Question : What is pharmacognosy ?

"The study of the physical, biochemical and biological properties of natural drugs and their chemical
constituents. As well as the search for new drugs from natural sources."Pharmacognosy is the branch of
science which deals with the biological, biochemical and economic features of natural drugs and their
constituents.

Question : The word Pharmacognosy derived from which language

? and what is its meaning
The word "Pharmacognosy" is derived from the Greek words pharmakon “drug”, and gnosis "knowledge”. The
term Pharmacognosy was used for the first time by the Austrian physician Schmidt in 1811 and 1815 by
Seydler in a work.

Question : Describe Pharmacognosy according to 19th and 20th

century.
Originally - during the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century - "Pharmacognosy" was used to
define the branch of medicine which deals with drugs in their crude, or unprepared, form.

Question : Define scope of Pharmacognosy.

Pharmacognosy is the branch of science which deals with the biological, biochemical and economic features
of natural drugs and their constituents. It also deals with the study of; · Classification of Crude Drugs to
know about the class of the Drug · Cultivation, Collection, Drying, Storage, Preservation, Packing,
Evaluation and adulteration of Crude Drugs. · Plant growth hormones, for rapid & better growth of
plants. · Allergens & allergic preparations, to overcome the problems of Allergy. · Enzymes, to cure &
manage the diseases caused by Enzymatic Deficiency. · Poisonous Plants to prevent poison. · Herbal
drugs, used in traditional practice.

Question : What is Pharmacogonosy

The term Phamacognosy was used for the first time by the Austrian physician Schmidt in 1811 and 1815 by
Seydler in a work. The word "Pharmacognosy" is derived from the Greek words pharmakon "drug" and gnosis
" knowledge", Originally during the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century - "Pharmacognosy"
was used to define the branch of medicine which deals with drugs in their crude, or unprepared,
form.Pharmacongnosy is the branch of pharmacy which deals with the study of crude drugs of plant and
animal origin. ORThe branch of pharmacy which deals with the biological, biochemical and economic features
of natural drugs and their constituents. ORThe American Society of Pharmacognosy defines Pharmacognosy
defines Pharmacognosy as; "The study of the physical, the search for new drugs from natural sources."

Question : Write note on the history of pharmacognosy.

History of pharmacognosy:History of pharmacognosy is actually the history of medicine obtained from
medicinal plants. Drug discovery from natural products have played and continue to play an invaluable role as
sources of drugs or lead compounds in the prophylaxis and treatment of diseases. Plants, especially those
with pharmacological uses have been the primary sources of medicines and have an advantage over other
sources in drug discovery for various reasons. Pharmacognosy has been coined by the merger of two Greek
words "Phamrakon" means Drug and "Gnosis" means knowledge i . e. the knowledge of drugs. the
nomenclature 'Pharmacognosy' means knowledge i.e the knowledge of drugs. the nomenclature
'Pharmaconosy' was used first and foremost by C.A. Seydler. In 1815, C.A Seydler, a German who used the
word "pharmakognosie" in his book named Analecta Pharmacognostica, was referred to as the father of
pharmacognosy. In ancient the physician used to dignose and prescribe the remedy, while the apothecary
(pharmacist) was involved in collection, preparation and compounding of remedy.

Question : Discuss the scope of Pharmacognosy.

Pharmacognosy is the branch of science/pharmacy which deals with the study of drugs obtained from natrual
sources. Natural sources include both animals and plants sources but most of the drugs are obtained from
plant sources. Phamacognosy also deals with the study of Cultivation, Collection, Drying, Storage, Presevation,
Packing, Evaluation and adulteration of Crude Drugs.Scope of Pharmacognosy:Plants are still a potent source
of therapeutic agents and are popularized due to their EffectivenessEasy availability Low costHaving less side
effects.Active compounds have been isolated from plants which are used in modern medicine Plants provide
raw materials for some of the most important drugs Various active ingredients/compounds have been
isolated form plants which are used in modern medicine Isolation or analysis of phytochemical Structure
activity relationship Natural products as models for synthesis of new drugsDrugs of direct therapeutic
usesBiosynthetic pathways investigation Cultivation adn collection of medicinal plants Preparation of herbal
formulations Serve as a liaison between pharmacology and pharmaceutical chemistry Pharmacognosy is
helpful in fixing the final price of the products.

Question : Define crude drug with example.

A crude drug is any naturally occurring, unrefined substance derived from organic or inorganic sources such
as plant, animal, bacteria, organs or whole organisms intended for use in the diagnosis, cure, treatment, or
prevention of disease in man or other animals. e.g Acacia, Tragacanth , Digitalis , Clove etc
Question : Classify crude drugs.
Crude Drugs can be classified in following ways. 1. Morphological Method 2. Taxonomical Method
3. Pharmacological Method 4. Chemical Method

Question : What is morphological method of classification of crude

drugs ?
In this method, drugs are classified according to their part used. e.g. Leaves are used Digitallis, Pudina, Senna,
Squill Hyoscyamus, Belladona

Question : Give examples of organized drugs whose roots and

rhizomes are used.
Ginger, Glycyrrhiza, Ipecac, Rauwolfia, Rhubarb

Question : Give examples of organized drugs whose seeds are

used.
Bitter Almond, Cardamom, Nux vomica, Strophanthus

Question : Give examples of unorganized drugs whose fixed oils are

used.
Castor, Almond

Question : What is purgative action? Give examples of natural

drugs.
A drug having strong laxative effect. i.e Purging or cleansing, especially by causing evacuation of the
bowels.e.g Aloe, Senna, Castor oil
Question : What is cardio tonic action? Give examples of natural
drugs.
A cardiotonic is a substance that has a favorable effect upon the action of the heart. Drugs that have
beneficial action on the heart are classed as cardiotonics.e.g Digitallis, Strophanthus

Question : Give examples of drugs containing carbohydrates and

glycosides.
Carbohydrates: Agar, Acacia, Tragacanth, Starch Glycosides: Aloe, Senna, Glycyrrhiza, Digitalis

Question : Give examples of drugs containing volatile oils and

alkaloids.
Volatile oils: Cinnamon, Fennel, Clove, Caraway Alkaloids: Belladona, Hyoscyamus

Question : Give examples of drugs containing resins , tannins and

proteins.
Resins: Ginger, Asafeotida, Benzoin, Tannins: Black catechu Proteins: Papain, Bromelain, Gelatin

Question : Enlist any three Chemical method of Classification.

CarbohydratesAgar, Acacia, Tragacanth, StarchGlycosidesAloe, Senna, Glycyrrhiza, DigitalisVolatile
oilsCinnamon, Fennel, Clove, Caraway

Question : What are crude drugs?

Drug:Any substance used in the treatment, prevention or diagnosis of disease is known as drug. Diagnosis is
the determination of nature of disease.Crude drugsCrude drugs are plant, animal and their parts which after
collection are subjected only to drying or making them into transverse or longitudinal pieces or peeling
(stripping off skin or bark). ORThe drugs which are obtained from natural sources and have undergone only
the process of collection and drying. ORThe unrefined drugs are called crude drugs. For example; Fennel
(sunf), Coriander (dhania) etc. They exist in natural forms. Crude drugs may be derived from various natural
sources like plants, animals, minerals and microorganisms etc.
Question : Alphabetical Classification:
In this type of classification the crude drugs are arranged in alphabetically order just like the words arranged
in dictionaries. This methods is mostly adopted in certain books including British Pharmacopoeia (BP), British
Pharmacopoeia Codex (BPC), United States of Pharmacopoeia (USP) (English), European Pharmacopoeia
(Latin) etc.Advantages: It is simple method, in this system location, tracing and addition of the drug is easy.
Not technical person is required for handling the system.Disadvantages: Scientific nature of the drug cannot
be identified by this method, whether they are organised or unorganised drug.This system does not help in
distinguishing the drugs of plant, animal and mineral source. (Original source is not clear)

Question : Define Angular.

Having sharp angles or corners, generally used in reference to structures such as stems to contrast them with
rounded stems

Question : Define Basal.

It means at or near the base, often describing leaves and where they attach.

Question : Define Deltoid and Dense.

Deltoid: broadly triangular in shape Dense: congested, describing the disposition of flowers.

Question : Define Gall and Glans.

Gall: an abnormal growth on a plant that is caused by insects Glans: a dry dehiscent fruit born in a cupule,
such as aco n

Question : Define Habit and Leaflet.

Habit: the overall appearance of a plant Leaflet: one segment of a compound leaf

Question : Define Rhizome and Xylem

Rhizome: an underground stem capable of producing new stems or plants at its nodes Xylem: the water-
conducting tissue of vascular plants

Question : What is stem and Pulp?

Stems :Stems do many things. Support the upper parts of plants, They act like the plant's plumbing system,
conducting water and nutrients from the roots and food in the form of glucose from the leaves to other plant
parts. All plants have stems. Stems grow up into the air and towards the light. The leaves and flowers are on
the stems.Pulp: The soft, juicy, edible part of a fruit is called pulp.

Question : Define fruit and seed.

Fruit:A "fruit" is the seed-bearing part of a plant; Fruits have been heavily used for medicinal purposes. Dried
whole fruits or portions of fruits can be used. Many members of the carrot family have fruits that are used in
medicine including fennel fruit and anise.Seeds: A seed is a small embryonic plant enclosed in a covering
called the seed coat, usually with some stored food. The seeds of many plants are used for their medicinal
properties. Seeds may be contained within a fruit or are sometimes used on their own.

Question : Define root and Bark.

Roots The part of a plant which attaches it to the ground or to a support, typically underground, conveying
water and nourishment to the rest of the plant via numerous branches and fibers. The fleshy or woody roots
are used for medicinal purposes. Roots may be solid (ginseng), fibrous (stinging nettle), or fleshy (devil’s
claw).BarkThe protective outer layer of a tree trunk that is formed by layers of living cells above the wood.
Active ingredients are often found in higher concentrations in the bark. Examples of bark used for medicinal
properties are quinine bark, oak bark.

Question : Define bulb and wood.

Wood The hard fibrous material that forms the main substance of the plant is called wood. Thick stems or the
wood of trees or shrubs are used for medicinal properties. BulbA bulb is defined as a fleshy structure
comprised of numerous layers of leaf bases otherwise known as bulb scales. Onion species and garlic bulbs
are popular for medicinal uses.

Question : Define Rhizomes and Herb.

RhizomesA rhizome is defined as a fleshy or woody elongated stem that usually grows horizontally below the
ground. Rhizomes often produce leaves above the ground and roots into the ground. Several medicinal plants
are used primarily for their rhizomes including: ginger, wild columbine, and bloodroot.HerbHerb, in botany, is
a plant that does not form a woody stem, and in temperate climates usually dies, either completely (annual
herb) or back to the roots (perennial herb) by the end of the growing season.

Question : Define gum and resins.

GumGums are solids that are mixtures of polysaccharides (sugars). They are water-soluble and are in part
digestible by humans.ResinsResins are a mixture of essential oils and terpenes that are usually not soluble in
water. They are excreted by specialized cells or in ducts of plants. Examples include frankincense, myrrh, and
mastic.

Question : Define flower and Stems.

StemsStems do many things. Support the upper parts of plants, They act like the plant's plumbing system,
conducting water and nutrients from the roots and food in the form of glucose from the leaves to other plant
parts. All plants have stems. Stems grow up into the air and towards the light. The leaves and flowers are on
the stems.FlowersA flower is the reproductive structure found in plants. The flowers of plants have always
been popular in traditional medicine. Examples include clove and chamomile flowers.

Question : Define Leaves and Roots.

Leaves :Flattened structures of a higher plant, typically green and blade-like, that are attached to a stem are
called leavesRoots: The part of a plant which attaches it to the ground or to a support, typically underground,
conveying water and nourishment to the rest of the plant via numerous branches and fibers. The fleshy or
woody roots are used for medicinal purposes. Roots may be solid (ginseng), fibrous (stinging nettle), or fleshy
(devil’s claw).

Question : Define ovary.

The basal portion of a pistil where female germ cells develop into seeds after germination

Question : Define exudate.

A substance exuded or secreted from a plant
Question : Define dendate.
With sharp, outward-pointing teeth on the margin

Question : Define capillary.

A structure that is very slender and hair like

Question : Define basifixed.

attached by the base

Question : Define Acaulescent:.

stem less

Question : What are Stems

Stems: Stem is he part of a plant that grows above ground and provides support for the upper parts of plants.
They act like the plant's plumbing system, conducting water and nutrients from the roots and fod in the form
of glucose from the leaves to other plant pats. All plants have stems. Stems grow up into the air and towards
the light.

Question : What is Bark

Bark: The protective outer layer of a tree trunk that is formed by layers of living cells above the wood. Active
ingredients are often found in higher concentrations in the bark. Examples of bark used for medicinal
properties are quinine bark, cinchona bark, oak bark.

Question : What is Wood

Wood: The hard fibrous material that forms the main substance of the plant is called wood. Thick stems or the
wood of trees or shrubs are used for medicinal properties.
Question : What is Fruit
Fruit: Fruit is the ripened ovary containing seeds. Examples of fruits having medicinal properties are caraway,
fennel, coriander, cardamom etc.

Question : What is Pulp

Pulp: The soft, juicy, edible part of a fruit is called pulp.

Question : What is Seeds:

Seeds: A seed is a small embryonic plant enclosed in a covering called the seed coat, usually with some stored
food. The seeds of many plants are used for their medicinal properties. Seeds may be contained within a fruit
or are sometimes used on their own.

Question : What are Flowers:

Flowers: A flower is the reproductive structure found in plants. The flowers of plants have always been
popular in traditional medicine. Examples include clove and chamomile flowers.

Question : What is Ovary

Ovary: the basal portion of a pistil where female germ cells develop into seeds after germination

Question : What are Leaves:

Leaves: Flattened structures of a higher plant, typically green and blade-like, that are attached to a stem are
called leaves.

Question : What is Leaflet

Leaflet: One segment of a compound leaf
Question : What is Dentate:
Dentate: Leaves with sharp, outward-pointing teeth on the margin

Question : What is Glabrous

Glabrous: Without hairs and smooth

Question : What is Glandular

Glandular: Producing tiny globules of sticky or oily substance

Question : What are Roots:

Roots: The art of a plant which lack chlorophyll, buds and leaves and grow away from sun light. Root is the
vascular undergroud part of plant. Roots may be solid (ginseng), fibrous (stinging nettle), or fleshy (devil's
claw).

Question : What is Xylem

Xylem: The water-conducting tissue of vascular plants

Question : What is Phloem

Phloem: The food-conducting tissue of vascular plants

Question : What is Bulb

Bulb: A bulb is defined as a fleshy structure comprised of numerous layers of lea bases otherwise known as
bulb scales. Onion species and garlic bulbs are popular for medicinal uses.
Question : What are Rhizomes:
Rhizomes: A rhizome is defined as a fleshy or woody elongated stem that usually grows horizonatlly below the
ground. Rhizomes often produce leaves above the ground and roots into the ground. Several medicinal plants
are used primarly for their rhizomes including: ginger, wild columbine, and bloodroot.

Question : What is Herb

Herb: Herb, in botany, is a plant that does not form a woody stem and in temperate climates usually dies,
either completely (annual herb) or back to the roots (perennial herb) by the end of the growing season.

Question : What is Acaulescent

Acaulescent: Having no stem or only a very short one concealed in the ground (Stem less)

Question : What is Acerose:

Acerose: Needle-shaped leaves, as the leaves of pine

Question : What is Basal:

Basal: At the base or near the base, often describing leaves and where they attach

Question : What is Capillary:

Capillary: very slender and hair like

Question : What is Capillary:

Capillary: Very slender and hair like

Question : What is Exudate:

Exudate: A substance exuded or secreted from a plant

Question : What is Gal

Gall: An abnormal growth on a plant that is caused by insects. Most galls are caused by irritation and/or
stimulation of plant cells due to feeding or egg-laying by insect.

Question : What is Habitat:

Habitat: Place of living/occurance

Question : What is evaluation of crude drug?

Identification of a drug and determination of its quality & purity is called Evaluation of Drug. Following
methods are frequently employed for the determination of quality & purity of Crude Drugs. · Organoleptic
Evaluation · Physical Evaluation · Chemical Evaluation · Biological Evaluation.

Question : What is organolaptic evaluation of drugs?

Organoleptic Evaluation refers to evaluate the crude drug by using organ’s senses which include its external
features & morphology.It includes Study of Morphological Characters Study of Microscopic Characters

Question : Describe study of morphological characters of crude drugs.

To study morphology of drug, its shape & size, color, external marking, fracture, odour and taste are
examined. The organized drugs are classified into; · Barks e.g. Cinnamon · Leaves e.g. Senna &
Tulsi · Flowers e.g. Clove · Seeds e.g. Nux-Vomica · Herbs e.g. Pudina The external marking
can be studied on the following mentioned terms; · Annulations. · Nodules. · Projections
Wrinkles

Question : How external markings of plants/crude drugs can be studied ?

The external marking can be studied on the following mentioned terms; · Annulations. · Nodules.
· Projections Wrinkles
Question : Describe study of microscopic characters of crude drugs?
Microscope is also used for a quantitative evaluation of drugs and adulterated powders. This is done by
counting specific features such as stomatal number. · Stomatal Number; The
average number of stomata per square millimeter of epidermis is known as stomatal number

Question : Write a note on physical evaluation of crude drugs.

Physical constants are frequently applied to Alkaloids, Glycosides, Volatile Oils, Fixed oils, Tannins & Sugar
drugs to check their quality & purity. Physical Constants such as; Ø Elasticity in fibers Ø Viscosity of drugs
containing gums Ø Swelling factor of mucilage Ø Melting & Boiling point of crude drugs

Question : What are spectroscopic analysis and chromatographic analysis?

Spectroscopic Analysis (UV, IR, NMR, and MASS) and radioimmuno assays are applied frequently to check the
Physical constants of herbal drugs. Chromatographic techniques such as Paper Chromatography, Thin Layer
chromatography, HPLC & Gas liquid Chromatography provide information about the chemical constituents
present in the Crude Drug.

Question : What is chemical evaluation of drugs?

Chemical Evaluation involves the determination of quality; quantity & purity of Crude Drugs through Chemical
Test. Chemical test for Alkaloids, Amino Acids, Carbohydrates, Glycosides, Tannins, Volatile Oils and Fixed oils
are performed to ensure their quality. Titrimmetric Assay, Ester Value, Saponification Value,
Acid Value and Ash Value are determined in chemical evaluation.

Question : Write a note on biological evaluation of crude drugs.

Biological Evaluation (biological assay) is a type of scientific experiment carried out on intact animals, animal
preparation, isolated living tissues or micro-organisms. Since living organisms are used the assays are called
“biological assay”.

Question : Write techniques of Biological assay.

There are basically two types of Biological evaluations, Quantal & Graded. Following are the Techniques which
are used in Biological evaluation of Crude Drugs; · Matching Biological Assay · Interpolation
Biological Assay · Bracketing Biological Assay · Multiple Biological Assay
Question : Write any three example of morphological characteristics.
Barks e.g. Cinnamon Leaves e.g. Senna & TulsiFlowers e.g. Clove

Question : Name any three external markings.

Annulations. Nodules. Projections

Question : Name any three physical contants.

Elasticity in fibers Viscosity of drugs containing gums Swelling factor of mucilage

Question : Name any three biological assay techniques.

Matching Biological Assay Interpolation Biological Assay Bracketing Biological Assay

Question : What is drug evaluation

The determination of identity, Purity and quality of a drug is called drug evaluation. Determination of
identity:The identification can be established by careful observational study of the collected drug, and then
compared with authentic specimen by the collector. For proper identification of a drug from plant or animal
sources, a collector must be educated about plant taxonomy. Therefore, drugs from plants/animals are
identified by-A qualified, specialized & experienced personnelComparison with the authentic sample
specimen.Determination of quality:The word "quality" refers to the intrinsic value of the drugs, i.e.,the amount
of medicinal principles or active constituents present. These principles are classified as carbohydrate, alkaloid,
primary importance, An effort should be made to obtain and maintain high quality . To maintain high quality
products one should do the following:Select proper source (wild or cultivated)Appropriate time of
collectionCollection of required parts of plants (bark, leaf, stem, rhizome, root)Preparation of the collected
drug by proper cleaning, drying.Proper preservation to avoid contamination by microorganisms and moisture,
heat, air and light.Determination of purity:Purity is the extent of foreign organic material present in a crude
drug. T he purity of drug can be achieved by;Proper identificationQuality assurancePurpose of drug
evaluation:To determine biochemical variationTo identify deterioration To report substitution and
adulteration

Question : Organoleptic and morphological evaluation:

Organoleptic evaluation means the study or evaluation of a drug with the help of organs of sens. The
Organoleptic and morphological evaluation of a drug include study of morphology and other sensory
characters.a) Study of morphology:It includes the visual examination of drug. These drugs are classified into
the following groups.Barks Underground structuresLeavesFlowersFruitsSeedsHerbsb) Study of sensory
characters:These characters include Colour, Texture, Odour and Taste which are useful in the evaluation of
drugs.Colour: Some drugs are green in colour when bried in shade. But they become pale and bleached when
dried in sunlight.Odour: The odour of the drug may be either distinct or indistinct. The terms used for the
drugs are aromatic, balsamic, spicy etc. Mentha, clove are some of the examples for the drugs which have a
distinct odour.Taste: The drugs may be evaluated by taste also. the taste may be saline, sour, salty, sweet,
bitter, alkaline etc. The substances without taste are regarded as tasteless. Examples : Ginger,
Capsicum.Texture: Sometimes drugs can be examinated by their consistency, texture and nature of fracture.
Example: Colocynth can be compressed easily since its parenchyma is loose.

Question : Chemical Evaluation:

It is the determination of active ingredient in a drug by means of chemical tests and instrumental methods. In
this method characteristic qualitative chemical tests are employed to identify crude drugs and their
constituents. Chemical assays are best to determine potency and active constituents. It comprises different
test and assays. The isolation, purification and identification of active constituents are the methods of
evaluation. Quantitative chemical test such as acid value, saponificaion value etc are also covered under these
techniques.

Question : Physical Evaluation:

In this method the physical properties of drugs are checked. The physical evaluation of crude drugs is
accomplished by the determination of various physical characteristics using various physico-chemical
techniques, for example, specific gravity (of fats and volatile oils), melting points (of alkaloids), optical rotation
(of alkaloid and volatile oils), etc. Physical contents such as elasticity in fibers, viscosity of drugs, congealing
point of volatile and fixed oils, Melting point, boiling points, water contents are some important parameters
used in the evaluation of drugs. Ultraviolet light is also used for determing the fluorescence of extracts of
some drugs.

Question : Microscopic evaluation:

Microscopic evaluation: In this method evaluation is done with the help of microscope for identification of the
pure drug. This method allows more detailed examination of a drug and their identification by their known
histological characters. This can be done by powdering, cutting thin sections of the drug or preparing a
macerate and counting a specific histological feature such as,Stomatal Number Stomatal IndexVein-islet
Number Palisade RatioQuantitative MicroscopyRefractive Index
Question : Biological Evaluation:
Biological Evaluation: It is applied when the drug can't be evaluated by chemical or physical method. In this
method response produced by test drug on living system is compared to that of a standard preparation
pharmacological activities of drugs are evaluated by bioassays. When the estimation of potency of crude drug
or its preparations are done by means of measuring its effect on living organisms like bacteria, fungal growth,
or animal tissue, it is known as biological effect of the drug, compared to the standard drug. By these
methods, a crude drug can be assessed and further clinical trial can be recommended. E.g: Bacteria is used to
determine the antiseptic activity of certain drugs.

Question : What are enzymes?

The enzymes can be defined as “These are the catalysts of biological system that are produced by the living
cell which are capable of catalyzing the biological reaction. E.g Lipase , Transferase.

Question : What is catalyst?

Catalyst is a chemical which is inorganic in nature used to boost up chemical reaction but it is not utilized itself
in the chemical reaction. All enzymes are catalyst but all catalysts are not enzymes.

Question : What are organic and inorganic substances and

substrates?
All the chemicals that contain mainly carbon are called organic substances.All the chemicals that are not
containing carbon are called inorganic substances.The molecules on which enzymes can act are called as
substrates.

Question : Explain catalytic property of enzymes?

Small amount of enzymes can catalyzed the large amount of substrate in a Biological
reaction. Example Sucrase enzyme in its small amount easily catalyzed the hydrolytic reaction of
the sucrose.

Question : Explain solubility of enzymes.

Enzymes are mostly soluble in water and dilute alcohol solution. The Enzymes can precipitate in the following
solvents. 4 1- Concentrated Alcohol 2- Ammonium Sulphate 3- Tricholro Acetic Acid.

Question : Explain enzymatic property and pH of enzymes.

The velocity of the enzymatic reaction increases as the concentration of the substrates increases up to certain
maximum. But after certain period of time it decreases. pH Acids: Acids deactivate those
enzymes that act at alkaline PH e.g. Trypsin act at alkaline PH 8.57. At acidic PH it will destroy. Trypsin is an
enzyme that secreted by Pancreas and very important for proper digestion of
food. Bases: Bases deactivate the enzymes that act at acidic PH e.g. pepsin act at acidic PH 1-2.
At alkaline PH, it will destroy.

Question : What is the effect of temperature on enzymes?

Optimum temperature is 96 F-to-99F . The optimum temperature for enzymatic activity is regard
between 35 centigrade to 40 centigrade. At 0 °c ---------------- Inactive 10° c to 20° c ---------------- Very
little active 35° c to 40° c ---------------- Maximum active 50° c ---------------- Inactive 60° c -----------
----Destroy In solid Condition it may be stable up to 100 ° c.

Question : Write a note on Bromelain.

1. Sources of Bromelein It is obtained from juice and stem of “Ananas
comosus”. Family; Bromeliaceae 2. Molecular weight: 2800 mmol 3. Color: Light
yellow color Or Buff Color. 4. Solubility: It is very much soluble in; v Water. v Alcohol v Chloroform

Question : Write down uses of Bromelain.

It is used as a Supporting agent in the treatment of inflammation and edema. It is widely used in leather
factory. It is used in the production of protein. It is very effective agent that can easily tenderize the meat.

Question : Describe preparation of papain.

Papain is dried latex obtained from green fruits and leaves of “Carica
papaya” Family: Caricaceae Preparation The latex is obtained by making 2-4 longitudinal incisions, on the
surface of nearly mature but green fruits while still on the tree. The incisions are made early in the morning, at
intervals of 3-7 days. The exudate is collected in non-metallic container.
Question : Write down uses of Papain.
Tenderizing of meat. Used as protein digestant, as Antihelmintic (nematode) Clarification of beverages. (Soft
& Hard drinks) It is used to remove the protein molecules from contact lenses.

Question : Write down classification of enzymes.

Enzymes can be classifies byOld Method and New Method Old Method : By using this method, the
Enzymes are named by adding Suffix “Ase” to the name of the substrate. e.g. Lipase _____________
Hydrolyzing the Fats Cellulase ____________ Hydrolyzing the Cellulose. New method:This method is also
known as IEC Method (International Enzymes Commission).In new method, the fundamental principals of
giving the names to the enzymes are their basic function in addition of “Ase”.

Question : Define esterases and amindases.

1-Esterases It is the group of enzymes that hydrolyzed the lipids. e.g. Lipase: It is present in pancreatic
juice of animals and human body and oily seeds. Lipase hydrolyses the fat Molecules to fatty acids &
Glycerin. 2- Amindases These are the enzymes that are present in liver and intestinal mucosa. They will be
catalyses the ammonia related break down reaction. e.g. Arginases:It converts Arginine to Urea. Ureases: It is
found in liver cells and soyabean seeds. It converts urea into ammonia and carbon dioxide.

Question : Define Nucleases and carbohydrases.

1-Nucleases: These are the group of enzymes that act on the nucleotides. e.g. Ribonucleases → RNA
Deoxyribonucleases → DNA 2- Carbohydrases: This class is named after those enzymes that can catalyses
breakdown of sugar molecules in a biological reaction. e.g. Sucrase:It is present in yeast and intestinal
juice. It causes hydrolyses of sucrose into glucose and fructose. Maltase: It is also present in Intestinal
Juice. It converts maltose to glucose.

Question : What is new method for classification of enzymes?

New method: This method is also known as IEC Method (International Enzymes Commission).In new
method, the fundamental principals of giving the names to the enzymes are their basic function in addition of
“Ase”. The classes of enzymes include. 1. Dehydrogenase 2. Oxidases 3. Hydrolases 4. Ligase
or Synthetase
Question : What are proteolytic enzymes.
Proteolytic enzymes are the protein digestive enzymes. These enzymes catalyses the protein breakdown
reactions. e.g. Pepsin: It is found in gastric juice of animals. It digests the protein by converting then into
proteases and peptone. Rennin: It is a milk coagulating enzyme found in the mucous membrane of fresh
stomach of mammals. It curdles protein of Milk.

Question : Define hydrolyses and Ligases.

1. Hydrolases These are the enzymes that boost up the speed of the hydrolysis reaction without any
regard of the substrate. 2. Ligase or Synthetase It is an enzyme that promotes or boost up the speed of
the reactions in which new bonds are formed with the cleavage of ATP (Adenosine Tri Phosphate.)

Question : Define dehydrogenases and oxidases.

1. Dehydrogenase It is an enzyme that acts on the substrates and remove their hydrogen
molecule. 2. Oxidases It is an enzyme that catalyses the oxidation reaction without any regard of the
substrate.

Question : Discuss solubility of bromelain.

Bromelain is very much soluble in; Water. Alcohol Chloroform

Question : Discuss solubility of papain.

It is incompletely soluble in water But insoluble in alcohol, ether and acetone.

Question : Discuss collection of papain.

The latex is obtained by making 2-4 longitudinal incisions, on the surface of nearly mature but green fruits
while still on the tree. The incisions are made early in the morning, at intervals of 3-7 days. The exudate is
collected in non-metallic container.
Question : Define enzymes and catalyst. What is the difference
between enzyme and catalyst?
Enzyme:Enzymes are the biological catalysts that are produced by the living cell which are capable of
catalyzing the biological reaction. ORThe enzymes are the organic catalysts produced by the living organisms
which speed up the rate of the biochemical reaction. Enzymes are protein in nature.Catalysts: Catalyst is an
agent that increases the velocity of a reaction without appearing in the final product. It accelerate the rate of
reaction without undergoing any permanent change. Eg. Platinium, zinc, vanadium (OR)Catalyst is a chemical
which is inorganic in nature used speed up chemical reaction but it is not utilized itself in the chemical
reaction. All enzymes are catalyst but all catalysts are not enzymes.Difference between Enzyme and
Catalyst:EnzymesAll the enzymes are organic substancesEnzymes mostly destroy during the reaction.Enzymes
are more specific in nature.Enzymes are very complex in nature.Speed of the enzyme reaction dose not
depend on the concentration of enzyme.CatalystsAll the catalysts are inorganic substances.Catalysts are not
destroyed in the chemical reaction.Catalysts are non-specific in Nature.Catalysts are very simple compounds
or substancesSpeed of catalyst reaction will depends upon the concentration of catalyst.

Question : What is substrate?

Substrate:The substance on which the enzymes act to convert them into product.The reactant in biochemical
reaction is termed as substrate.When a substrate binds to an enzyme it forms an enzyme-substrate complex.

Question : Write short note on the properties of enzymes.

Properties of enzymes:1. Catalytic property: Small amount of enzyme can catalyze the large amount of
substrate in biological reactions.Enzymatic property: the velocity of enzymatic reaction increase as the
concentration of up to certain maximum but after certain period of time it decreases 3. Solubility: Enzymes
are mostly soluble in water and dilute alcohol solution. The enzyme can precipitate in concentrated alcohol,
ammonium sulphate, acetic acid.4. Specificity: Enzymes are specific in nature and catalyze a specific
reaction.5. Protein in Nature: All enzymes are protein in nature with large molecular weight. 6. PH: Acids
deactivates/destroy those enzymes that act act alkaline PH. E.g: Trypsin (an important enzyme secreted by
pancrease and very important for proper digestion of food). While base deactivates those enzymes that act at
acidic PH. E.g: Pepsin 7. Temperature: Optimum temperature for enzyme activity is 35oC to 40oCAt 0oC it
become inactiveAt 10oC to 20oC = Little activityAt 35oC to 40oC = Maximum activityAt 50oC = InactivateAt
60oC = Destroy

Question : Write note nomenclature of enzyme.

The nomenclature of enzymes is enzymes is derived from their substrates or the catalyzed chemical reactions,
and "ase" is usually added as a suffix. e.g.Lipase; Hydrolyzing the Fats, Lip for lipids (Fats) and ase if
suffix Cellulase; Hydrolyzing the Cellulose. Cellul for cellulose and ase is suffix Oxidase: Catalyze oxidation
reaction, Oxid for oxidation reaction and ase is suffixHydrolases: Catalyze hydrolysis reaction. Hydrola for
hydrolysis reaction and ase in suffixSome enzymes were named before a systematic way of naming enzyme
was formed. Example: pepsin, trypsin and rennin

Question : Old Method of enzyme classification.

In this method enzymes are classified on the basis of nature of substrate. According to old method of
classification enzymes are classified into the following classes.1. Esterases:Catalyze the hydrolysis of lipids.
E.g. Lipase2. CarbohydrasesCatalyze the breakdown of sugars. E.g. Surase, Maltase3. AmidasesCatalyze the
breakdown of amino containing compounds. E.g. Arginase 4. NucleasesCatalyze the hydrolysis of nucleic acid.
E.ge Ribonuclease 5. Nuclein DeaminaseCatalyze the hydrolysis of nucleic bases. E.g. Adenine, deaminase6.
Proteolytic enzymesCatalyzes the protein breakdown reactions. E.g. Rennin, Pepsin

Question : Define enzymes and catalyst. What is the difference

between enzyme and catalyst?
Enzyme:Enzymes are the biological catalysts that are produced by the living cell which are capable of
catalyzing the biological reaction. ORThe enzymes are the organic catalysts produced by the living organisms
which speed up the rate of the biochemical reaction. Enzymes are protein in nature.Catalysts: Catalyst is an
agent that increases the velocity of a reaction without appearing in the final product. It accelerate the rate of
reaction without undergoing any permanent change. Eg. Platinium, zinc, vanadium (OR)Catalyst is a chemical
which is inorganic in nature used speed up chemical reaction but it is not utilized itself in the chemical
reaction. All enzymes are catalyst but all catalysts are not enzymes.Difference between Enzyme and
Catalyst:EnzymesAll the enzymes are organic substancesEnzymes mostly destroy during the reaction.Enzymes
are more specific in nature.Enzymes are very complex in nature.Speed of the enzyme reaction dose not
depend on the concentration of enzyme.CatalystsAll the catalysts are inorganic substances.Catalysts are not
destroyed in the chemical reaction.Catalysts are non-specific in Nature.Catalysts are very simple compounds
or substancesSpeed of catalyst reaction will depends upon the concentration of catalyst.

Question : New Method:

A systematic classification of enzymes has been developed by International Enzyme Commission. this method
is also known as IEC Method (International Enzymes Commission). In new method, the classification is based
on the type of reactions catalyzed by enzymes.According to the type reactions that the enzymes catalyze,
enzymes are classified into seven categories, which are oxidoreductases, transferases and hydrolases are the
most abundant forms of enzymes. Individual enzyme classes are further classified systematically based on the
chemical name of the substrate and its reaction mechanism. 8. Oxidoreductases Catalyze redox reaction and
can be categorized into oxidase and reductase9. transferases:Catalyze the transfer or exchange of certain
groups among some substrates10. HydrolasesCatalyze hydrolysis reaction11. Lyases: Promote the removal of
a group from the substrate to leave a double bond reaction or catalyze its reverse reaction.12.
Isomerases:Facilitate the conversion of isoisomers, geometric isomers or optical isomers.13. Ligase or
synthase:Catalyze the synthesis of two molecular substrates into one molecular compound with the release
energy. Speed up reactions (Synthetic reaction) in which new bonds are formed.14. Translocases:Catalyze the
movement of ions or molecules across membranes or their separation within membranes

Question : Bromelain Enzyme:

Nature: Bromelain is a proteolytic enzyme Botanical Source: Obtained from the stem & ripened fruit of
pineapple plant juice of Annanas Sativa ( pineapple)Family: BromeliaceaeDescription:Molecular weight: 2800
mmolOdour: OdourlessColor: Buff colored powderTaste: AcridSolubility: Soluble in water, alcohol and
chaloroformCollection and preparation:Fresh stem & fruits were collected, washed with H2O2 solution,
peeled off, cut into small pieces.Juice is collected from fresh pineapple stem & fruit by homogenization, in the
presence of sodium acetate buffer solution & filtered.500 ml of filtrate is collected.Benzoic acid/sodium
benzoate was added as a preservative at a conc. Of 1 gm/kg.Filtrate obatained was called as crude extract. In
that bromelain is added then by centrifugation for 10 min. At 2000 rpm, 4000 rpm & 6000 rpm at 4oC, after
supernant was collected.Uses:Angina, Dysmenorrhea & other CVS disorder.ArthritisAthletics
injuriesBronchitisBurn debridementCancerDermatological conditionDigestive disorderPancreatic
insufficiencyThrombophlebitis

Question : Discuss Papain enzyme in detail.

PAPAIN ENZYME:Nature: Papain is a protolytic enzymeBotanical Source: Papain is dried latex obtained from
green fruits and leaves of "Carica papaya"Family: CaricaceaeGeographical sources:Indigenous to tropical
America Cultivated in Sri Lanka, Tanzania, Hawaii, FloridaPlant descriptionPlant attains height of 5-6
metersFruit grows to a length of about 12 inches (30cm)Weight of fruit is about 5 kgMolecular weight: 25710
mmol ( mill mole)Colour and appearance: Amorphous light whitish color powderSolubility: Partially soluble in
water but insoluble in alcohol, ether and acetone Collection procedure:The epicarp of the fruit adheres to the
orange colour, fleshy sarcocarp, which surrounds the central cavity.Cavity contains a mass of nearly black
seeds Full grown but unripe fruits are subjected to shallow incisions on the 4 sides.Latex flow for few seconds
and then soon coagulatesLatex is then collectedAfter collection coagulatedlumps are shredded and dried by
sun or by artificial heatLater methods yield better grades of crude papainIncisions & collections are made at
weekly intervals as long as the fruit exudes the latex.Crude papain is purified by dissolving in distilled water
and then precipitating with alcoholUses:As antihelmintic (nematode)For clarification of beveragesAs meat
tenderizerIt can digest 35 times of its own weight of lean meatFor removal of protein on on the surface of soft
contact lensesBest grade of papain can digest 300 times of its own weight of egg albuminIt is used as protein
digestant as it has same action on protein as that of Pepsin Used to relieve the symptoms of episiotomy
Question : Define hypersensitivity.
Hypersensitivity (also called hypersensitivity reaction) refers to undesirable (damaging, discomfort-producing
and sometimes fatal) reactions produced by the normal immune system.

Question : Define allergy and antibody.

Allergy is a specific hypersensitivity of an individual to foreign particles usually a protein to which a specific
individual is exposed.” Antibody: An antibody is a type of protein. The body's immune system
produces antibodies when it detects harmful substances, called antigens.

Question : Write down allergic symptoms observed in Airways and

Eyes.
Eyes redness and itching of the conjunctiva (allergic conjunctivitis) Airways Sneezing, coughing,
bronchoconstriction, wheezing and dyspnea (shortness of breath) , sometimes attacks of asthma.

Question : Write down allergic symptoms observed in skin and GIT.

Skin rashes, such as eczema and hives (urticaria) Gastrointestinal tract abdominal pain, bloating, vomiting,
Diarrhoea

Question : Write down allergic symptoms observed in Nose and

Eyes.
Nose swelling of the nasal mucosa (allergic rhinitis) Eyes redness and itching of the conjunctiva (allergic
conjunctivitis)

Question : What are allergens?

The allergen (the foreign substance that provokes a reaction), it is a substance that can cause an allergic
reaction. Allergens are particle that, in some people, the immune system recognizes as "foreign" or
"dangerous" but cause no response for most people.
Question : Write down names of some common allergens.
Common allergens include: Pollen Dust Chemicals Drugs (such as antibiotics or medications you put on your
skin) Foods (such as milk, chocolate, strawberries, wheat) Perfumes Plants Smoke

Question : What are inhalant allergens?

These allergens are dispersed in air .when we inhaled air these allergen are also enter in our Respiratory
tract and cause of allergy. · Pollens· Dust· Smoke· Perfumes

Question : Define pollens and Dust mites.

Pollen is the cells of flowering plants, including trees, grasses, and weeds. Pollen is microscopic in size. Pollen
is the most common cause of seasonal allergic rhinitis, sometimes known as "hay fever." Dust
Mites:Dust mites are microscopic organisms that can live and thrive throughout homes and schools. The
mites and their waste products present in the following:bedding and pillows upholstered furniture carpets
clothes

Question : What is food allergy ?

A food allergy is an abnormal response of the body to a certain food. It is important to know that this is
different than a food intolerance, which does not affect the immune system.Approximately 90 percent of all
food allergies are caused by the following eight foods: Milk Eggs Wheat Soya beans

Question : What are ingested allergens?

These allergens are present in our food stuff. When we eat that contaminated food these allergen are also
ingested with food particles.

Question : What are symptoms of food allergy?

Allergic symptoms may begin within minutes to an hour after ingesting the food. The following are the most
common symptoms of food allergy. · vomiting · diarrhea · cramps · hives · swelling
· eczema · itching or swelling of the lips, tongue, or mouth · itching or tightness in the throat
· difficulty breathing · wheezing · lowered blood pressure
Question : Name some food allergens.
Milk Eggs Wheat Soya beans Tree nuts Peanuts Fish

Question : What are injectable allergens? write down their

symptoms.
Injection allergens cause allergy when injected into the body e.g· Injections of medication· insect
stingSymptoms itching and hives over most of the body Swelling of the throat and tongue Difficulty in
breathing and tightness in the chest Dizziness Shock Loss of consciousness Hoarse voice or swelling of the
tongue

Question : Describe contact allergens.

Contact allergens causes allergy when they come in contact with the skin e.g · Jewelry· Cosmetics
· Pets

Question : Write down types of Hypersensitivity.

The four-group classification was expounded by P. H. G. Gell and Robin Coombs in 1963. I Allergy (immediate)
II Cytotoxic, antibody-dependent III Immune complex disease IV Delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH), cell-
mediated immune response, antibody-independent

Question : Describe Immediate hypersensitivity.

These occur quickly after exposure to the allergen. They are usually mediated by antibodies of the IgE class.
IgE antibodies present on the surface of the basophils, these antibodies have no effect until and unless they
encounter allergens, when this occur the mast cell discharge their granules. The granules contain a variety of
active agents including histamine etc.

Question : What is local anaphylaxis?

Release of these substances into the surrounding tissue causes local anaphylaxis: swelling, redness, and
itching. Examples: Allergic rhinitis (hay fever) in which airborne allergens (pollen) react with IgE-sensitized
mast cells in the nasal mucosa and the tissues around the eyes, causing runny nose also called “Rhinorea”

Question : Describe antibody mediated cytotoxicity.

Cell damage caused by antibodies directed against cell surface antigens. In these disorders, the person
produces antibodies directed against antigens present on the surface of his or her own cells. Examples:
Hemolytic disease of the newborn (Rh disease). Myasthenia gravis

Question : Describe hemolytic disease of new born.

Hemolytic Disease of the Newborn (Rh Disease) Rh antigens are expressed at the surface of red blood cells.
During pregnancy, there is often a tiny leakage of the baby's red blood cells into the mother's circulation. If
the baby is Rh-positive (having inherited the trait from its father) and the mother Rh-negative, these red cells
will cause her to develop antibodies against the Rh antigen. The antibodies, usually of the IgG class, may not
develop fast enough to cause problems for that child, but can cross the placenta and attack the red cells of a
subsequent Rh+ fetus.

Question : What are immune complex disorders?

In this type of hypersensitivity antibodies form complexes with antigens. Damage caused by the deposition of
these complexes in the tissues. Examples: Serum sickness

Question : What is serum sickness?

Serum sickness is caused by the many proteins present in the antiserum. Being foreign to the recipient,
an active immunity develops against these proteins. The resulting antibodies bind to them forming immune
complexes. These are carried by the blood and deposited in the walls of blood vessels as well as in
the glomeruli of the kidneys. fever hives arthritis and Protein in the urine.

Question : Define cell mediated hypersensitivity.

Because it takes a day or two for the T cells to stimulate following exposure to the antigen, these responses
are called delayed-type hypersensitivities (DTH). Cell-mediated hypersensitivities can occur with extrinsic
antigens or with internal ("self") antigens.
Question : What are extrinsic antigens?
The most common example of cell-mediated hypersensitivity to external antigens is the contact
dermatitis caused in some people when their skin is exposed to a chemical to which they are allergic. Some
examples: The catechols found in poison ivy, poison oak Nickel (often used in jewelry) Dyes Organic chemicals
used in industry

Question : What are intrinsic antigens?

Cell-mediated hypersensitivities to "self" cause autoimmune diseases. Examples: Type 1 diabetes mellitus
Multiple sclerosis (MS) Organ Transplant Rejection

Question : Describe mechanism of allergy.

Three players of allergy:Allergen, Antibodies, Inflamatory mediatorsFirst Exposure to antigen:A. When an
allergen first enters the body, the B lymphocytes produce an antibody called immunoglobulin E (IgE).B. The
IgE antibodies attach to mast cells, large cells that are found in connective tissue and contain histamines along
with a number of other chemical substances. IInd Exposure to Antigen:A. The second time any given allergen
enters the body, it becomes attached to the newly-formed Y-shaped IgE antibodies.B. These antibodies, in
turn, stimulate the mast cells to discharge its histamines and other chemical substances.C. Mast cell will
burst up, Neurotransmitters present in mast cell will enter in circulation & causes allergy.

Question : Describe role of immune system in allergy.

2nd Exposure to Antigen:A. The second time any given allergen enters the body, it becomes attached to the
newly-formed Y-shaped IgE antibodies.B. These antibodies, in turn, stimulate the mast cells to discharge its
histamines and other chemical substances.C. Mast cell will burst up, Neurotransmitters present in mast cell
will enter in circulation & causes allergy.

Question : Write down some inflammatory mediators.

I) Histamine. II) Bradykynin III) Prostaglandin IV) Interleukin I V) Interleukin
II VI) Thromboxane. Leukotriene
Question : Discuss Diagnosis of Allergy.
Medical Case History : Medical Case History is the backbone of Medical Diagnosis. In Allergy the
Medical Case History can be concluded on the following lines: General Examination Age, sex,
type of environment where he work & live, occupation, any allergy symptoms. Vital Signs Some
scientific tools are applied to prove the disease. By using following tools the severity of allergy can be
diagnose. I) B.P II) Temperature III) Breathing Rate IV) Pulse Rate. V) Cardiac output. VI) Heart
Rate.

Question : Discuss allergy testing and skin test.

Allergy testing measures how a person reacts to specific allergens, such as tree pollen, pet dander, foods,
medications or molds. A "positive" allergy test means that a person has a specific allergic antibody to the
substance tested. This often means that the person is allergic to the substance · Skin Test · Blood Test
Skin Test · Scratch test/ Skin Prick test Patch test Intradermal test

Question : Describe intradermal test.

Encapture the allergen & prepared a solution in fat soluble solvent(Ether Acetone Alcohols).Which is
chemically inert & compatible with allergen. In this 0.1ml of allergen solution is injected into the dermis or
epidermis, If there is any kind of allergic reaction occur than the patient is has +ve test for this particular
Allergen.

Question : What is RAST?

Radioallergosorbent testing (RAST) involves measuring specific allergic antibodies in a person’s blood. RAST
has recently become more useful in the diagnosis and management of food allergies. Whether a person is
truly allergic to the food, RAST actually measures the amount of allergic antibody to the food

Question : What is ELISA?

Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), also known as an enzyme immunoassay (EIA), is
a biochemical technique used mainly in immunology to detect the presence of an antibody or an antigen in a
sample. An unknown amount of antigen is affixed to a surface, and then a specific antibody is applied over the
surface so that it can bind to the antigen. This antibody is linked to an enzyme, and in the final step a
substance is added that the enzyme can convert to some detectable signal, most commonly a Colour change
in a chemical substrate.
Question : How can we avoid allergy ?
Wear a pollen mask when mowing the grass or house cleaning. · Stay indoors in the morning (when the
pollen count is at its highest) and on windy days. · Read and understand food labels (for people with food
allergies). · Keep windows and doors closed during heavy pollination seasons. · Use the air
conditioner in the house and car. · Don't allow dander-producing animals in the house. · Change
feather pillows, woolen blankets and clothing to cotton. · Enclose mattress, and pillows in plastic barrier
cloth. · Wash sheets, mattress and blankets weekly in hot water. · Remove carpets.

Question : Discuss pharmacotherpay for allergy.

Pharmacotherapy Medication: When avoidance or control of an allergen isn't possible, medications may be
necessary. Common allergy medications are; 1. Antihistamines: Drugs that block the action of histamine.
First-generation antihistamines include; · Diphenhydramine (Benadryl), · Chlorpheniramine (Piriton).
Newer antihistamines, called second-generation antihistamines, include; · Cetirizine (Regix),
· Fexofenadine (Fexet), & · Loratadine. New to the market and available by prescription only, is an
antihistamine nasal spray called Azelastine (Astelin).

Question : Discuss immunotherapy for allergy.

Immunotherapy When avoidance, environmental control measures and medications fail to control allergy
symptoms, the doctor may suggest allergy immunotherapy ("allergy shots"). Immunotherapy involves the
injections of allergen extracts to "desensitize" the person. Duration Typically, the treatment begins with
injections of solution of allergen given one to five times a week, with the strength gradually increasing. It
usually takes about three to four years for the patient to be free of symptoms.

Question : What are the symptoms in case of allergy in eye?

Redness and itching of the conjunctiva (allergic conjunctivitis).

Question : What are the symptoms in case of allergy in Airways?

Sneezing, coughing, bronchoconstriction, wheezing and dyspnea (shortness of breath) , sometimes attacks of
asthma.
Question : What are the symptoms in case of allergy in Ears?
Feeling of fullness, possibly pain, and impaired hearing.

Question : What are the symptoms in case of allergy in GIT?

abdominal pain, bloating, vomiting, Diarrhoea

Question : What are the symptoms in case of allergy in Skin?

Rashes, such as eczema and hives (urticaria)

Question : What are the symptoms in case of allergy in Nose?

swelling of the nasal mucosa (allergic rhinitis).

Question : Write down the name of different mediators causing

different types of hypersensitivity.
Type IIgEType IIIgM or IgGType IIIgGType IVT-cell

Question : What is Allergic rhinitis (hay fever) ?

Allergic rhinitis (hay fever)in which airborne allergens (pollen) react with IgE-sensitized mast cells in the nasal
mucosa and the tissues around the eyes, causing runny nose also called “Rhinorea”

Question : What is Myasthenia gravis?

The hallmark of this autoimmune disorder is weakness of the skeletal muscles, especially those in the upper
part of the body.

Question : How type I Diabetes occurs?

In this disease, T cells initiate the destruction of the insulin-producing beta cells of the islets of Langerhans in
the pancreas. The chief culprits are CD8+cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL) also by CD4+ helper T cells of the Th1.

Question : What is skin test or scratch test?

Usually a commercially available extract of substances such as pollens, molds, foods, pet dander are taken
and the skin is then gently scratched through the small drop with a special sterile needle. After the skin is
scratched, the tests takes about 15 minutes to develop. If the skin reddens and, more importantly, if it swells,
then the test is read as positive and allergy to that substance is considered probable.Applications:This test is
used to diagnose hay fever allergy (house dust mite, grass pollens).

Question : What is patch test?

Dermatologists apply patch tests in patients with dermatitis, to find out whether their skin condition may be
caused by a contact allergy.

Question : Name leukotrienes inhibitors used to treat allergy.

Montelukast (Singulair) antileukotriene medication.

Question : Name Antihistamines used to treat allergy.

Drugs that block the action of histamine. First-generation antihistamines include; Diphenhydramine
(Benadryl), Chlorpheniramine (Piriton).

Question : Define allergy. Write general signs and symptoms of

allergy.
Abnormal response of immune system to a foreign substance is known as allergy. ORAllergy is a specific
hypersensitivity of an individual to foreign particles usually a protein to which a specific individual is exposed.
ORAllergy is hypersensitivity reaction to a foreign substance by immune system. Foreign substance are called
allergens and are usually harmless to a normal individual.Signs and symptoms of allergy:Swelling of the nasal
mucosa (allergic rhinitis)Redness and itching of the conjunctiva (allergic conjunctivitis)Rashes, such as eczema
and hives (urticaria)SneezingCoughingBronchoconstrictionWheezingDyspnea (shortness of breath)AsthmaHay
fever
Question : Type-I hypersensitivity reaction:
Type i hypersensitivity is also known as immediate or anaphylactic hypersensitivity. It is Mediated by IgE
antibody to specific antigens. IgE antibodies resent on the surface of the basophils, these antibodies have no
effect until and unless they encounter allergens, when this occur the mast cell discharge their granules. The
granules contain a variety of active agents including histamine etc. The primary cellular component in this
hypersensitivity is the mas cell or basophil. The stimulated Mast cells will release histamine that cause allergy.
The reaction may involve skin (urticariaand eczema), eyes (conjunctivitis), nasopharynx (rhinorrhea, rhinitis),
bronchopulmonary tissues (asthma) and gastrointestinal tract (gastroenteritis). Anaphylaxis:Anaphylaxis is a
severe, potentially life-threatening allergic reaction. It can occur within seconds or minutes of exposure to
allergens. Mostly caused byDrugs (such as penicillin)Insect bitesCertain foods like eggs, sea foods and
nutsAllergy injection (immunotherapy)Systemic AnaphylaxisSome allergens can cause life-threatening collapse
of the circulatory and respiratory systems. Frequent causes areInsect (e.g., bee) stingsDrugs (e.g.,
penicillin)FoodLocal Anaphylaxis: Release of these substances into the surrounding tissue causes local
anaphylaxis: swelling, redness, and itching. Examples includes;Allergic rhinitis (hay fever) in which airborne
allergens (pollen) react with igE-sensitized mast cells in the nasal mucosa and the tissues around the eyes,
causing runny nose also called "Rhinorea"Bronchial Asthma in which the allergen reaches the lungs either by
inhalation or in the blood; and cause bronchoconstriction.Hives (physicians call it urticaria) where the allergen
usually enters the body by food

Question : Type-II hypersensitivity reaction:

Type II hypersensitivity is also known as cytotoxic hypersensitivity and may affect a variety of organs and
tissues. Type II hypersensitivity is primarily mediated igM or igG antibodies. The antigens are normally
endogenous, although exogenous chemicals (haptens) which can attach to cell membranes can also lead to
type II hypersensitivity. hypersensitivity results from the binding of antibodies to normal or altered cell-
surface antigens that lead to phagocytosis of the cell and lysis of the cell. Examples are hemolytic disease of
the newborn (Rh disease) and myasthenia gravisHemolytic Disease of the Newborn (Rh Disease):Rh antigens
are expressed at the surface of red blood cells. During pregnancy, there is often a anti leakage of the baby's
red blood cells into the mother's circulation. If the baby is Rh-positive (having inherited the trait from its
father) and the mother Rh-negative, these red cells will cause her to develop antibodies against the Rh
antigen. The antibodies, usually of the igG class, may not develop fast enough to cause problems for that
child, but can cross the placenta and attack the red cells of a subsequent Rh+ fetus.Myasthenia Gravis
(MG):The hallmark of this autoimmune disorder is weakness of the skeletal muscles, especially those in the
upper part of the body. It is caused by antibodies that attack the acetylcholine (ACh) receptors at the
subsynaptic membrane of neuromuscular the junctions. A s the number of receptors declines, the ACh
release with the arrival of a volley of nerve impulses is inadequate to generate end-plate potentials (EPPs) of
the normal size. After repeated stimulation, the EPPs fail to reach the threshold needed to generate an action
potential and the muscle stops responding.
Question : Type- III hypersensitivity reaction:
It is mediated b y soluble immune complexes which are mostly of the igG class, although igM may also be
involved. It involves circulating antigen-antibody immune complexes that are deposited in orgnas, activate
complement, and cause inflammatory damage. Examples include serum sickness and systemic lupus
erythematosus.Serum Sickness:Serum sickness is an immune-complex-mediated hypersensitivity reaction
that classically presents with fever, hives, rash, polyarthritis or polyarthralgias and protein in the urineSerum
sickness is cased by the many proteins present in the antiserum. Being foreign to the recipient, an active
immunity develops against these proteins. The resulting antibodies bind to them forming immune
complexes.Systemic lupus erythematosus SLE):Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is an autoimmune
disease. In this disease, the immune system of the body mistakenly attacks healthy tissue such as their own
double-stranded DNA, nucleosomes, red blood cells, platelets, NMDA receptors in the brain and even their
own IgG molecules. n all these cases of autoimmunity, immune complexes form and are deposited in the skin,
joints, and kidneys where they initiate inflammation. It can affect the skin, joints, kidneys, brain, and other
organs.

Question : Type-IV hypersensitivity reaction:

It is mediated by cells rather than antibodies. It is initiated by specifically sensitized T lymphocytes which
respond to an antigen by producing and releasing certain lymphocytes and they recruit, retain and activate
macrophages to destroy the antigen which result in inflammation. Cell-mediated hypersensitivities can occur
with extrinsic antigens or with internal ("self") antigens.Extrinsic antigens:The most common example of cell-
mediated hypersensitivity to external antigens is the contact dermatitis caused in some people when their
skin is exposed to a chemical to which they are allergic. Some examples are the catechols found in poison ivy,
poison oak, and poison sumac nickel (often used in jewelry) some dyes, certain organic chemicals used in
industry. In every case, these simple chemicals probably form covalent bonds with proteins in the skin,
forming the antigen that initiates the immune response. Dendrite cells in the skin take up the complex,
process it, and present" it to CD4+ T cells in nearby lymph nodes.Intrinsic antigens:Cell-mediated
hypersensitivities to "self" cause autoimmune diseases. Examples are;Type 1 diabetes mellitus: In this disease,
T cells initiate the destruction of the insulin producing beta cells of the islets of Langerhans in the
pancreas.Multiple sclerosis (MS): In this case, T cells, mostly ThI cells initiate an attack that destroys the myelin
sheath of neurons. As the disease progresses, other cells (e.g. macrophages) as well as antibodies participate
in causing the damage.Rheumatoid arthritis (RA): In this disorder, antibodies and T cells again probably Th I
cells react to antigens in the joints and release tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) with resulting
inflammation and damage to the joints.

Question : What are inflammatory mediators?

Inflammatory mediators:Inflammatory mediators are signaling molecules or messengers released by immune
defense cells that act on blood vessels and/or cells to promote an inflammatory response. These molecules
initiate and regulate inflammatory reaction. Common inflammatory mediators
are;Histamine.BradykyninProstaglandinInterleukin IInterleukin IIThromboxane.Leukotriene

Question : Define allergens. Discuss types of allergens

A substance that can cause an allergic reaction. Allergens are particle that, in some people, the immune
system recognizes as "foreign" or " dangerous" but cause no response for most people. Common allergens
include:PollenDustChemicalsDrugs (such as antibiotics or medications you put on your skin)Foods (such as
milk, chocolate, strawberries, wheat)Perfumes PlantsSmokeTypes of allergens:1. Inhalent Allergens:These
allergens are dispersed in air. When we inhaled air these allergen enter in our Respiratory tract and cause of
allergy. These allergens include;Pollens, Dust, Smoke,Perfumes. Common symptoms
include:SneezingLacrimationItchingSwelling of nose and eyesItching or tightness in the throatDifficulty
breathingWheezing2. Ingestant Allergens:These allergens are present in our food stuff. When we eat that
contaminated food these allergen are also ingested with food particles. Common ingestant allergens include;
Milk, Eggs, Wheat, Fish, Peanuts, Soya beans. Ingestant allergens usually cause GIT
symptoms VomitingDiarrheaCrampsHivesSwellingEczemaItching or swelling of the lips, tongue, or
mouthItching or tightness in the throatDifficulty breathingWheezingLowered blood pressureFood allergy
causes COLICCOLIC: Condition characterized by crampy abdominal pain in early infancy, usually last form
early infancy to 3 or 4 months of age.3. Injectant Allergens:These allergens are present in solution intended
for parenteral administration or present in insect sting. Example: Penicillin injection, Anti toxins, glandular
products and insect stings. Common symptoms are;Itching and hives over most of the bodySwelling of the
throat and tongueDifficulty in breathing and tightness in the chestDizzinessShockLoss of
consciousness Hoarse voice or swelling of the tongue4. Contactant Allergens.The allergens that cause allergy
when come in contact with skin or body surface. This allergy cause contactant dermatitis. Example: Jewelry,
nail polish, cosmetics, pets. Common symptoms include;EczemaSkin rashesHivesBlisters andAtopic dermatitis

Question : What is the mechanism of allergy?

There are three players involved in the process of allergy:Allergen, Antibodies, Inflamatory mediatorsFirst
Exposure to antigen (Sensitization):A. When an allergen fist enters the body, the B lymphocytes produce an
antibody called immunoglobulin E (IgE).B. The IgE antibodies attach to mast cells, large cells that are found in
connective tissue and contain histamines along with a number of other chemical substances.2nd Exposure to
Antigen (Re-exposure):A. The second time any given allergen enters the body, it becomes attached to the
newly-formed Y-shaped IgE antibodies.B. These antibodies, in turn, stimulate the mast cells to discharge its
histamines and other C. Mast cell will burst up, Neurotransmitters present in mast cell will enter in circulation
& causes allergy.
Question : What is the importance of case history in allergy
diagnosis?
Medical Case History is the backbone of Medical Diagnosis. In Allergy the Medical Case History involve the
following important entries.Name, sex, material status, occupationChief complaintsPresent illnessAge of onset
Date of first attackPlace, time and mode of onsetWhat relieves attacksPresence of hose hold petsKind of
cosmetics used Nature of bed covers and pillowsLaboratory test and some scientific tools are also used for
the diagnosis and severity of allergy. After laboratory examination the allergist makes the diagnosis and
confirm allergy by the use of skin test.Importance of Case history:To know the source of allergyTo know if the
cause of allergy is hereditary To decrease death by preventing anaphylactic shock To know patients suffering
from asthma may not receive those medicine that alleviate asthma.

Question : Write note on the skin tests of allergy.

Allergy skin testing is a method used to find out a substance (allergens) that causes allergy. The following skin
tests are commonly used for allergy.1. Scratch test/ Skin Prick test:The allergens (small drop) are placed on the
surface of skin (arm)The skin is then scratched with sterile needle or lancet Wait for 15 minutes and observe
for allergic reaction Redness or swelling of skin area to which allergens were applied will indicate allergy and
the test will read as positive 2. Intradermal Test:take small amount of allergens solution (0.1 ml) in a
syringeInject into dermis or epidermis of skinWait for 15-20 minutes and observe for allergic reaction Redness
or swelling of skin area to which allergens were applied will indicate allergy and the test will read as positive 3.
Patch Test:Patch test is done to find contact dermatitisDelayed allergic reaction and can take several days (48
hrs.)In this method the allergens are applied on patchesThen placed on the skin for at least 48 hrsThe patches
are then removedIrritated or inflamed skin will indicate allergy and the test will be read as positive

Question : Write a note on blood tests of allergy.

There are two types of blood tests used for allergy, that find and measure the antigen causing allergy. These
tests include;RAST: Radio-allegro-sorbent testing (RAST) involves measuring specific allergic antibodies in a
person's blood. RAST has recently become more useful in the diagnosis and management of food allergies.
Whether a person is truly allergic to the food, RAST actually measures the amount of allergic antibody to the
food.ELISA: Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) also known as an enzyme immunoassay (EIA), is a
biochemical technique used mainly in immunology to detect the presence of an antibody or an antigen in a
sample. An unknown amount of antigen is affixed to a surface, and then a specific antibody is applied over the
surface so that it can bind to the antigen. This antibody is linked to an enzyme, and in the final step a
substance is added that the enzyme can convert to some detectable signal, most commonly a Colour change
in a chemical substrate.
Question : Write a note on treatment of allergy.
Treatment of allergy:There are three general approaches to the treatment of allergic diseases that are: 1.
Removal/Avoidance of allergens:The best treatment is the removal from the patient environment. In this way
there will be no allergens to cause allergy to cause allergy and hence the patient will have feel better.
Common approaches for removing of allergens are as follow. Wear a pollen mask when mowing the grass or
house cleaning.Stay indoors in the morning (When the pollen count is at its highest) and on windy days.Read
and understand food labels (for people with food allergies).Keep windows and doors closed during heavy
pollination seasons.Keep windows and doors closed during heavy pollination seasons.Use the air conditioner
in the house and car.Don't allow dander-producing animals in the house.Change feather pillows, woolen
blankets and clothing to cotton.Enclose mattress, and pillows in plastic barrier cloth.Wash sheets, mattress
and blankets weekly in hot water. Remove carpets.2. PharmacotherapyWhen avoidance or control of an
allergen isn't possible, medications may be necessary to control allergic symptoms. Several antagonistic drugs
are used to treat allergic reaction. These drugs just help to relive the symptoms not to treat allergic reactions.
Common drugs used in allergy are;Antihistamine BronchodialotorsLeukotrienes inhibitorsDecongestant
drugsSteroids3. Immunotherapy:When avoidance, environmental control measures and medications fail to
control allergy symptoms, the doctor may suggest allergy immunotherapy ("allergy shots")Immunotherapy is
only used to treat sever allergyImmunotherapy is also known as desensitizationIn immunotherapy the patient
is injected with allergensThe injection of allergen extract is given at small dose and gradually the dose is
increased until a high dose of allergen is achievedThese injections will desensitize the patient to the allergens

Question : What is chromotography ?

Chromatography is a process of chemistry in which mixture of different compounds is separated on the basis
of their relative polarity difference.

Question : Discuss different techniques of Charomatography.

Different techniques of
chromatography 1. Ascending
Chromatography 2. Descending Chromatography 3. Circular chromatography 4. Radial
chromatography

Question : What is stationary phase and mobile phase.

Stationary phase This phase is a component of chromatographic procedure that is non_mobile or fixed is
known as stationary phase. Stationary phases use is chromatography are. 1. Paper 2. Talc 3. Mg-oxide 4. Al-
oxide 5. Activated charcoal. Mobile phase This phase is the components of chromatography procedure
which has ability to move. e.g. solvent used in paper chromatography. The most popular mobile phase is used
chromatography are. 1. Petroleum ether. 2. Propanol 3. Ethanol 4. Acetone.
Question : What is Rf value ?
Rf value Rf value is the ratio between the distance covered by any substances to the distance covered by the
Mobile Phase / Solvent. Rf = Distance covered by substance/Distance covered by
solvent.

Question : Discuss types of Chromatography.

Types of Chromatography 1 Paper chromatography 2. Thin layer chromatography 3. Column
chromatography

Question : Write down applications of paper chromatography.

i. it is used in pharmaceutical industries to separate different kinds of (API) ii. It is used to determine the
polarity and evaporation power of any given compound. iii. It is used in the identification of poison. iv. It is
used in the analysis of different medicine v. It is used in the separation of different body tissue. vi. It is used in
forensic medicine for investigational purpose.

Question : Describe applications of TLC.

1. Determination of the components a plant contains. 2. Monitoring organic reactions. 3. Analyzing
ceramides and fatty acids. 4. Detection of pesticides or insecticides in food and water. 5. Analyzing the dye
composition of fibers in forensics Sciences. 6. Identifying compounds present in a given substance.
7. Assaying the radiochemical purity of radiopharmaceuticals

Question : Write down applications of Column chromatography.

1. It is used in the separation of benzodiazepines. 2. It is used in the Analysis of medicine. 3. It is used
for the purification of Water & other organic solvents in pharmaceutical industry. 4. It is used in the
separation of different body tissue.

Question : What is ascending chromatography?

In ascending chromatography the solvent are tends to move upward and the components of mixture are
separated in the form of spot.

Question : What is descending chromatography?

In descending chromatography the solvent tends to move downward. The compounds of mixture separated
in the form of spots.

Question : What is circular chromatography?

In circular chromatography the solvent tends to move in circular form and the different compounds of
mixture are separated in the form of rings.

Question : What is radial chromatography?

In radial chromatography the solvent or mobile phase tends to move in circular form and the compounds of
mixture will separate in the form of arch.

Question : What is stationary phase.

This phase is a component of chromatographic procedure that is non_mobile or fixed is known as stationary
phase.

Question : What is mobile phase.

This phase is the components of chromatography procedure which has ability to move. e.g. solvent used in
paper chromatography.

Question : Give examples of stationary phase.

1. Paper 2. Talc 3. Mg-oxide 4. Al-oxide 5. Activated charcoal.
Question : Give examples of mobile phase.
Petroleum ether.PropanolEthanolAcetone

Question : How base line is drawn on a chromatographic paper?

The distance of this baseline from the final edge is 2.5 cm.

Question : What is the specification for column chromatography?

The classical preparative chromatography column is a glass tube with a diameter from 50 mm and a height of
50 cm to 1 m with a tap at the bottom.

Question : Define Chromatography. What is the significance of

chromatography?
Chromatography is a process of chemistry in which mixture of different compounds is separated on the basis
of their relative polarity difference. ORChromatography is a separating technique in which the components of
a mixture are separated on the basis of polarity. There are two phases used in chromatography which are
Stationary phase and Mobile phase.Extraction is also a separating technique in which the
compounds/components of a mixture are separated on the basis of relative solubility.Significance of
chromatography:Chromatographic techniques are used to separate components of a mixture that can't be
separated by fractional distillationSeparation of proteins and carbohydratesSeparation of complicated
phenols in plantsSeparation of mixture of oxalic acid, succinic acid and glutamic acid Separation of mixture of
sulfonamideTo ensure the quality and stability of the final productDetection of poisons in forensic
pharmacySeparation of nuclear fission products in nuclear pharmacy

Question : Define the following basic terms used in

chromatography?
Stationary Phase:In chromatography the fixed phase is called stationary phase. Stationary phase may be
porous or finally divided solid or a liquid that has been coated in a thin layer and bound to some inert support
material. Examples: Cellulose, Talc, Magnesium oxide, Activated alumina, Activated Charcoal, calcium
hydroxide, Sucrose.Mobile Phase:The phase which have the ability to move over the surface of stationary
phase is known is mobile phase. It may be pure liquid, mixture of solution or gas. Examples: Propanol,
petroleum ether, Esters, Chloroform, Alcohols, Organic acids.Eluent:The mobile phase or the solvent system
passed through stationary phase and have not eluted any component from the mixture is called eluent. (OR)
The mobile phase without separated components of a mixture.Eluate:The mobile phase with separated
component of mixture after passing through the stationary phase is called eluate.Rf value:The Rf value is
defined as the ratio of the distance moved by sample component and the distance moved by mobile phase. Rf
values are the number between zero and one, representing the position of component of a mixture on
stationary phase.Retention time: The time required for the mobile phase to sweep component from t he
stationary phase.Retention volume: Retention volume is the volume of mobile phase required to sweep
components from the stationary phase.

Question : Write note on the classification of chromatography.

Classification of chromatography:On the basis of mobile and stationary phase chromatography can be
classified into the two main categories, liquid and gas chromatography.1. Liquid chromatography a. Liquid-
solid or Adsorption chromatographyb. Liquid-liquid or Partition chromatographyLiquid chromatography can
be performed in two ways;a. Column chromatographyi. Column chromatographyii. High performance liquid
chromatographyb. Plane chromatography i. Paper chromatographyii. Thin layer chromatography2. Gas
chromatographya. Gas-solid chromatographyb. Gas-liquid chromatography

Question : Write note on paper chromatography.

Paper Chromatography:Paper chromatography is the technique of analytical chemistry in which different
compounds/components of mixture are separated by using chromatographic paper of filter paper. In this
type of chromatographic technique those mixture are easily separated that have color pigment.Stationary
Phase: Chromatographic PaperMobile Phase: Ethanol, water, acetone or their mixture is used as mobile
phaseProcedure:1. Pour about 10 ml of water into a chromatographic jar ( beaker or small cup)2. Take a filter
paper and cut it according to the size of chromatographic jar.3. With your pencil, draw a line about 1-1.5 cm
from the bottom edge of filter paper. This line is called base line.4. On the base line, apply the sample (link
mixture) in the center of base line.5. Place the filter paper in the chromatographic jar having mobile phase
(water) and cover the jar with aluminum foil.6. Allow the mobile phase to rise to appropriate level ( upto two
third of the filter paper) 7. Remove the filter paper from the jar, immediately draw a line with your pencil at
the front line ( level reached by the mobile phase), dry it and encircle/mark the different colors of ink (
components) appeared on the filter paper. 8. Determine the Rf values for all spots seen on the
chromatogram.Calculating Rf value:The Rf value is the ratio of the distance moved by the color spot (ink
sample under test) and the distance moved by the water ( mobile phase). Rf values are the numbers between
zero and one, representing the position of spot on filter paper/chromatographic paper.Precautions:Base line
should not touch the mobile phaseDon't remove filter paper during travel of mobile phasesRf should be
calculated when the chromatographci paper is driedApplications of paper chromatography:i. It is used in
pharmaceutical industries to separate different kinds of (API) ii. It is used to determine the polarity and
evaporation power of any given compound.iii. It is used in the identification of poison.vi. It is used in the
analysis of different medicinev. It is used in the separation of different body tissue.vi. It is used in forensic
medicine for investigational purpose.
Question : Write note thin layer chromatography.
Thin layer Chromatography (TLC):Thin layer chromatography (TLC) is a from of adsorption chromatography in
which the adsorbent material usually silica gel, aluminum oxide, or cellulose. is spread in a thin layer on a
glass plate or plastic sheet or aluminum sheet by a chemical binder. TLC technique was discovered in 1938. It
is more effiecient that paper chromatography.Stationary Phase: TLC sheet with absorbent layerMobile Phase:
Ethanol, water, acetone or their mixture is used as mobile phaseProcedure:Take a TLC sheet with absorbent
layer and cut it according to the size of chrmatographic jar.2. With your pencil, draw a line about 1-1.5 cm
from the botton edge of TLC. This line is called base line.3. On the base line, apply the sample (ink mixture) in
the center of base line.4. Place the TLC in the chromatographic jar having mobile phase (water ) and cover the
jar with aluminum foil.5. Allow the mobile phase to rise to appropriate level (upto two thrid of the TLC) 6.
Remove the TLC from the jar, immediately draw a line with your pencil at the front line (level reached by the
mobile phase), dry it and encircle/ mark the different components of sample appeared on the TLC.7.
Determine the Rf values for all spots seen on the chromatogram.Calculating Rf value:The Rf value is the ratio
between the distance covered by any substances to the distance covered by the Mobile Phase /
Solvent.Precautions:Base line should not touch the mobile phaseDon't remove TLC during travel of mobile
phaseRf should be calculated when the chromatographic paper is driedApplications of TLC:Determination of
the components a plant contains.Monitoring organic reactions.Analyzing ceramides and fatty acids.Detection
of pesticides or insecticides in food and water.Analyzing the dye composition of fibers in forensics
Sciences.Identifying compounds present in a given substance.Assaying the radiochemical purity of
radiopharmaceuticals.

Question : What are the different types/techniques of plane

chromatography (paper and TLC) on the basis of mobile phase
flow?
Techniques of chromatography:There are three types of plane chromatography on the basis of flow of mobile
phase or solvent system.1. One dimensional chromatographyIn this case the solvent/mobile phase flows in
one dimension only and the technique may be ascending or descending.1. Ascending technique:In ascending
technique the mobile phase moves upward due to capillary action and the different component of the
mixture are separated in the form of spots.ii. Descending technique:In descending technique the mobile
phase or solvent moves downward under the influence of gravity and capillary action which make the process
of separation quick.2. Two dimensional chromatography :In this case the broad filter paper/TLC is used. After
flowing of solvent/mobile phase in one dimensional (ascending or descending), the paper / TLC plate is
removed, dried and turned through 90o i.e keep transverse of the first flow and allow the solvent to flow over
paper/TLC plate. Thus the solvent flowed in two directions.3. Radial or circular chromatography:In this
technique a round paper/TLC plate is used and a wick is produced at the center. The sample is applied at the
center and after drying the sample spot the paper of TLC is fixed horizontally on the petri dish containing
solvent/mobile phase. The string attached to the wick should be dipped into the solvent. The solvent will begin
to move over the surface of paper or TLC plate (round) in circular from and the different component of the
mixture are separated in the form of rings.

Question : Write note on column chromatography.

Column Chromatography:Column chromatography is a chromatography technique used to separate mixture
of chemical substances into its individual compounds using a column. Column chromatography separate
substances based on differential adsorption of compounds to the adsorbent; compounds move through the
column at different rates, allowing them to be separated into fractions. The chromatography column is a glass
tube with a diameter from 50 mm and a height of 50 cm to 1m with a tap at the bottonStationary Phase: The
stationary phase or adsorbent in column chromatography is a solid. Most commonly stationary phase are
silica gel and alumina. Cellulose powder may also be used.Mobile Phase: Ethanol, water, acetone or their
mixture is used as mobile phase Procedure:1. Take a chromatography column and close the tape at the
botton of column2. Load the column with stationary phase 3. Then load the sample (mixture) n the top of
loaded satationary phase4. Open the tape of column and place a beaker / flask to the bottom of column5.
Pour the mobile phase from the top of column6. The mobile phase will separate those components which are
soluble in it and will be collected in the beaker or flask.Applications of Column chromatography:1. It is used in
the separation of benzodiazepines.2. It is used in the Analysis of medicine.3. It is used for the purification of
Water & other organic solvents in pharmaceutical industry.4. It is used in the separation of different body
tissue

Question : Write short note on HPLC (high performance liquid

chromatography).
HPLC (high performance liquid chromatography):High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) is a form
of column chromatography that pumps a sample mixture or analyte in a solvent (known as the mobile phase)
at high pressure through a column with chromatographic packing material (stationary phase). The mobile
phase generally used for HPLC consists of a mixture of polar and non-polar solvents. E.g; alcohol heptane. The
commonly used stationary phase for HPLC is silica gel and alumina.High performance liquid chromatography
is a powerful tool for separation of a complex mixture especially when many of the mixtures components
have similar polarities. HPLC also reduce time duration due to high pressure application. The major
components of HPLC instrumentation are as follow; Solvent reservoir PumpPre-columnInjector Separating
column Detector Amplifier Recorder

Question : Write short note on gas chromatography.

Gas chromatography:A type of chromatography in which the mobile phase is gas ( generally known as carrier
gas) is called gas chromatography. The phase can be either a solid which is called gas-solid chromatography,
or a liquid which is then called gas-liquid chromatography. The sample used in gas chromatography must be
either a gas or capable of converted into gas at the temperature of the column. The main components of gas
chromatography are as follow Gas cylinder Injector Column Detector Flow meter

Question : What is extraction ?

It is the specialized type procedure of chemistry that involves the separation of different compounds on the
basis of their relative solubility in two different immiscible solvent / liquids.

Question : Define Menstrum and Marc.

Menstrum Any liquid that is used in the pharmacy for extractions procedure is called manstrum. Marc The
waste material that left after extraction is called marc.

Question : Write down advantages of extraction.

i. Potency can be controlled ii.Deterioration can be controlled iii.Different dosage form e.g. tablets capsules,
symptoms and injections can easily synthesize. iv. Dosage forms of purified compounds are more stable then
the no purified ones. v. The compounds that are none purified can cause infections. vi. If the drugs are used
in raw form ADRs (adverse drug reactions) can affect humans.

Question : Name some extraction techniques.

1. Infusion 2. Decoction 3. Maceration 4. Percolation5. Digestion 6. Continuous hot extraction

Question : What is percolation and maceration.

Maceration It is the method that require prolong time in this method drug is powdered and cover up in the
porous cloth then it is dipped in the menstrum for 2 to 14 days as required. Percolation It is the extraction
technique in which the fine powder of drugs are packed in to the column are packed in to the column after
suitable menstrum selection are allow the menstrum to percolate through the column of packed drug.

Question : What is continuous hot extraction?

Continues hot extraction It is the technique of extraction in which soxhelt apparatus is used .the drug is
always used in hot condition.
Question : Write down advantages of imbibation.
The fundamental advantages of moistening the drug are as following The dry powder may be swell up when it
firstly have a contact with menstrum. This can be overcome by moistening the powder drug. Due to
imbibitions of powder drug the entrapment of air can be minimized.

Question : What is double maceration?

Double maceration ●Firstly selection of drug is done. After selection the drug is communicated. ● Enclosed
the communicated drug into a pouch ● According to the nature of crude drug a suitable menstrum is selected
● The menstrum is divided into two portions A and B. ● The crude drug pouch is dipped into menstrum A for
specific period of time. After that time the menstrum A is separated and preserved the Marc is pressed. ●
The marc is again dipped into the menstrum B. for specific period of time. After that time the marc is pressed
and menstrum B is separated ● The menstrum A and B is unite again and adjust the vol. to get the
desire product.

Question : Define infusion.

It is a method of extraction in which hot manstrum (water) is used poured on crude drug or crushed drug and
allow them for suitable time.

Question : Define Decoction

It is the techniques of extraction in which the drug is used in the form of powder or coarse particles. These
drug are together boiled with water for certain are given period of time.

Question : Define maceration.

It is the method that require prolong time in this method drug is powdered and cover up in the porous cloth
then it is dipped in the menstrum for 2 to 14 days as required.

Question : Define Percolation.

It is the extraction technique in which the fine powder of drugs are packed in to the column are packed in to
the column after suitable menstrum selection are allow the menstrum to percolate through the column of
packed drug.

Question : Define digestion.

It is the extraction technique which resemble with the maceration in fact it is a maceration procedure in the
presence of gentle heat.

Question : Define Continues hot extraction.

It is the technique of extraction in which soxhelt apparatus is used .the drug is always used in hot condition.

Question : Discuss maceration of organized drugs.

Simple maceration involves the following steps. Communication of the crude drug. The drug is converted into
coarse powder rather then fine. Take a pouch of suitable material and captured the coarse particles of drug
into it. Selected the suitable menstrum according to the whole menstrum of drug. Take a whole menstrum in
a tank. Suspended the pouch with the help of thread for at least 7 day. Occasionally shake the pouch. After 7
days the manstrum is separated. Now combine the menstrum with the pressed solution/ liquid. If required
filter it and finally adjust the volume according to the requirement

Question : Discuss maceration of unorganized drugs.

First of all the unorganized drug is selected. Communication the drug into fine powder . If the drug in the form
of gum are aloe gum resin, their should be no need for communication. Enclosed the communicated or raw
drug in a pouch. The ¾ th volume of menstrum. Dip the pouch in this volume of menstrum for at least 2__7
days. After the specific time period the volume of menstrum is separated and filters it if required. Do not
press the marc Adjust the volume by using remaining ¼ th part of menstrum.

Question : What do you know about comminution of drug.

The drug is subjected to a suitable size reduction by using technique usually the drug is crushed moderately
to fine powder depending upon the nature of drug.
Question : What is imbibition.
The moistening of crude drug is called imbibitions. The powdered drug is place with little amount of
menstrum for at least 4 hours in a close container.

Question : What is extraction? Why extraction is needed?

Extractions:Extraction is a separation technique in which the active pharmaceutical ingredient (API) or active
constituents are removed from crude drugs with the helps of solvent. ORExtraction is the separation of
medicinally active portions from crude drugs ( plant tissues or animal tissues) using selective solvents through
standard procedures. The basic parameters influencing the quality of an extract are; Plant part used as
starting material Solvent used for extraction Extraction procedureMenstrum: Menstrum is a solvent used for
extraction.Marc: Mar is residue materials left after extraction process.Advantages of extraction:Potency can be
controlledDeterioration can be controlledDifferent dosage from e.g tablets capsules, symptoms and injections
can easily synthesize.Dosage forms of purified compounds are more stable then the non purified ones.The
compounds that are none purified can cause infections.If the drugs are used in raw form ADRs (adverse drug
reactions) can affect humans.Need of extraction:To obtain drugs from plants and animal sourceTo purify
crude drugsTo control potency and deterioration of drugsTo obtain high quality of active constituents form
plant and animal sourcesTo obtain glycosides, volatile oils tannins, flavonoids etc

Question : What are the general steps involved in the process of

extraction.
General steps for extractions:Suitable size reduction of crude drug Selection of suitable solvent Solvent
addition to penetrate into the crude drug (Maceration)Supply of appropriate heat (if needed)Wait for some
time so that solvent extract drug from crude drugFiltration and pressing the marc to recover solvent (if
remained any)Evaporation technique is applied to get purified solid drug.

Question : What are the ideal characteristics of solvents used for

extraction?
Characteristics of solvents used for extraction:The solvent should be cheapShould be non toxicShould be
stable with active ingredientsShould be selective for active ingredientsShould be preservative Require small
amount of heatCommon solvents used for extraction:WaterEthanolMethanolChloroformEtherAcetone

Question : Discuss different types of extraction.

1. Maceration:In this method the drug is dipped in a menstrum for prolong time generally 2-14 days with
frequent agitation. The mixture is then filtered to remove the marc.2. Infusion:In this method the crude drug
is place in a menstrum (water) for 15 minutes. An infusion is a dilute solution of readily soluble constituents of
crude drugs. The mixture is then filtered to remove marc.3. Percolation:In this method powered crude drug is
placed in a container (percolator) and the menstrum is added from the top which will elute the active
constituents along with it.4. Digestion:It is a form of maceration with slight warming or heating during
extraction process. Solvent efficiency of menstrum is increased in this method.5. Decoction:In this method
crude drug is boiled with menstrum for static period f time usaully 10-15 minutes. It extracts water soluble
and heat stable constituents.6. Continuous hot extraction:In this method the extraction is carried out in
apparatus. The drug is always used in hot condition. This method is used when the drug is not freely soluble
in solvent.

Question : Write note on infusion

InfusionInfusion is a process or technique of extraction which is usually used for soft natured drugs. So that
the menstrum (which is water) can easily diffuse into the drug b/c of these drugs easily release their active
constituents in the menstrum. The extract that are formulated through infusion porcess have shelf life of only
24 hours so. It is recommended to sue these kinds of extracts freshly.Procedure:1. Cut the drug into pieces
(incase of hard drug)2. Now put all the pieces of the drug in large beaker (1000ml) 3. Add menstrum to the
drug as mentioned in the monograph.4. Heat the drug and menstrum mixture to boil for definite period of
time 5. Allow the mixture to cool down.6. After the cooling phase filter the mixture.7. The filter mixture is now
ready to use as a extract.

Question : Describe the process of maceration.

Maceration:It is the method the drug is placed in a menstrum for 2-14 days with frequent agitation. The
mixture is then filtered to obtain the extract.Process:1. Comminution of the crude drug. the drug is converted
into coarse powder rather then fine.2. Enclose the comminuted drug in a pouch3. Select a suitable
menstrum4. Place the pouch containing crude drug in menstrum for 2-14 days with frequent aggitataion until
soluble contents of crude get dissolved 5. The mixture then is strained, the marc ( the damp solid material) is
pressed to recover the remaining solvent if any6. The combined liquids are clarified by filtration or
decantation after standing7. Adjust the volume according to the requirement.

Question : Describe the process of percolation.

Percolation:It is an extraction technique in which a communicated drug is enclosed in a vessel known as
percolator and menstrum is allowed to pass through the communicated drug. The extract that we obtained
form the percolation and procedure is called percolate. the percolation process consists of the following
steps;1. Comminution of crude drugs:The drug is crushed moderately to fine powder depending upon the
nature of drug. The basic advantages of size reduction in percolation are;To enhance the surface area of
drug.Because of size reduction uniform packing of drug in percolation become possible.Because of size
reduction (powder from drug) the movement of menstrum become slow.2. Moistening of drug:The powdered
drug is place with little amount of menstrum for at lest 4 hours in a close container. The moistening of crude
drug is called imbibition. The fundamental advantages of moistening the drug are as follow.The dry powder
may be swell up when it firstly have a contact with menstrum.This can be overcome by moistening the
powder drug.Due to imbibitions of powder drug the entrapment of air can be minimized.3. Packing of drug in
percolator:After imbibitions of powdered crude drug it would be packed in suitable percolator. here are two
types of percolators.i. Open percolator:The upper surface of this percolator is open it mainly use for mainly
non-volatile solvent.ii. Close percolator:the upper surface of this percolator is close and it mainly used for
volatile menstrum e.g. alcohol.4. Maceration: The larger portion of menstrum is poured on the packed drug in
a percolator in order to macerate for at least 24 hours.5. Percolation:After 24 hours of maceration the lower
tap is open and menstrum will collect into a collector. When 3/4 of the poured menstrum is collected the
remaining menstrum will be poured. When all the menstrum is received in the collector then marc is pressed
to recover the remaining menstrum if any left.6. Volume adjustment:Adjust the volume according to the
requirement.

Question : Write note on Soxhlet extraction ( continuous hot

extraction).
Soxhlet extraction ( continuous hot extraction):The soxhlet extraction ( continuous hot extraction) is
performed when the drug is not freely soluble in solvent and is carried out in an apparatus called sochlet
apparatus. In continuous hot extraction the drug is enclosed in a drug chamber called timble and Menstrum is
placed in lower flask. A reflex condenser place at the upper portion. When heat is applied to the Mensturm, it
convert it self into vapours these vapours are condensed by reflux condenser. The drops of Menstrum tickle
down on the drug chamber and hence increase the efficiency of extraction. Process:The finely crude drug is
placed in a porous bag or thimble, which is placed in the soxhlet apparatusThe extracting solvent in the flask
is heated and the vapours condense in a condenser placed at the upper portion of apparatus The condensed
extractant drips into the thimble containing crude drugWhen the level of liquid in chamber rises to the top of
siphon tube, the liquid will flow down into the flaskThis process is continuous and is carried out until a drop of
solvent from the siphon tube does not leave residue when evaporated

Question : Classify drastic plants.

The drastic plants can be classified as; · Plants Causing GIT Toxicity · Plants Causing CNS Toxicity
· Plants Causing CVS Toxicity Cyanogenetic Plants

Question : Write down symptoms of toxic plants

● Intense burning sensation ● Mouth unless ● Dermatitis ● Blister on tongue ●
Increase salivation ● Loss of voice is also reported

Question : Discuss plants toxic to gastric mucosa.

Plants toxic to Gastric Mucosa Plant name (1) Narcissus tazeeta (2) Amaryllus vittae (3) Crinum
asiatcum Family Amaryllideacea Habitat Narcissus tazette is widely found in Gilgat and Swat Wally
Amarlllus vittae and crinium asiaticum both widely found in Punjab, Sindh Toxicology There
are various alkaloids in these plants but lycorine is the most dangerous one, that cause multiple
symptoms Symptoms ● Inflammation and burning sensation o mouth ● Gastritis ● Headache ●
Increase salivation nasal secretion

Question : Discuss Gastro enteric irritant plants.

Gastro Enteric Irritant Plants A) Plant name: Aseculus
indica Family : HippocastanaceaeToxicology This plant contain many chemical substances
from which saponin (glycoride ) is a toxic to our GIT. Symptoms ● Inflammation of gastric mucosa ●Peptic
ulcer ● Duodenal ulcer ● Inflammation eye. (Conjunctivitis) ● Vomiting ● Fever ●
Headache ● Sever sneezing

Question : Discuss plant causing intestinal motility.

Plant name Conium maculatum Family UmbelliferaeToxicology There are many alkaloids present in conium
maculatum. But the toxins that are harmful to humans are coniine, pseudo
conohydrine ,N.Methyl coniine. Symptoms ● increase the intestinal motality ●paralysis of motor
Nerve ending ●paralysis of spinal card ● respiratory Depression ● drowsiness

Question : Write down symptoms of plants causing CNS

disturbance.
Ventricular tachycardia ● Vomiting ●Sinus arrythemia ● SOB(shortness of breath ●
drowsinss ●fatigue hypertenshion ●cardic arrtheimiya ● venticuler tacky cardia ● increase
impulse rate ● nausea ●vomiting ● chest pain.

Question : Writ down symptoms of plants causing CVS disturbance.

● shrinkage of mouth ● dryness of mouth ● dry cough ●constipation ● depression ● the
addict person will enjoy the color of life ● vomiting ● headache ● hallucination

Question : Discuss cyanogenetic plants.

Cyanogenetic Plants plant name Manihot
esulenta family Euphorbiaceae habitat it is easily available in the
forests of Northen area
. Toxicology
there is a toxic substances name cyanogenocyte which can produce harmful effect on the living
systems. Systems ●convulsion ●muscular weakness ●lever damage ● vomiting Plant
name Prunus amygdalus Family: Rosaceae Habitat It is widely available in the
Northren parts of
Pakistan. Toxicolo
gy It contain a toxic chemical name
amygladin.. Symptoms ● convulsions ●vomiting ●liver damage ●

Question : Discuss plants causing CVS disturbance.

Plant name ● Digitalis purpura ● Digitalis
lanata Family Scrophulariaceae Habitat Hazara , Azad
Kashmir Toxicology these are two plants contain many glycosides. In which the Digitalis purpura
is most active are Digoxin, Digitoxin and GitatoxinSymptom ● Ventricular tachycardia ●
Vomiting ●Sinus arrythemia ● SOB(shortness of breath ● drowsinss ●fatigue

Question : Discuss Nicotiana tobaccum.

Plant name Nicotiana
tobaccum Family solanaceae Nicotiana tobaccum
Habitat It is widely available in Rural Sindh , Punjab and N.W.F.P Toxicology ● there are
mainly alkaloids available in nicotiana tobaccum .But the most effective is nicotine. Symptom ●
enhance the motality of Intestine ● Diarrhea

Question : What is poisoning? Discuss types of poisoning.

Poison:A substance that cause death, injury or harm to an organism is called poison. ORA substance that is
capable of causing illness or death of living organisms when introduced or absorbed. ORAny substance which,
when taken into the system, acts injuriously, in a manner neither thermal nor mechanical, tending to cause
death or serious detriment to health.Poisoning: The action of administering poison to a person or animal is
called poisoning.Phytoxin: Poison or toxin produced by posinous plant is called phytotoxin.Types of
poisoning:1. Mild Poisoning:Poisoning may be called as mild poisoning if symptoms produced by the
poisonous plants are like itching (on the palm of hands, soles of feet, body etc) sneezing, lacrimation, redness
of the area or skin of red patches or hives, shivering, dizziness,dryness of mouth (thirst) etc. e.g. poisoning due
to chrysanthemum, Asparagus, daffodils etc.2. Moderate Poisoning:If the symptoms are not severe, i.e. may
bearable by the patient for sometimes, or become distressing and aggravated if left unattended or not
properly treated e.g. diarrhea, abdominal pain, severer vomiting, gas-enteritis, colitis, burning sensation of
mouth and throat, appearance of watery blisters that are painful and rapidly spreading, e.g as with toxic
odendron radicans ( poison ivy)3. Severe poisoning:If the poisoning produced by poisonous plants gives rise
to symptoms-appearance indicating involvement of vital system of the body (e.g. cardiovascular system,
central nervous system or Respiratory tract) or if these symptoms are severe enough, not tolerable by the
patient, it may be said that poisoning is severe. In many of the poisoning cases, if patient is left unattended
and not properly and timely managed drastic consequences may occur, even leading to death.Examples:
Excessive, uncontrolled diarrhea and/or vomiting, fall in blood pressure (Hypetension) or abrupt rise in blood
pressure (hypertension), bronchial spasm, narrowing of air passages (asthmatic attack) Severe poisoning may
be observed in certain individuals with following plants: e.g. Nux-vomica (strychnine) colchicum ( colchicines),
Digitalis leaves, Aconitum napellus ( aconite) etc

Question : Write a note on Arisaema Triphyllum

Botanical Names:Arisaema triphyllum ( Saanp booti)Colcasia esculanata (Arvi)Arum jacquemontiiFamily:
AraceaeHabital: Sindh, Gilget, Swat, Ayubia and nathiagaliToxic Principle: Toxic principle is raphide i.e. calcium
oxalate crystals in areal parts of plantsMedicinal activity: Not yet reportedSymptoms of
toxicity: DermatitisBurning sensationIncreased salvationBlisters on tongue

Question : Write note on Plants causing irritation of gastric mucosa:

These plants produce spontanceous emesis upon ingestion and are rarely consumed at high doses. These
plants include;Botanical Names:Narcissus tazetta ( Daffodil)Amaryllis vittata Aztec Lily)Crinum asiaticum
(Crinum lily)Family: AmaryllidaceaeHabital: Narcissus tazetta is found in Gilgit and seat. Amaryllis vittata and
Crinum asiaticum found in Punjab and Sindh.Toxic Principle: Toxic principle is an alkaloid i.e. Lycorine that is
heat stable and has fungicidal properties.Symptoms of toxicity:Nasal secretionInflammation of eyesNarcosis
(insensibility)ConvulsionsEmesisGastritis

Question : Write note on Plants causing irritation of intestinal

mucosa (Aesculus indica) :
These plants produce emesis, colic (abdominal pain) and diarrhea within one hour of ingestion. These plants
include;i. Botanical Name: Aesculus indicaFamily: HippocastanaceaeToxic component: Saponin glycoside (
aesculin) which is toxic to GITHabital: Found in Quetta, Murree, Ziarat, Azad KashmirMedicinal activity:
NoSymptoms of toxicity:Inflammation of gastric mucosaAbdominal painDiarrheaPeptic ulcer Duodenal
ulcerRespiratory distressDermatitisVomitingSevere snezingFeverHeadache

Question : Write a note on Podophyllum Emodi

Family: BerberidiaceaeToxic component: Resinous compound (podophyllin) in rhizome Habital: Found is
Swaat, Chitral, Murre, Ziarat, Azad KashmirMedicinal activity: Anti-cancerSymptoms of toxicity:Abdominal or
epigastric painInflammation of gastric mucosaTouching roost cause contact
dermatitisHeadacheFeverPersistent emesisDiarrheaInflammation of eyeBurning sensation

Question : Write a note on Taxus baccata (Zarnab)

Family: TaxaceaeToxic component: Alkaloid (toxine) in leavesHabital: Found in Murree, Gilgit, Swaat,
KashmirMedicinal activity: Abortifacient, Anti-rheumatic, Anti-spasmodic, Anti-cancerSymptoms of
toxicity:Emesis DiarrheaAbdominal or epigastric painSevere hypokalemiaVentricular
arrhythniasHemodynamic instabilityHypotensionRespiratory distressMuscular weakness

Question : Write a not on Abrus Precatorius

These plants produce gastroenteritis after these are ingested and swallowed. These plants include;Abrus
precatorius (Ratti)Ricinus communis (Arnad)Colchicum Luteum ( Suranjan)Rheum webbianum, Rheum ribes
(Atis).1. Botanical Name: Abrus precatorius (Ratti)Family: Leguminosae/ FabaceaeToxic component: Abrin,
Abric acid found in seedsHabital: Sindh, Kashmir up to the altitude of 3000-5000 ft.Medicinal activity:
Contraceptive, Anti-cancer ( Abrin)Symptoms of toxicity:Even small amount of ingestion of seeds can cause
cardiac arrest especially in children Burning sensation in mouth and throatSevere gastroenteritisRespiratory
disturbancepersistent emesisNauseaVomitingDiarrheaTrembling of handsMuscular weakness

Question : Write a not on Botanical Name: Colchicum luteum (

Suranjan)
Family: Liliaceae Toxic component: Colochicine found inall parts of plantHabital: Chitral, muree, Hazara, Gilgit,
KashmirMedicinal activity: Gout, Rehumatism, LaxativeSymptoms of toxicity:Burning sensation in
mouthIntense thirstNausea VomitingAbdominal discomfortBotanical Name: Ricinus communis (Arand)Family:
EuphorbiaceaeToxic component: Glycoprotein ( ricin) in seedsHabital: Punjab, Sindh, Balochistan,
ChitralMedicinal activity: Anti-micrbial, anti-inflammatory Laxative, PurgativeSymptoms of
toxicity:Vomiting DiarrheaSeizuresBlood in the urineBotanical Name: Rheum webbianum (Rhubarb)Family:
PolygonaceaeToxic component: Salts of oxalic acid in leavesHabitat: Chitral, Hazara, Gilgit, KshmirMedicinal
activity: Laxative, PurgativeSymptoms of toxicity:Vomiting DiarrheaGastroenteritisRespiratory
disturbancesCardiac arrest

Question : Write a not on Atropa Belladona

Family: SolanaceaHabitat: Muree, Manshehra and ChitralToxic Principle: Toxic principle is atropineMedicinal
Activity: Anti-cholinergic, Anti-oxidant, Para-sympatholytic, Mydriatic, Diruetic, Antidote for Physostigmine
toxicitySymptoms of toxicity:Dry dryness of mouthVisual disturbanceIntense thirstFlushed skinRapid heart
beatConvulsionComa and death

Question : Write a note on Datura Stramonium

Family: SolanaceaeHabital: Muree, Chitral, Swat, Gilgit and KashmirToxic Principle: Toxic principle is atropine,
hyosyamine and hyosineMedicinal Activity:Anticholinergic, Antishpasmodic, Parkinsonism, Motion
sicknessSymptoms of toxicity:Dryness of mouthDyspneaFatigueFlushed skinFeverHeadache Eye sight
weaknessMuscular weakness

Question : Write a note on Hyoscymus Nigar

Family: SolanaceaeHabitat: Chitral, Swat, Gilgit and KashmirToxic Principle: Toxic principle is hyosyamine and
hyosine ( scopolamine)Medicinal Activity:Muscle rexlant, Sedative, Antiseptic, MydriaticSymptoms of
toxicity:Intense thirstVisual disturbanceFlushed skinCentral nervous system hyper irritabilityDeliriumRapid
Heartbeat with elevated temperature.Subjects may be prone to violence, hallucination, convulsions, coma,
and death.

Question : Write a note on Conium Maculatum

Family: UmbelliferaeHabitat: Muree hills, Hazara, Abdotabad and ChitralToxic Principle: Toxic principle are
nicotine like alkaloids especially coniine, pseudo conohydrine, N.Methyl coniine.Symptoms of toxicity:Increase
the intestinal motalityIncreased salivationparalysis of motor Nerve endingParalysis of spinal cardRespiratory
DepressionDrowsiness
Question : Write a note on Nicotiana Tobaccum
Family: SolanaceaeHabitat: Muree, Chitral, Swat, Gilgit and punjabToxic Principle: Toxic principle is
nicotineSymptoms of toxicity:Enhance motility of intestinenausea, Vomiting, DiarrheaAbdominal cramps Low
blood pressureCardiac arrestRespiratory collapse

Question : Write a note on Digitalis Purpura

Family: ScrophulariaceaeHabitat: Hazara, Abdotabad and Azad KashmirToxic Principle: Toxic principles are
Digoxin, Digitoxin, Gitoxin and GitaloxinMedicinal Value: Vardiac stimulantSymptoms of toxicity:Ventricular
tachycardiaSinus arrythemiaSOB (shortness of breathDrowsinessNauseaVomiting Blurred visionFatigue

Question : Write a note on Nerium indicum

Family: ApocynaceaeHabitat: Muree hills, Chitral, Gilgit and KashmirToxic Principle: Toxic principle are
oleandrine, nerodine and karabinerMedicinal Value: Anthelmintic, febrifuge, diuretic, emetic, expectorant,
cardiotonic and anticancer, used as abortifacient in indiaSymptoms of toxicity:HypertensionCardic
arrhythmiaVenticuler tachycardiaIncrease impulse rateChest painNauseaVomiting

Question : Write a note on Cannabis Sativa

Family: CannabaceaeHabitat: Abbotabad, Azad Kashmir, Punjab and SindhToxic Principle: Toxic principle is
narcotic resin called tetra hydro cannbinol (THC) Medicinal Value: Anticancer, Anti-emetic and appetite
stimulantSymptoms of toxicity:Shrinkage of mouthDryness of mouthDry
coughConstipationDepressionVomitingHeadacheHallucination

Question : Write a note on Cicuta Virosa

Family: UmbillifereaeHabitat: Hilly areas of Azad KashmirToxic Principle: toxic principle is cicutoxinSymptoms
of toxicity:DepressionTremorRespiratory depressionIncrease salivationNauseaVomiting

Question : Write a note on Nux-Vomica

Family: LoganiaceaeHabitat: KPK, Punjab Toxic Principle: Toxic principle is strychnine and brucineMedicinal
Value: Circulatory stimulant, analgesic, antioxidant, treat high blood sugaar and improve appetite and
digestionSymptoms of toxicity:Neck and back stiffness Respiratory depression Dizziness Convulsion
ParalysisTremor seizure

Question : Write a note on Prunus Amygdalus

Family: RosaceaeHabitat: Northern areas of PakistanToxic Principle: Toxic principle is amygdaline which on
hydrolysis yield hydro cyanic acid which is toxic substance.Medicinal Value: Anticancer, moisturizing agent,
used in eczema, mild laxativeSymptoms of toxicity:ConvulsionLiver damage Vomiting Nausea Muscular
weakness

Question : What are glycosides? Also classify them.

These are organic compounds, abundantly present in plants; on hydrolysis they yield a sugar component
called Glycogen and non-sugar component called A-glycogen. Classes: The glycosides are
classified as follows; 1. Anthra-quinone Glycosides (example: Senna, Aloe, rhubarb) 2. Cardio
tonic Glycosides (Example: Digitalis , Strophanthus) 3. Saponin Glycoside

Question : Write down medicinal uses of senna and aloe.

Medicinal Uses of senna ; · Cathartic · Laxative · Purgative · Medicinal Uses of Aloe: Purgative
· Skin diseases · Burns by heat, radiation &sun · Wound · Hair tonic

Question : write down chemical constituents of glycyrrhiza and

digitalis.
Chemical Constituents of Glycyrrhiza; Glycyrrhizin, Glycyrrhizic acid Chemical
Constituents of Digitalis; Digitoxin, Gitoxin & Gitaloxin

Question : Write down family of strophanthus and cassia.

Family of strophantus; ApocynaceaeFamily of Cassia: Family
; Leguminosae

Question : Write down chemical constituents of aloe and digitalis.

Chemical Constituents of Aloe ; Aloin, Barbaloin, Emodine Chemical Constituents of
Digitalis ; Digitoxin, Gitoxin & Gitaloxin

Question : What are alkaloids ? Also classify them.

Alkaloids Alkaloids are naturally occurring, nitrogen containing compound. These are basic in nature and are
physiologically active. Groups: 1. Pyridine-piperidine (Example: areca nut ) 2. Tropane alkaloids
(Example: Hyoscyamus leafs) 3. Quinoline alkaloids (Example: Cinchona bark) 4. Iso-quinoline alkaloids
(Example: Ipecac, Opium) 5. Indole alkaloids (Example: Nux-vomica) 6. Alkaloidal amine (Example:
Ephedra) 7. Steroidal alkaloids (Example: veratrum) 8. Purine alkaloids (Example: Tea , Coffee)

Question : Write down chemical constituents of Rauwolfia and

Catharanthus.
Chemical Constituents Rauwolfia; Reserpine, Ajmaline (Rauwolfine), Ajmalicine
(Yohimbine), Serpentine, Serpentinine.Chemical constituents of Catharanthus: Chemical
Constituent; Vinblastine, Vincristine, Vindoline & Catharanthine

Question : Give medicinal uses of Ephedra and opium.

Medicinal Uses of Ephedra; · Anti asthmatic · Bronchodilator · Vasodilator · Medicinal Uses of
Opium; · Narcotic · Analgesic · Sedative · Antispasmodic · Codeine is used as anti tussive
· Papaverine is smooth muscle relaxant

Question : Write down medicinal uses and family of Cinchona bark.

Family ; Rubiaceae Medicinal Uses; Antimalarial · Anti pyretic
· Analgesic · Arrythmia · Dyspepsia · Hay fever · Tonsillitis

Question : Write down chemical constituents and uses of

Belladonna.
Chemical Constituent ; Atropine, Hyoscyamine,
Asparagaline Medicinal Uses; Muscle relaxant of respiratory tract
· Narcotic · Sedative · Antispasmodic
Question : What are volatile oils?
Rapidly evaporating oil, especially an essential oil that does not leave a
stain. OR Any organic oil present in plants, usually containing
terpenes and esters and having the odour or flavour of the plant from which they are extracted.

Question : Write down chemical constituents of Caraway and

Peppermint.
Chemical Constituents of Caraway ; Carvone, Carveol, LimoneneChemical Constituents of
Pepprmint; Menthol, Menthone, Jasmine, Limonene, Phellandrene

Question : Write down biological source of Fennel and its Uses.

Biological source; It is obtain from ripe fruit of “Foeniculum vulgare”Medicinal Uses ·
Flavoring agent Carminative · Stomachic · Expectorant · Stimulant

Question : Write down medicinal uses of Cinnamon and Colve.

Medicinal Uses of Cinnamon ; · vomiting · Flavoring · Carminative · Stimulant · Astringent Medicinal Uses of
Clove; · Flavoring · Carminative · Anti-septic · Dental preparation

Question : Write down Medicinal uses of Curcuma and Cardamom.

Medicinal Uses of Cucuma; · Anti Inflammatory · Use in Jaundice · Use in Gall Stones Medicinal
Uses of Cardamom; · Flavoring · Stomachic · Stimulant · Diuretic

Question : What are resins?

Resins are solid or semisolid plant exudates formed in schizogenous cavities.They are complex mixtures of
compounds like resin alcohols (resinols), resin acids, resinophenols. Natural resins are usually transparent
yellow to brown and can melt and burn. Most are exuded from trees, especially pines.
Question : Give classification of resins.
Classification of Resins: Resins are classified on the basis of their occurrence in combination with other
compounds as: Balsams:Balsams are resinous substances which contain large proportion of benzoic acid or
cinnamic acid either free or in combination with their esters. Examples are Tolu balsam, Benzoin and Peru
balsam. Oleoresin: When resin occurs with volatile oils the mixture is called Oleoresin. Examples are;
Ginger, Capsicum etc. Gum Resins: When resins are found in combination with gums then such
resins are known as gum resins. Examples include; Asafeotida. Oleo-gum Resins: These are associated with
gums and volatile oils both. The volatile oil is removed by steam distillation and gum is separated by
dissolving in water. Examples are; Myrrh, Ipomoea

Question : Write down family name of Tolu balsam and also give its
uses.
Family; Leguminoseae Medicinal Uses; · Expectorant · Anti-septic · Flavouring in
Pharmaceuticals

Question : Write chemical constituents of Colocynth and Luban.

Chemical Constituent of Colocynth; Cucurbitacin-EChemical Constituent; Balsamic acid, Benzoin
acid, Cinnamic acid

Question : Write down medicinal uses of Asafeotida and Ginger.

Medicinal Uses of Asafeotida; · Carminative · Expectorant · Anti-spasmodic(muscle relaxant)
· Laxative · Hysteria & epilepsy (mental disorder) Medicinal Uses of
Ginger; Stimulant Carminative Condiment Used in Cold & Cough Used in Asthma

Question : What are carbohydrates ? Classify them.

Carbohydrates are pollyhydroxy aldehyde or ketone, with at least three carbon atoms. These compounds are
produced by photosynthetic plants and contain only carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, usually in the ratio
1:2:1. Example: Glucose, sucrose and starch. Carbohydrates are classified into 3 main
classes. 1. Monosaccharides or simple sugars 2. Oligosaccharides Polysaccharides
Question : Write down biological sources of Acacia ans also write its
colour,odour and uses.
Biological source; It is dried gum obtain from the stem and branches of
“Acacia senegal” and “Acacia arabica”Colour: Dark brown Odour: odourless Medicinal Uses ; · As
emulsifying agent · As binder · As demulcent · As thickner in juices

Question : Write medicinal uses of Gondkatera and Agar.

Medicinal Uses of Gondkatera; · As emulsifying · As suspending agent · As demulcent · In
cosmetics In food industry Medicinal Uses of Agar; · As emulsifying agent · As cathartic · As
demulcent · As nutrient media for bacterial culture · As laxative

Question : Write source of Corn starch and Wheat starch.

Corn Starch B.O: Zea
mays Wheat
Starch B.O: Triticum aestrivum

Question : Write down preparation of Potato starch and its

medicinal uses.
Preparation of potato starch: Firstly potatoes are washed, crushed and separate cellular debris
by rotary sieves then add water and keep on standing position starch is separated and then dried it.Medicinal
Uses ; · As emulsifying agent · As binder · As nutritive · As anti-dote in iodine poisoning In
dusting powder

Question : Give biological source of Catechu and its chemical

constituents.
Botanical Name; It is dried aqueous extract prepared from “Acacia catechu”Chemical
Constituent; Acacatechin, Quercitin, Tannic acid

Question : What are tannins?

These are complex organic, non-nitrogenous, pale yellow to light brown amorphous substances widely
distributed in plants and used chiefly in tanning leather, dyeing fabric, and making ink. Their solutions are acid
and have an astringent taste.

Question : Give medicinal uses of Nut gall and Katha.

Medicinal Uses of Katha; · As Astringent, applied to boils and skin ulcers · Digestive · In cough
· In Diarrhoea Medicinal Uses; · Astringent · Used in Burns.

Question : What are fixed oils?

These are esters of glycerol with long chain fatty acids. They are nonvolatile in nature obtained from plants
(Castor oil, Almond oil) or animals (Cod liver oil). OR Fixed Oils are most
commonly used in aromatherapy oil blends, toiletries, food and industry. Fixed Oils are not volatile, they do
not evaporate.

Question : Write a note on Almond oil.

Drug; Almond Oil Chemical Class; Lipids (Fixed Oil) Biological source; It is dried ripe
seeds of “Prunus
amygdalus” Family; Rosaceae Chemical
Constituent; Sphingolipid Medicinal Uses; · Used for moisturizing skin · Used in eczema · As
flavouring agent in the preparation of toilet articles · As vehicle for oily injection · Mild laxative

Question : Discuss preparation of maize starch.

Firstly the grains are softened by soaking in the aqueous solution of sulphuric acid at 500 c temperature for 3-
4 days then the grains are crush to separate the embryo and germ milky fluid is obtained (which have starch
and protein). To separate starch the dilute Alkali solution is added which absorb protein. Starch is dried by
flash dryer.

Question : Discuss preparation of rice starch.

Firstly broken rice are softened by adding in the aqueous solution of NaOH then crushed it and mixed with
water and to separate starch the solution is kept on standing position then dried at the 50-60 c temp.
Question : Discuss collection of agar.
Algae is cultivated on coast and washed for 24 hours in running water then beaten and shaken to remove
sand and shells. Then it is moved in steam heated digester for 30 hours to extract chemical then a gel like
material is obtain. To remove water gel is freezes, ice block of agar is obtained crush and melt it and filter
through a vacuum rotary sieve agar flack is obtain.

Question : Discuss collection of Tragacanth gum.

The tree is 1 m high and thorny branches of shrubs and obtains from plant when plant is 1-2 year old by a
process called gummosis When plant is injured the internal layer pith is converted into gum then the plant
absorbed water and swells up and throws the gum on the outer surface and by the reaction with air it become
hard due to the evaporation of water.

Question : Discuss collection of acacia.

Acacia tree is 6 m high when we cut stem transversely phloem cells come out and by bacterial attack
(Bacterium acaciae) the flume cells convert into gum and then it is stored in lathery bags for 2-3 months.

Question : Discuss different classes of carbohydrates.

Carbohydrates are classified into 3 main classes. Monosaccharides or simple sugars Oligosaccharides
Polysaccharides Monosaccharides: These are the simple sugars and can not be hydrolyzed. Chemical formula
is (C.H2o) n. For example: Glucose (C6H12O6) Blood Sugar Fructose (C6H12O6) Fruit Sugar Pentose
(C5H10O5) Oligosaccharide: They contain the carbohydrates which formed by the combination of 2 or 3
monosaccharide units. And the range is (C1 to C10) Such as; Disaccharides Tri-saccharides and so on….
Disaccharide: In which 2 monosaccharide combine to form disaccharide with a linkage called Glycosidic
linkage For example; Sucrose (Table Sugar) it forms by the combination of D-glucose and D-fructose
Polysaccharides: In which large no. of monosaccharide combine to form polysaccharide and they are very
complex in structure and these are called non-sugar For example starch, Agar, pectin etc.

Question : Discuss ginger.

Drug; Ginger Synonym; Zingiber, Saunth (Hindi), Adrak (Urdu) Chemical Class; Resins
Biological source; It is obtain from dried rhizomes of “Zingiber officinale”Family; Zingiberaceae Chemical
Constituent; Resins constituents are; Gingerol, Shogaols, Gingediols Volatile oils are; Zingerone, Zingiberene
The pungency of ginger is due to Gingerol. Dehydration of Gingerol produces shogaol which is not present in
fresh rhizome. Medicinal Uses; Stimulant Carminative Condiment Used in Cold & Cough Used in Asthma

Question : Discuss Sumatra Benzoin

Drug; Sumatra Benzoin Synonym; Benjamin, Luban (Hindi) Chemical Class; Resins Biological source; It
is obtain from by incision of stem of “Styrax benzoin”Family; Styraceae Chemical
Constituent; Balsamic acid, Benzoin acid, Cinnamic acid Medicinal Uses; Expectorant Anti-septicDiuretic In
cosmetic compound benzoin tincture

Question : Discuss Hyoscyamus.

Hyoscyamus Family; Solanaceae Chemical Constituent; Hyoscyamine
(Atropine) Hyoscine (Scopolamine) Medicinal Uses; Smooth muscle relaxant Sedative Narcotic Mydriatic Used
in Asthma CNS stimulant

Question : Discuss Nux vomica.

Drug; Nux-Vomica Synonym; Kuchla, Poison nut, Vomit nut Biological source; It is the dried ripe
seeds of “Strychnus nux-vomicaFamily; Loganiaceae Chemical
Constituent; Strychnine, Brucine, Vomicine, Novacine, Colubrine Medicinal
Uses; Circulatory stimulant Bitter tonic Increase tone of intestine Used in alcohol poisoning
Improve appetite and digestion

Question : Discuss collection of Digitalis.

For its cultivation stained seeds are sown into equal parts of clean sand are garden soil. When seedlings arise
they are transferred to the fields. The leaves are collected from September to November in afternoon. The
leaves are dried immediately at 60 centigrade after collection. If drying is rapid it will retain it green colour.
Dried leaves are packed in air tight container having a desiccating substance that is silica gel or calcium oxide.

Question : What are glycosides?

A glycoside is an organic compound usually obtained from plants origin, that is composed of sugar portion
linked with non-sugar moiety. Glycosides have two components one is sugar and the other is non-sugar
component. The sugar component is called glycone and non sugar portion is called A-glycon. The sugar
component is usually linked with non-sugar through oxygen linkage and such glycosides are called O-
glycosides.Significance of sugar and non-sugar components:Non-sugar component is also called genin and
responsible for therapeutic activity/action Sugar component is responsible for;Distribution of drug (act as a
carrier)Transportation of drugTo enhance the bioavailabilityPrevent the drug from degradationImportance of
glycoside:Source of sugarConvert toxic material into less toxicTransfer water insoluble substance by using
monosaccharidesSome glycosides have anti-bacterial activity so, they protect the plants from bacteria and
diseases

Question : Write note on classification of glycosides.

Classification of glycosides:On the basis of linkage of sugar molecule ( glycon) to non-sugar molecule (aglycon),
glycosides are classified as follow;1. O-glycosides:If oxygen serve as alinkage between glycon and aglycon
molecule. E.g; Digitoxin2. N-glycosides:If nitrogen serve as alinkkage between glycon and aglycon molecule.
E.g; Nucleosides3. S-glycosides:If sulphur serve as alinkage between glycon and aglycon molecule. E.g;
Isothiocynate glycosidesC-glycosides:Ifcatrbon serve as alinkage between glycon and aglycon molecule. E.g;
Aloin On the basis of chemical nature of aglycon molecule, glycosides areclassified as follow;1. Steroidal
glycosides;When aglycon part is sterol is called steroidal glycosides. E.g: Diosgenin2. Flavonoid
glycosides:When aglycon part is glavonoid is called steroidal glycosides. E.g: Rutin3. Aldehyde
glycosides: When aglycon part is aldehyde is called aldehyde glycosides. E.g: glucovanilline4. Alcohol
glycosides:When aglycon part is alcohol is called aldehyde glycosides. E.g: salicin, populin5. Phenol
glycosides:When aglcon part is pheonol is called aldehyde glycosides. E.g: arbutin6. Anthracene
glycoside:When aglycon part is anthracene. E.g: Frangulin, Barbaloin7. Lactone glycosides:When aglycon part
is lactone. E.g: Hydroxy cummarin glycosides8. Triterpenic glycosides:When aglycon part is triterpene. E.g:
Glycyrrhizin

Question : Write note on cardio active, anthraquinone, saponin and

cynogenic glycosides.
1. Cardioactive glycoside:These glycosides have their action on cardiac muscles. They Increase cardiac muscle
tone and increase excitability and contractility. Cardio active glycosides increase the force of contraction and
decrease heart rate Plants: Digitalis, strophanthus, Squill2. Anthraquinone glycosides:Anthraqunione
Glycosides possess anthracene or their dervatives as aglycone in which two kept keto group are attaced with
the benzene ring. Plants: Senna, Aloe, Rhubarb, Cascara bark3. Saponin glycosides:Saponin Glycosides are the
plant glycosides possessing a distinct property of forming soapy lather in water. Therefore, they are largely
used as detergents. Saponinson on hydrolysis give sugars and aglycones ( sapogenin). Plants: Glycyrrhiza,
Panax Ginseng4. Cynogenic glycosides:IN these glycosides aglycon part is cyanogen. These glcosides yield
hydrocyanic acid on hydrolysis and are found in rosaceous plants. Mostly found in seeds of these
plants.Plants: Prunus virginiana, Prnus sertonia
Question : Discuss important plants containing glycosides.
1. Digitalis:Botanical Origing: Digitalis Purura (Purple), Digitalis lanataSynonyms: foxglove, purple foxglove,
Digitalis foliumFamily: ScrophulariaceaePat used: Dried leavesHabitat: European countries, England, Germany,
France, India, KashmirConstituents: Digitoxin, Gitoxin, Gitaloxin, Digitoxigenin and its derivativesUses:Cardio
tonic, cardiac stimulantIN CHFProvide strength to cardiac muscle

Question : Write a note own the Squill ?

Botanical Origin: scilla maritimaSynonyms: White squill, European scillia, Scilla bulbGeographical source:
Spain, France, Italy, Greece, Algeria, Morroco etcFamily: LiliaceaePart used: Dried leavesConstituents:
Cardioglycoside scillaren A scillaren B, Mucilage and calcium
oxalate.Uses:ExpectorantDiureticsCardiotonicEmetics

Question : Write a note own the Senna?

Botanical Origin: Cassia angustifolia, Cassia acutifoliaLocal name: Senna MukkiGeographical source: Egypt,
south india, pakistan, jamuu kashmir etc.Family: LeguminoseaPart used: Dried leavesConstituents:
Sennosides A,B, C and D, calcium oxalate, salicyclic acidUses:Cathartic LaxativePurgative

Question : Write a note own the Aloe?

Botanical Origin: Aloe BarbadensisLocal Name: Aloe veraGeographical sources:Family: LiliaceaePart used:
Aloin, Barbaloin, EmodineMadicinal Uses:PurgativeSkin diseasesBurns by heat, radiation & sunWoundHair
tonic

Question : Write a note own the Glycyrrhiza?

Botanical Origin: Glycyrrhiza glabraSynonym: Liquorice, MulethiGeographical source: Native to the Western
Asia and southern EuropeFamily: Leuminosea/Fabaceae Part used: Dried roots and
rhizomeConstituents: Glycyrrhizin, Glycyrrhizic acidUses:DemulcentExpectorantDiureticEmollientFlavoring
agentIn Food Industry

Question : Write a note own the Cassia:

Botanical Origin: Cassia FistulaSynonym: Golden Shower treeGeographical source: Native to the Indian
subcontinent and adjacent regions of Southeast AsiaFamily: Leguminosea/FabaceaePart used: All parts of the
plantConstituents: SennosidesUses:CatharticPurgativeAnti gout

Question : Write a note own the Starophanthus:

Botanical Origin: Starophanthus konbeSynonym: Starophanthus seedsHabitat: East and central AfricaFamily:
ApocynaceaePart used: Ripe seedsConstituents: Strophanthin, kombic acid, cholineUses:Cardiac
tonicDiureticArrow poison

Question : Write a note own the Rhubarb?

Botanical Origin: Rheum Officinale, Rheum Palmatum L.Synonym: Rheum, Rhizome RheiHabitat: China, Tbet,
Napal, Central AsiaFamily: Polygonaceae Part used: Dried roots and rhizomeConstituents: Anthraquinones,
emodine, aloe-emodine, rhein, anthronesUses:LaxativePurgative

Question : Write a note own the Cascara Bark:

Botanical Origin: Rhammus PurshianaSynonym: Sacred bark, Chittem bark, Persian barkHabitat: North
America, Columbia, KenyaFamily: RhamnaceaePart used: Dried BarkPart used: Dried BarkConstituents:
Cascarosides A, B, C and D, O-glycosides, C-glycosides, anthraquinonesUses:LaxativePurgative

Question : Write a note own the Wild Cherry Bark:

Botanical Origin: Prunus SerotinaSynonym: Swild cherry bark, Cherry bark, Prune barkHabitat: United states
and Canada Family: RosaceaePart used: Dried stem barkConstituents: Cyanogenic glycosides, prunasin,
benzoic acid, trimethylgallic acid, starche, tannins and volatile oilsUses: Sedative Expectorant Flovuring agent

Question : Morphological Classification:

In this system, the drugs are grouped according to the part of the plants, such as roots leaves, stems, barks,
flowers, seeds etc. The drugs may be organized or unorganized.Organized drugs:The drugs obtained from the
direct parts of the plants are called as organized drugs. They are made up of whole plants or any parts derived
from them. Examples;Root-Rauwolfia, aconite, ginger;Bark-Cinnamon, CinchonaFruit-Amla, Bahera, Capsicum,
Leaf-Digitalis, Senna, Tulsi, coca;Wood- Sandal wood.Unorganized Drugs:The drugs which are prepared from
plants by some intermediate physical process such as incision, drying or extraction with a solvent are called
unorganized drugs, eg. Dried juice (Aloe juice), Dried extract (agar), Dried latex(Opium latex),Advantages:This
system of classification is more convenient for practical study especially when the chemical nature of the drug
is not clearly understood.This type of classification is very useful in identifying the adulterants
used.Disadvantages:It does not give an idea about biological source, chemical constituents and uses. When
different parts of the plant contain different chemical constituents, it is difficult to classify them.

Question : What is toxonomical method of classification of crude

drugs ?
In this method, drugs are classified according to their natural relationship and distinguishing characteristics.
They are grouped in phylum, order, family, genus and species.The family of Almond is Rosaceae.

Question : Define taxonomical classification of drugs.

In this method drugs are classified on the basis of their taxonomy.Taxonomy is the defined as the process of
naming and classifying things such as animals and plants into groups within a larger system, according to
their similarities and differences.

Question : Give levels of modern taxonomy.

Levels of modern taxonomy are:KingdomPhyllumClassOrderFamilyGenusSpecies

Question : Taxonomical Clasification:

In this method, drugs are classified according to their natural relationship and distinguishing characteristics.
They are grouped in kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus and species. Kingdom is the largest unit and
species is the smallest unit of this classification. This type of classification is some time called botanical
classification for plant drugs or zoological classification for animal drugs. For example: all the drugs obtained
from Solanaceae family are grouped together as Solanaceous drugs. Tropane alkaloids are the main
constituents of Solanaceous drugs.Advantages:Easy method for the identification of crude
drugsDisadvantages:The system is criticized for its failure to recognize the organised/ unorganised nature of
crude drugs in their morphological studies.The system fails to face into an account chemical nature of active
constituent and therapeutic significance of crude drugs.The drugs obtained from plants having alternate
leaves, flowers, seeds, capsules (Hyocyamus, Datura, Bellodonna, Stromonium) are considered with other
members of solanaceae.

Question : What is pharmacological method of classification of

crude drugs ?
In this method drugs are classified according to their therapeutic effects. Purgative s: Aloe, Senna, Castor
oil Cardio tonic: Digitallis, Strophanthus

Question : What is antispasmodic action? Give examples of natural

drugs.
Drug used to relieve spasm of involuntary muscle is called antispasmodic drug. Belladona, Hyoscyamus

Question : What are expectorants? Give examples of natural drugs.

A medicine which promotes the secretion of sputum by the air passages, used to treat coughs.Glycyrrhiza,
Tolu balsam

Question : Enlist any three pharmacological method of

Classification.
AnticancerCatharanthusPurgativeAloe, Senna, Castor oilAntispasmodicBelladona, Hyoscyamus

Question : Pharmacological or therapeutic Classification

In this method the drugs are classified on the basis of their therapeutic actions. Examples;Aloe, Senna, Castor
oil have laxative and purgative action.Ephedra, Tea are BronchodilatorsGlycyrrhiza, Tolu balsam are
ExpectorantDigitalis, Squill, Stropanthus are Cardio-tonicsOpium, cannabis are AnalgesicsAdvantages:The
special advantage is that if even chemical constituents of the crude drugs are not known they can be classified
properly on the basis of therapeutic or pharmacological uses.Disadvantages:The main drawback of this
classification is that a drug can be placed in various classes according to its therapeutic use. For example:
Cinchona (quinine) can be grouped in antimalarial and antiarrhythmic catagories.

Question : What is chemical method of classification of crude drugs

?
In this method drugs are classified according to their principle constituents. Carbohydrates Agar, Acacia,
Tragacanth, Starch

Question : What are organized drugs? give examples.

 These are the drugs obtained from direct parts of the plant and containing cellular tissues are called as
organized drugs. For example flowers, seeds, leaves, rhizome, bark etc.

Question : Give examples of organized drugs whose Leaves are

used.
Digitallis, Pudina, Senna, Squill Hyoscyamus, Belladona

Question : Give examples of organized drugs whose barks are

used.
Cinchona, Cinnamon, Cascara

Question : Give examples of organized drugs whose flowering parts

are used.
Clove, Saffron

Question : Give examples of organized drugs whose fruits are used.

Cardamom, Caraway, Fennel, Colocynth, Capsicum

Question : What are unorganized drugs? give examples.

The drugs which are prepared from plants by physical process such as incision, drying or extraction with a
solvent and not containing any cellular plant tissues are called unorganized drugs. For example Latex,
Tragacanth, Gum acacia.

Question : Give examples of unorganized drugs whose dried latex

is used.
Opium, Papain
Question : Give examples of unorganized drugs whose gums are
used.
Acacia, Tragacanth

Question : Give examples of unorganized drugs whose resins

are used.
Asafeotida, Benzoin, Tolu Balsam

Question : Give examples of unorganized drugs whose waxes

are used.
Bees wax, Carnauba wax

Question : Give examples of unorganized drugs which use animal

products.
Gelatin, Cod liver oil, Cantharides

Question : Give examples of unorganized drugs whose minerals

are used.
Kaolin, Talc

Question : Chemical Classification

In this method the drugs are classified on the basis of chemical nature or active constituents such as alkaloids,
resins, volatile oils, gums etc.Agar, Acacia, Tragacanth, plantago seed and Starch contain
carbohydrates.Digitalis, strophanathus, Aloe, Cascara, senna, Arjuna, contain glycosidesCinnamon, Fennel,
Clove, Caraway contain volatile oils.Nicotiana, areca nut, Coca, Belladonna, Datura, Cinchona, Opium, Ipecac,
Ergot, Nuxvomica, Rauwolfia, catharanthus, Physostigma contain alkaliodsAlma, Bohera, Ashoka bark, black
catechu contain tanninsGinger, Asafeotida, Benzoin contain ResinsAdvantages:Chemical constituents are
known,Medicinal uses are knownDisadvantages:Drugs f different origin are grouped under similar chemical
tiles.This type of classification makes no proper placement of drugs containing two different types of
chemicals. Eg: Certain drugs are found to contain alkaloids and glycosides (Cinchona), Fixed oil and volatile oil
(Nutmeg) of equal importance together and hence it is difficult to categorize them properly.