the only observable part of language Behaviorism Behaviorism is a philosophy of psychology based on the proposition that all things which organisms do — including acting, thinking and feeling—can and should be regarded as behaviors. It contends that leaning occurs through associations, habitformation and reinforcement. When the learner produces the desired behavior and is reinforced positively, it is likely that behavior be emitted again Characteristics ‘The basic distinctive features of the Audio-lingual Method are as follows: ‘+ Material is presented in dialoge form. ‘There is no dependence on mimicry, memorization of set phrases, and ovelearning. Structural patterns are taught using repetitive drills. ‘There is little or no grammatical explanation. Great importance to pronunciation, Very little use of the mother tongue by teachers is permitted, Vocabulary is strictly limited in context. use of tapes, visual aids and ultimately language labs + reading and written work based on earlier oral work, sometimes given as homework + To enable the students to learn how to use English in everyday oral communication. + To encourage the students to produce utterances with accurate pronunciation and grammar. + Each skill listening, speaking, reading, writing) is treated and taught separately. + The skills of writing and reading are not neglected, but the focus throughout remains on listening and speaking. + Dialogue is the main feature of the audio-lingual syllabus. «Dialogues are the chief means of presenting language items. They provide learners an opportunity to practice, mimic and memorize bits of language. + Patterns drills are used as an important technique and essential part of this method for language teaching and learning. + The language laboratory was introduced as an important teaching aid. «Mother tongue was not given much importance, similar to the direct method, but it was not deemphasized so rigidly.(clar The Role of Teaching/Learning Materials:In the Audio-lingual Method the materials are predominantly teacher-oriented. The instructional materials basically contains the structured sequence of lessons to be followed, the dialogues, drills, and other practice activities, which would hopefully enable the teacher to develop language mastery in the student Techniques ‘The Audiolingual method uses the following techniques for teaching a foreign language Repetition. The student repeats an utterance aloud as soon as he has heard it. He does this without looking at the printed text. The utterance must be brief and small so that, the ears of the student must retain them and may repeat it because sound is more important than form and order restatement. The student rephrases an utterance and addresses it to someone else, according to the instructions. ‘Completion. The student shear an utterance that is complete except on word, then he repeats the utterance in complete from. Transformation. A sentence is transformed by being made negative or interrogative or through changes in tense, mood, voice, aspect or modality. Substitution students repeat the line from the dialogue which the teacher has given them, substituting the cue into the line in its proper place. Expansion Drill.This drill help students to produce longer sentence bit by bit, gradually achieving fluency Question-and-answer Drill: in this drill, the teacher asks questions and the students try to answer the teacher's question very quickly. Dialogue Completion Drill: The teacher says an incomplete dialogue by erasing some words that the students learned earlier. The students then try to complete the dialogue with the missing words. Chain Drill: Such a drill features a conversation between the students in a circular sitting around the classroom. The teacher initiates the chain conversation by asking a particular student a question. The student respondsand turns to the student next to him. In this way, the students continue the conversation by asking and answering questions to each other. ADVANTAGES: Itaims at developing listening and speaking skills which is a step away from the Grammar translation method The use of visual aids has proven its effectiveness in vocabulary teaching This method emphasizes the everyday cultural traits of the target language It provides the opportunity to learn correct pronunciation and structure. This method made it possible to teach large groups of learners. It puts stress on listening and speaking skills. DISADVANTAGES: The behaviorist approach to learning is now discredited. Many scholars have proven its weakness. It does not pay sufficient attention to communicative competence.. Equal importance is not given to all four skills. It is a teacher-dominated method. It is a mechanical method since it demands pattern practice, drilling, and memorization over functional learning and organic usage. The learner is in a passive role; the learner has little control over their learning... This method does not put equal emphasis on the four basic skills, such as listening, speaking, reading and writing. It considers only language form, not meaning... It prefers accuracy to fluency.