NPE-00056; No of Pages 6

Nanotechnology and Precision Engineering xxx (xxxx) xxx

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Nanotechnology and Precision Engineering

journal homepage: http://www.keaipublishing.com/en/journals/nanotechnology-
and-precision-engineering/

An interdigitated impedance microsensor for detection of moisture

content in engine oil
Haitao Liu a,b,c, Xiecheng Tang a,b, Hao Lu d, Wenguang Xie d, Yanmin Hu b, Qiannan Xue a,⁎
a
State Key Laboratory of Precision Measuring Technology and Instruments, School of Precision Instruments and Optoelectronics Engineering, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
b
Sino-European Institute of Aviation Engineering, Civil Aviation University of China, Tianjin 300300, China
c
College of Electronic Information and Automation, Civil Aviation University of China, Tianjin 300300, China
d
Civil Aircraft Airworthiness Certification Technology Key Laboratory of Tianjin, Civil Aviation University of China, Tianjin 300300, China

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Available online xxxx To address the need for the on-site measurement of aging oil, in this paper, we propose an impedance-based mi-
crosensor for analyzing the moisture content in engine oil. Using a microfabrication process, we fabricated an in-
terdigitated microelectrode and integrated it with a 3D-printed microcontainer to produce a microsensor that
Keywords: can detect changes in the permittivity of oil. When the moisture content in oil increases, this sensor can detect
Complex permittivity the resulting change in the oil impedance, which is related to its permittivity, and then determine the degree
Oil detection to which the oil has aged. The test results show that the proposed microsensor has the advantages of being
Microsensor small and having high sensitivity, good accuracy, and the ability to be combined with hand-held instruments.
Moisture content The proposed method is expected to be used for the rapid, low cost, on-site determination of oil aging.
Impedance sensor Copyright © 2020 Tianjin University. Publishing Service by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of KeAi Communications Co., Ltd.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

1. Introduction mainly detects the particulate matter of pollutants in oil, especially

Moisture, as the primary pollutant in oil, can increase oil acidity,
cause microbial proliferation, and accelerate oil aging.1 Moisture in oil
mainly arises due to small leakages from ambient sources or original
pipeline residue during the operation of equipment.2 Water is a typical
polar medium. In an alternating electric field, a polarization reaction can
easily occur when water is present in oil, which increases the permittiv-
ity of the oil. The relative permittivity of water is about 80, and that of oil
is generally around 2.0.3 Just a small increase in the amount of water in
oil will cause a rapid increase in its permittivity.4,5 Therefore, changes in
the moisture content of oil can be measured by its permittivity, which
enables characterization of the degree of aging of the oil.
In the aviation field, off-line methods are mainly used to monitor oil
quality, including ferrography analysis, spectral analysis, particle
counting, and Karl Fischer titration.6,7 Karl Fischer titration is a standard
method for determining the moisture content of oil.8 However, this
method requires complicated chemical experiments and professional
laboratories and operators. The ferrography technique involves the ex-
traction of iron abrasive particles that are mixed in with the lubricating
oil and the analysis of the number of abrasive particles, as well as their
morphological characteristics and composition.9 However, this method
⁎ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: qiannanxue@tju.edu.cn (Q. Xue).
metal-pollutant particulate matter, and cannot detect primary pollut-
ants such as the water content.10 Spectroscopy techniques such as Fou-
rier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy can determine the initial
deterioration of oil by observing changes in the spectral absorption
peak,11 but these instruments are relatively large and expensive.
Recently, a number of sensor-based oil monitoring technologies
have been proposed. The online oil-moisture sensor technology devel-
oped in recent years is primarily electrical, wherein the principle is to
detect permittivity to determine the pollution status of the oil, because
the moisture content is a particularly sensitive aspect of oil permittivity.
A moisture sensor for lubricants has been developed that measures the
electrochemical performance of oil to assess its moisture content.12
There have also been reports regarding the determination of the deteri-
oration of oil by measuring the change in impedance of the oil
sample,13–15 which is related to the moisture content of pollutants, to
enable analysis of the degree of change in engine oil quality. However,
the existing technology uses larger probes, so smaller sensors must be
developed to enable in-situ portable testing.
In this paper, we introduce a hand-held device with a microsensor
chip for detecting the moisture content of oil. The proposed sensor,
which is based on an interdigitated microelectrode produced by a
microfabrication process, can deduce the moisture content of oil by
measuring the variation in the impedance value. The microcontainer
on the sensor quantifies the measured oil sample to ensure test

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.npe.2020.04.001
2589-5540/Copyright © 2020 Tianjin University. Publishing Service by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of KeAi Communications Co., Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

Please cite this article as: H. Liu, X. Tang, H. Lu, et al., An interdigitated impedance microsensor for detection of moisture content in engine oil,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.npe.2020.04.001
2 H. Liu et al. / Nanotechnology and Precision Engineering xxx (xxxx) xxx

accuracy. In this paper, we discuss the performance of the sensor, in-
cluding its sensitivity, accuracy, and consistency.
2. Design of the microsensor and hand-held system
2.1. Detection principle
If the oil is mixed with impurities, the complex permittivity is εmix
.
εimpu
is the equivalent complex permittivity of the impurity and εe
is
the complex permittivity of the base medium. α is the ratio of the vol-
ume of the medium to the total volume of the mixed solution.
 
kðε mix
−εe
Þ ¼ α  k0 εimpu
−εmix
ð3Þ

When oil deteriorates, water is the primary pollutant, and as the oil
where k and k’ are parameters associated with the intrinsic properties of
mixes with the water it generates microbial growth, increased acidity,
the sensor.18,19 The above formula is used to indicate the change in the
and turbidity. The incorporation of moisture in oil causes a large change
complex permittivity when fresh oil is mixed with impurities.
in its permittivity, which can be converted into impedance information
by the microsensor and then be captured by the circuit. The permittivity
2.2. Sensor design and fabrication
reflected by the impedance carries frequency information.16
The real part of complex permittivity is based on the ability of the
The microsensor, the front end of the whole system, makes contact
liquid to accommodate the induced polarization charge by the action
with the oil sample to be tested to obtain impedance information
of the electric field. The imaginary part can be understood as the loss
from the oil. The sensor is produced using a microfabrication process
caused by the relative displacement of the internally induced electric di-
in which the microelectrodes are screen printed and a microcontainer
pole moment of the liquid.17
is produced using 3D printing technology. These two parts are then
bonded together. An immersion gold technique is used to obtain a rela-
ε0 ε00
εr
¼ −i ð1Þ tively smooth sensing surface. The advantage of microfabrication tech-
ε0 ε0
nology is that it can be customized to obtain sensing structures with

00  excellent sensing performance. Another advantage is that it can be
ε mass produced, has good consistency, and is in low cost. Therefore,
δe ¼ acrtg 0 ð2Þ
ε the microsensor is replaceable to prevent changes in impedance due
to long-term use.
Here, ε0 (= 8.85 × 10−12 F/m) is the vacuum permittivity. The com- The microsensor in this study comprised an interdigitated micro-
plex permittivity is εr
, with ε′/ε0 representing the real part of the rela- electrode, the structure of which is shown in Fig. 1. We used FR4 (ε =
tive permittivity, ε′′/ε0 the imaginary part of the relative permittivity, 4.4 F/m20) as the substrate material, the dimensions of which are a
and δe is the loss angle. 13.4 mm, b 20.8 mm, and a thickness of 0.6 mm. The line width W1

Fig. 1. Structures of the interdigitated microelectrode (left) and microcontainer (right).

Fig. 2. Hand-held system framework.

Please cite this article as: H. Liu, X. Tang, H. Lu, et al., An interdigitated impedance microsensor for detection of moisture content in engine oil,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.npe.2020.04.001
 H. Liu et al. / Nanotechnology and Precision Engineering xxx (xxxx) xxx
(a)
Fig. 3. (a) Electric field distribution when measuring oil; (b) potential distribution when measuring water.
and line gap W2 are both 0.3 mm, L1 = 8 mm, W4 = 7.4 mm. The feed
length L2 is 10 mm and the feed width W3 is 3 mm. The working area
of the microsensor is limited to that of the 3D-printed container,
which has a cylindrical inner groove 4 mm in height and a radius of
3.5 mm. Using this container, the volume of the oil sample that can be
tested is limited to 150 μL. Maintaining a constant volume can prevent
impedance measurement errors due to changes in the sample volume.
2.3. Design of the hand-held system
The change in the oil impedance due to the moisture content is con-
verted into a digital signal, which is then sent to the core control circuit
for real-time data processing. The data are then transferred to the PC
and displayed in real time. Fig. 2 shows the hand-held system frame-
work. An STM32 microcontroller is used as the microcontroller unit of
the core control circuit, and an LCD12864 is used as the liquid crystal
display module. The function of the impedance analysis circuit is to ex-
tract impedance information from the microsensor. As the core chip of
the impedance analysis circuit, the AD5933 can achieve stable measure-
ment of the impedance values at a typical frequency range of
1–100 kHz.21 The impedance analysis circuit includes a detection chip,
a voltage stabilization circuit, an amplification circuit, and an interface,
the structure of which is shown in Fig. 2.
The calculations steps are as follows.22,23 The first step in impedance
measurement is to calculate the amplitude A and phase angle φ of the
Fourier transform at each sweep point:
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
A¼ R2 þ I 2
I tents. The responses based on the moisture contents exhibit significant
φ ¼ arctan
R
The calculation result is generally a complex number, the real part of
which is represented by R, and the imaginary part by I. The digital signal
output by the AD converter directly enters the digital signal processor
for discrete Fourier transform. The Fourier transform process is per-
formed at each scanning frequency point.
2.4. Materials and devices
The oil used in this study was Aviation Hydraulic Oil No.10 (Kunlun,
China), and its purity was analytical-grade. In the portable impedance
analyzer, we use a STM32-stm32f103rct6 chip as the main control cir-
cuit chip, an LCD12864 display module, and an AD5933 impedance
analysis chip.
Please cite this article as: H. Liu, X. Tang, H. Lu, et al., An interdigitated impedance microsensor for detection of moisture content in engine oil,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.npe.2020.04.001
3
(b)
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Sensor simulation
Oil is a weak electrolyte whose molar conductivity increases with di-
lution. As the moisture content increases, the permittivity of the solu-
tion increases, which reduces the resistivity and, correspondingly, the
impedance. The impedance of the designed sensing probe in oil was
simulated using COMSOL software. Fig. 3a and b show the electric
field distributions of the sensor in oil and water, respectively. We can
see that the electric field strength of the sensor in oil is significantly
higher than that in water, which means that it is feasible to use the
impedance-based sensor to detect the moisture content in oil. The rela-
tive permittivities of water and fresh oil2 are 80 and 2, respectively, and
that of contaminated oil is somewhere in between. We simulated the in-
terdigitated microelectrode in contact with three kinds of samples and
set the relative permittivity of the contaminated oil to 4. The simulated
impedance values are shown in Table 1. The results show that the im-
pedance values of the sensor decrease as the permittivity of the oil sam-
ple increases, which proves that the permittivity of the oil sample can be
reflected by measuring the impedance of the sensor.
3.2. Oil sample test
As shown in Fig. 4, we connected the hand-held device with the mi-
crosensor to the computer via a serial port, and uploaded impedance in-
formation to the computer, which displays the moisture information in
real time. Oil samples (0.0–0.45%) containing different moisture con-
ð4Þ tents were injected into the microcontainer for testing. The test was
performed at a room temperature of 20 °C. As shown in Fig. 5a, the im-
pedance curves clearly indicate oil samples with different moisture con-
ð5Þ differences in the test frequency range. In Fig. 5b, the impedance value
at 50 kHz is shown for each moisture content (n = 3). Although the
test values differ slightly from the simulated values, the trend in the
test results is consistent with that of the simulation, which accords
with the theoretical expectations. This shows that the impedance values
have a linear relationship with the moisture contents, with a linearity of
R2 = 0.98 and a sensitivity of 8.6 MΩ / (wt%) (Fig. 5b).
Table 1
Relationship between permittivity of oil sample and corresponding impedance value.
Sample Relative permittivity Impedance
|Z| (kΩ)
Fresh oil 2 3429
Polluted oil 4 1054
Water 80 120
4 H. Liu et al. / Nanotechnology and Precision Engineering xxx (xxxx) xxx
Fig. 4. System architecture of the oil-moisture-content detector.
Fig. 5. (a) Impedance curves for oil with different moisture contents; (b) test results of the relationship between moisture content and impedance value.
3.3. Accuracy and repeatability of the oil-moisture-content detection
In the experiment, standard oil samples A1, A2, A3, A4, and A5 were
configured with moisture contents of 0.05%, 0.15%, 0.25%, 0.35%, and
0.45%, respectively. Each oil sample was tested three times by the pro-
posed portable instrument. The index η was used to evaluate the mois-
ture level of the oil samples, the formula for which is as shown in
Eq. (6):
η ¼j Z 0 j = j Z d j; ð6Þ
Fig. 6. Test results for oil permittivity and moisture content η based on the detection of
standard moisture contents of 0.05% (1#–3#), 0.15% (4#–6#), 0.25% (7#–9#), 0.35%
(10#–12#), and 0.45% (13#–15#).
Please cite this article as: H. Liu, X. Tang, H. Lu, et al., An interdigitated impedance microsensor for detection of moisture content in engine oil,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.npe.2020.04.001
where Z0 is the impedance value of the fresh oil and Zd is the imped-
ance value of the tested oil. The results show that the index η measured
by the sensor increases with increases in the moisture content, and the
difference is clearly distinguishable. The permittivity of the pure oil, as
measured using the standard titration method, is 2.1, and changes in
the permittivity can be calculated based on the changes in impedance.
As shown in Fig. 6, with increases in the moisture content of the oil sam-
ple, the impedance value increases, and the dielectric constant also in-
creases. As shown in Table 2, the test results for the five oil samples
exhibited a good recovery of 99.31%–100.57%.
The same oil sample A1 (moisture content is 0.05%) was tested ten
times by two microsensor chips, respectively, the results of which are
shown in Table 3. We can see that the microsensor chips show very
slight deviation and high accuracy for the 20 measurements in the
two groups. The aging tests of the five groups of oils also showed good
accuracy with an error b0.5%, as shown in Table 3.
The above results confirm that the proposed interdigitated imped-
ance microsensor for oil-moisture content has good linearity and accu-
racy, as well as good repeatability and stability. Table 4 lists the
detection range, linearity, and device size of the existing methods. Com-
pared with existing methods, including the standard method,5 industri-
alized method,24 optical method,25 and electrochemical method,26 the
proposed sensor is smaller and its performance is comparable in detec-
tion range and linearity.
Table 2
Recovery of five sample groups for oil detection.
Group Recovery (%)
A1 100.32
A2 100.29
A3 100.22
A4 99.31
A5 100.57
 H. Liu et al. / Nanotechnology and Precision Engineering xxx (xxxx) xxx 5

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Tianjin University (No. Pilq1902), the Foundation for Talent Scientists of
Nanchang Institute for Micro-technology of Tianjin University, and the Haitao Liu received his M. S. degree in Electrical Engineering
Open Research Fund of Key Laboratory of MEMS of Ministry of Education, from Beijing University of Aeronautics & Astronautics
(BUAA), Beijing, in 1997 and his Ph.D. in Electrical Engineer-
Southeast University.
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(BUPT), Beijing, in 2006. From 2006 to 2009, he was a Post-
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Please cite this article as: H. Liu, X. Tang, H. Lu, et al., An interdigitated impedance microsensor for detection of moisture content in engine oil,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.npe.2020.04.001
6 H. Liu et al. / Nanotechnology and Precision Engineering xxx (xxxx) xxx

Qiannan Xue received her Ph.D. (2012) from the Institute of

Electronics, Chinese Academy of Sciences. She is currently
working as an Assistant Professor at the School of Precision
Instruments and Optoelectronics Engineering, Tianjin Uni-
versity. She is familiar with high-frequency circuit character-
istics and is committed to the research of micro-sensor
systems and micro-nano devices.

Please cite this article as: H. Liu, X. Tang, H. Lu, et al., An interdigitated impedance microsensor for detection of moisture content in engine oil,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.npe.2020.04.001