CT2 FINAL EXAM NOTES

L02 LANDSCAPING

SOFTSCAPE
• Soft landscaping refers to living elements of a
landscape that changes as they mature and
doesn’t have permanent/long term quality.
• The purpose of softscapes is to lend character
to the landscaping that create ambience &
reflect the sensibilities of the inhabitants.
Examples: trees, plants, shrubs, vegetables, flower bed
Function of plant:
• form walls, canopies/floor
• climate control
• reduces light glare
• help soften surrounding architecture
HARDSCAPE
Hardscape refers to the solid, hard elements in
landscape design that stay the same for years
Examples: walkways, retaining walls, driveway, deck,
planter box, paver patios, water features (pond,
cascade, fountain)
Normally this hardscape made up of hard-wearing
materials such as stone, concrete, brick, wood,
bamboo, wrought iron and etc.

Construction of paving slab:

1. Excavate the area to the required depth, then backfill using compacted hardcore to provide a strong
foundation for concrete slab to be laid on.
2. A layer of mortar is laid to serve as bedding for the pavement slab & it must be ensured to be level
3. The slab is laid on the mortar bedding carefully
4. Use a spirit-level to ensure that the slab is level & the slab is tap down further
5. Use spacers of an even thickness to ensure regular spacing between each slabs.
6. After the slab & mortar harden, the joints between slabs are filled in by mortar using pointing trowel.

L12 STEELWORK CONSTRUCTION

1. Advantages of choosing metal frame - Steel frame constructions offer the following advantages compared to
brick, concrete and wooden constructions.
a. Strength & durability
i. Structural steel components are lighter and stronger than weight-bearing wood or concrete
products. A typical weight-bearing steel fabrication is 30% to 50% lighter than a wooden
equivalent. This makes steel frame construction far stronger and more durable than
traditional wood framed alternatives.
b. Speed of erection
i. Steel may be made and delivered in a cost-effective and timely manner. This spares time and
increases the effectiveness of the general development process.
c. Reduce cost
i. Steel is relatively cheap when compared with other structural materials.
d. Easy fabrication in different sizes
i. Steel studs are available in a variety of sizes and can be fabricated order. This means they
can be customised to bear specific loads in buildings of all different types and sizes.
e. Fire resistance
i. Steel frame constructions are highly resistant to fire, reducing the fire risk to a building and
retarding the spread of a fire should one occur. Special flame retardant coatings act to
increase this property of structural steel.
f. Pest & insect resistance
 i. Structural steel components are immune to the degrading effects of burrowing insects and
mammals – which can cause a problem for wooden framework unless adequately treated.
g. Moisture & weather resistance
i. Structural steel can have good moisture resistant properties, depending on its carbon
content. Hot zinc coating treatments for enhanced rust resistance will make a structural
steel component even more immune to the effects of water – an important consideration
for components exposed to the weather.

2. Connection method of column to foundation

a. It is a combination of main member, secondary member, and steel connection
b. The steel columns will connect to the concrete foundation though the anchor bolts embedded in the
concrete & connected to column base plates with nuts & washers
c. The location of the columns determines the configuration of the framework of members
d. The structure must initially hold up its own weight (dead load) & hold up uniform & point loads (live
loads) that anticipate how the structure will be used during operation

3. Fire resistance factor to be considered

a. Under extreme heat, steel is subject to buckling & twisting, which can result in structural failure
b. Steel frame buildings of more than 1 storey must have a certain amount of sheathing over structural
steel elements, which provides a greater amount of time until heat reaches the member.
c. Methods of protecting steel frames:
i. Masonry/concrete surrounding the members. This was the first method used, but is not
often used today because of cost, and the extra weight which must be compensated for in a
stronger structure
ii. Plaster covering. The most common method for fire protecting steel frames today.
1. Lath & plaster covering
2. Gypsum board: the same drywall used for walls
3. Spray on plaster: consisting of a fibre combined with a binding agent. This method is
very light in weight

Industrialized Building System (IBS)

CHAPTER: IBS
1. Definition of IBS
 2. IBS is a system where components are conceived, planned, manufactured, fabricated, assembled in a
controlled environment such as factories to form the structure, and they are transported and erected on site
with minimum in-situ construction.
3. Construction industry in Malaysia, compared to other sectors, suffers from low productivity, safety and
quality control due to traditional labour-intensive practices and 3D Syndrome: Dirty, Difficult and Dangerous
4. Advantage/Benefits of IBS
- Less labour related problems: High degree of machine utilization in producing IBS components at factory
reduced the construction process and the number of labour required at site. Especially in skilled trades such
as formwork, masonry, plastering, painting, carpentry, tiling and pipe laying (electrical and water supply).
- Increase site safety: Less construction process especially wet work at site ensures the increase of site safety.
Thus, IBS provides safer construction sites due to the reduction of site workers, materials and construction
waste.
- Cost saving: From the work of IBS components allow for repetitive use which leads to considerable cost
savings and also labour cost saving as IBS more depending on machines in producing components. Also, the
repetitive use of system formwork made up of steel, aluminium, and scaffolding provides considerable cost
savings. The construction cost is also reduced due to lesser waste on-site. This is because everything is under
controlled in factory and this can minimize the chances of producing components that are faulty.
- Flexibility: IBS provides flexibility in the design of precast element as well as construction. In other words, an
Industrialised Building System allows the flexibility in architectural design in order to minimize the monotony
of repetitive facades, so that different systems may produce their own unique prefabrication construction
methods.
- Less construction time: This leads in earlier occupation of the building which reduces interest payment.
shortens the construction period as the components are erected on site instead of constructing them as they
have already been fabricated at the factories, thus allowing the construction time to be shorter compared to
the traditional approach

IBS is a system where building components are conceived, planned, controlled, manufactured and assembled in a
controlled environment such as factory to form a structure, then transported & erected on site with minimum on-
site construction. Benefits of IBS: cost saving, time saving, safety, flexibility, limited on-site labour problems.

Cost saving: through high utilization of machineries, components are manufactured in factories with high accuracy,
thus minimizing the wastage cost in producing components that are faulty. If the traditional construction method is
used, there maybe higher wastage cost as there are many uncertainties, and a lot of things are unpredictable on site.
It also reduces the cost of labor to construct components on site are eliminated, only the cost for labor to erect the
components on-site are required.

Time saving: with most of the building components built and assembled in factories, the construction period can be
shorten compared to the traditional method

Safety: less construction process especially wet work could significantly increase the site safety. IBS provides safe site
construction due to reduced labours, materials and construction waste on site

Flexibility: IBS provides the flexibility in the design of precast elements, which is the architectural design in order to
minimize repetitive facades, so different systems may produce their own unique prefabrication methods

Less labour related problems: high utilisation of machineries reduce labour at site, especially in skilled trades such as
steel fixing, tiling, carpentry, masonry

Construction industry in Malaysia is suffering from 3D: dirty, difficult, dangerous due to labour intensive construction
method, low productivity, safety, and quality control

Characteristics of IBS.
six different characteristics of IBS; which are industrialized in transportation, production and assembly technique,
mass-production, onsite fabrication, standardization and structured planning and process integration.

1. Modular Coordination :Modular co-ordination is a co-ordinated unified system for dimensioning spaces,
components, fitting, etc. so that all elements fit together without cutting or extending even when the
components and fittings are manufactured by different suppliers. The objectives of modular co-ordination
are to create a basis upon which the variety of types and sizes of building components can be minimized.
Through a rationalised method of construction, each component is designed to be interchangeable with
other similar ones and hence, provide a maximum degree of freedom and choice offered to the designer.
Modular Coordination allows for easy adoption of prefabricated components to any layout and for their
interchangeability within the building
2. Standardisation and Tolerances : For accomplishing the requirement of modular co-ordination, all
components need to be standardised for production. Such standardisation of space and elements need
prescribing tolerances at different construction stages such as manufactured tolerances, setting out
tolerances, and erection tolerances, so that the combined tolerance obtained on statistical considerations is
within the permitted limits
3. Mass Production : The investment in equipment, human recourses, and facilities associated with an
industrialisation can be justified economically only when large production volume is observed.
4. Integration : In order to obtain an optimal result, a high degree of coordination must exist between various
relevant parties such as designer, manufacturer, owner, and contractor. This is achieved through an
integrated system in which all these functions are performed under a unified authority.
5. Production Facility The initial capital investment for setting up a permanent factor is relatively experience.
Plant, equipment, skilled worker, management resources need to be acquired before production can be
commenced. Such huge investment can only be breakeven if there is sufficiently demand for the products.
On the other hand, a temporary casting yard or factory can be established at the project site in order to
minimise the transportation costs (Peng, 1986).
6. Transportation It is found that casting of large-panel system can reduce labour cost up to 30 percent.
However, these cost savings are partially offset by the transportation costs. The transportation of large
panels is also subject to the country’s road department requirement. These limitations must be taken into
consideration when adopting a prefabrication system (Peng, 1986).
7. Equipment at Site For the purpose of erecting and assembling precast panels into their position, heavy crane
is required especially for multi-storey building. It is therefore important to incorporate this additional cost
when adopting a prefabrication system (warszawski, 1999)

There are five (5) common types of Industrialised Building System (IBS) which are generally used in construction.
There are Pre-cast Concrete Framing, Panel and Box Systems, Steel Formwork System, Steel Framing System,
Prefabricated Timber Framing System, and Block Work System

1. Precast concrete system

a. This system is widely use because it achieves a lot of benefit such as quality control, speed in
construction and appropriate application to regularly modular system. It includes precast concrete
columns, beams, slabs, walls, “3-D” components, toilets, lift chambers, refuse chambers, lightweight
precast concrete, as well as permanent concrete formworks
2. Blockwork System
a. This system includes interlocking concrete masonry units (Figure 9) and lightweight concrete blocks
This method is avoiding from using mortar and the demand of skilled labour. The construction
process will cut the overall time because mortar is not needed to be laid on every single brick .
3. Steel Formwork System
 a. Steel formwork system is one of the low-level prefabricated IBS because it consists of site casting
and face the problem of structural quality control. The product is usually high quality and achieve
the fast construction by decreasing the use of site labour and material requirement
4. Steel Framing System
a. using steel columns and horizontal beams to form a frame to attach the floors, roof, and walls of a
building. This system consists of light steel trusses to replace the heavier traditional hot-rolled
sections.
5. Timber Framing System
a. It is using prefabricated wood and wooden products in structural and load bearing elements. This
system involves prefabricated timber truss beams and columns (Figure 8). Most of the products
listed in this category are wooden building frames and roof trusses.

1. precast concrete system

Include precast beams, columns, walls, and 3D components such as staircase, toilets, refuse chambers etc. this
system is widely used due to the benefits it brings such as quality control, time saving, cost saving etc.

2. steel framing system

This system includes using steel columns and beams to form a frame to be connected to floors, foundation, walls,
roof of the building. This system consists of lightweight steel trusses to replace the traditional hot rolled section
which is heavier,

3. steel formwork system

This is the low level prefabricated IBS as it still involves the wet construction method, which is it still require wet
concrete to be poured into the steel formwork. However, it offers benefits such as speed construction and high
quality structure. Besides, it also decrease the use of site labour & materials.

4. blockwork system

Include interlocking concrete masonry units. It can efficiently shorten the construction period as there is no need for
workers to lay the masonry row by row, and mortar is not needed to be laid on every single brick

5. prefabricated timber framing system

Most usage is the prefabricated timber roof framing & building frames. It uses wooden products such as timber
beams and columns to build structural and load bearing elements.

Challenges:

- Impact on the supply chain. For instance, from purchasing 10 bags of cement daily, IBS can reduce the
number to about five per day. Of course the supply chain will not be happy.
- Human nature: Another challenge is human nature and change; being comfortable with what we already
know and understand, and rejecting new ideas
- High capital costs : Initial capital costs are usually high. At this stage this includes all costs from the
construction of factories, the casting of beds and the acquisition of support machineries which are usually
very expensive. Besides that, in some IBS there is a tremendous demand for export labour. Therefore, extra
costs are required to train the unskilled or semi-skilled labour.
- Large site area – IBS components require large machineries to assemble them onsite, especially for large
project and high rise buildings. Thus, a large area is needed to locate the machineries. Extensive use of IBS at
cities are not possible. The crowded city cnt provide places for tower cranes, heavy construction
equipments, and storage for IBS components
 - Transportation limitations – insufficient transportation channels to transport all the IBS components to the
construction site for them to be assembled

Challenges

High capital cost – IBS requires high initial capital cost which are used to build factories, acquire heavy machineries
which are usually very expensive. It also includes costs to train semi-skilled workers or unskilled workers to use the
machineries.

Impact on supply chain – IBS uses lesser materials to build components compared to traditional method. for
example, from purchasing 10 bags of cement daily, the use of IBS is able to reduce the amount to only 5 bags, thus
decreasing the sales of supply chain

Insufficient site area – IBS components require large machineries to assemble them onsite, especially for large
project and high rise buildings. Thus, a large area is needed to locate the machineries. Extensive use of IBS at cities
are not possible. The crowded city cnt provide places for tower cranes, heavy construction equipments, and storage
for IBS components

Human nature – humans are used to the traditional method and being comfortable with what they already know,
and rejecting new ideas

Transportation limitations – insufficient transportation channels to transport all the IBS components to the
construction site for them to be assembled

L11 STONE MASONRY

Rubble masonry Ashlar masonry

Composed of unsquared pieces of stone
Pattern:
• Coursed rubble masonry (continuous horizontal
joint lines)
• Random rubble masonry (does not have
continuous horizontal joint lines)
Rubble can take many forms, from rounded, river-
washed stones to broken pieced from a quarry
Rubble stone masonry is laid very much like brickwork,
except that irregular size of that stone require mason to
select each stone carefully for available space.
The stones are selected & roughly dressed to fit when
laid, to an irregular pattern, with no attempt at regular
courses/vertical joints
Rubble walling has been extensively used for
agricultural buildings in towns & villages in those parts
of the country where a local source of stone is readily
available
Composed of squared pieces of stone
Pattern:
• Coursed (has continuous horizontal joint lines)
• Uncoursed (no horizontal lines)
Built with stones that are roughly squared so that the
stones in each course are roughly at the same
height/same size
Surface of stone may be roughly dressed to give a rock-
faced appearance/dressed smooth to give a more
formal appearance
Basic types of joints:
• Channelled joint/Rebated joint (formed by
cutting a rebate on the top & 1 side edge of
each stone, so that when the stones are laid, a
channel rebate appears around each stone)
• V joint/Chamfered joint (formed by cutting all 4
edges of stones so that a V groove appears on
face when they are laid)
Rubble masonry

- Composed of unsquared pieces of stone

- 2 patterns
o Coursed rubble masonry (with horizontal joint lines)
o Random rubble masonry
- Stone surfaces are selected & roughly dressed to fit
- Can take many forms such as rounded, river washed stones or broken pieces from quarry.
- Mason has to carefully select stones according to the available spaces
- Is laid vey much like brick work
- Normally used at villages, towns or agriculture buildings where local stones are readily available

Ashlar masonry

- Composed of squared pieces of stone

- 2 patterns:
o Coursed
o Uncoursed
- Stone surfaces can be roughly dressed to form a rock-faced appearance, or dressed smoothly for a more
formal appearance
- Built with stones that are roughly squared so that stones in every course have roughly the same height/same
size
- Types of joints:
o Channelled joints/rebated joints – formed by cutting 1 side edge of each stones, so that when the
stones are laid, a channeled joints can be seen around each stone
o V joints/chamfered joints – formed by cutting all 4 side edges of stones, so that when the stones are
laid, V groove can be seen around each stone

Mortar
1. Mortar – to transfer the tensile, compressive & shear force uniformly between adjacent bricks
2. Typical mixes of mortar: (lime = to make the mix more workable as the lime content increases the mortar’s
resistance to damage by frost action)
 • Cement mortar (cement: sand)
• Lime mortar (lime: sand)
• Gauged mortar (cement: lime: sand)
3. Characteristics of mortar:
i. The main quality that mortar should possess is adhesion. Good mortar should provide good adhesion to
bricks/stones.
ii. Mortar should be water resistant. It should have the capability of resisting the penetration of water.
iii. Deformability of mortar should be low.
iv. Mortar should be cheap.
v. Mortar should be easily workable in the site condition.
vi. The mobility of mortar should be good. It helps the mortar to be paved thinly and evenly.
vii. It should possess high durability.
viii. To improve the speed of construction, good mortar should set quickly.
ix. Cracks should not be developed in the joint formed by mortar. It is desirable to last for long period of
time without losing the appearance.

Second paper

L03 ROAD PAVEMENT

Federal road State road

- all roads declared under the Federal Roads
Ordinance (1959) and
- the major interurban roads joining the state
capitals and
- roads leading to points of entry to and exit
from the country.
Coded with only numbers: For example, Federal
Route 1 can also be written as Federal Route FT1
Examples:
- Toll expressways (interurban toll expressways)
- National highways (interurban linking Federal
Capitals)
- Minor roads providing access to gov’s buildings
State road
- generally comprises of the primary roads
providing intra-state travel between the
district administrative centers.
- Other roads included in this category are the
urban collector roads under the municipalities
and other minor roads within the villages and
the rural inhabited areas under the Districts
Offices.
Coding: State roads begin with state code then state
number. E.g Johor state route J32, B20 for Salak Tinggi,
Selangor.
Examples:
- Roads within federal territories (roads other
than the designated federal roads)
- Primary roads (major roads forming the basic
network within a state, linking state capitals &
major towns)
- Secondary roads (roads forming the network
within a District)
- Minor roads within a village
- Local streets (basic road network within an
urban neighbourhood)

- Primary roads providing intra-state travel between district administrative centres

- Secondary roads
- Minor roads within a village
- Local streets
- Roads other than the designated federal roads

Federal road

- Roads declared under the Federal Road Ordinance

 - Roads connecting state capitals
- Roads to exit & enter a country
- Examples:
o Toll expressways
o Minor roads providing access to gov’s buildings
o National highway
Road pavement
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT
Wheel loads are transferred to subgrade through
grain-to-grain transfer
Designed using layered system – has many layers
due to its load distribution characteristic
Load stresses are distributed to larger area &
stress increases with depth
Constructed using bituminous material
Types of flexible pavement:
- Conventional flexible pavement
o High quality materials are placed at
top layer of pavement to resist
stress
o Low quality cheap materials are
placed at lower layers
- Full depth asphalt pavement (FDA)
o Bituminous layers are placed
directly on subgrade
o Suitable when there are high traffic
& local materials are not available
- Contained rock asphalt mat (CRAM)
o Dense aggregate layers are placed
between 2 asphalt layers
o The asphalt concrete is placed
above the subgrade to reduce the
compressive strain & protect it
from surface water
Flexible pavement
- Wheel loads are transferred to subgrade thru grain to grain to transfer
- Designed using layered system, has many layers due to its load distribution characteristics
- Load is distributed to larger area, Stress increases with depth
- Constructed using bituminous material
- Types:
o Conventional flexible pavement
o Full depth asp pavement
o Comventional rock asphalt mat
RIGID PAVEMENT
Wheel loads are transferred through slab action
Road behaves like an elastic plate resting on viscous medium
Designed using plate theory – assume road pavement slab is
a medium thick plate that remains plane even after loading is
added
Pavement slab experiences bending due to wheel loads
Constructed using plain cement concrete
Types of rigid pavement:
- Jointed plain concrete pavement (JPCP)
o Constructed using plain cement concrete
o Joint is to control the location of cracks
o Dowel bars are used for transferring load
across joints
o Joint spacing around 5m to 10m
- Jointed reinforced concrete pavement (JRCP)
o Reinforcement = to allow increase in joint
spacing (10m to 30m) & keep the pavement
together even after cracks
o Dowel bar = to transfer load
- Continuous reinforced concrete pavement (CRCP)
o Does not require any joints
o Transverse cracks are expected in this type of
pavement
o Has embedded reinforcing steel to hold
cracks together tightly
- Prestressed concrete pavement (PCP)
o Designed & produced to bear tensile forces
caused by external loads (vehicles on
roads/aircrafts in airports)
o Crack free
o Long term durability
o Lighter (suitable for bigger loading
construction)
Rigid

- Wheel loads transferred thru slab action

- Road behaves like elastic plate resting on viscous medium
- Loads distributed thru plate theory where rigid pavement serves as a medium thick plate which remains
plane after loading is added
- Pavement slab experiences bending due to wheel loads
- Constructed using plain cement concrete
- Types:
o Jointed plain concrete pavement
o Jointed reinforced concrete pavemet
o Continuous reinforced concrete pavement
o Prestressed concrete pavemnt

Flexible pavement

Wheel loads transferred to subgrade through grain-to-grain transfer

Stress increases with depth, load distributed to larger area

Designed using layered system due to its load distribution characteristics

Constructed using bituminous materials

Types:

- Conventional flexible pavement

- Full depth asphalt pavement
- Contained rock asphalt mat

Rigid pavement

- Wheel loads transferred thru slab action. Road behaves like an elastic plate resting on viscous medium
- Designed using plate theory – assume road is a medium thick plate that remains plane after load is added
- Road experiences bending due to wheel loads
- Constructed using plain cement concrete
- Types:
o Jointed plain concrete pavement
o Jointed reinforced concrete pavement
o Continuous reinforced concrete pavement
o Prestressed concrete pavemnt

Construction process of flexible pavement:

A flexible pavement is constructed in multiple layers in order to ensure its ability to sustain the compressive stress
imposed by wheel load. Thus, materials used for constructing the top layer must have of the top quality, and it has to
be strong enough to resist wear and tear. For lower layers, lower quality materials can be used as they experience
lesser magnitude of stress compared to the upper layers. It is constructed of several layers of bituminous concrete or
asphalt layers that have several thicknesses, laying over a granular material base on a subgrade. The layering system
of flexible pavement normally laid according to the following sequence: 1. Compacted subgrade (150-300mm), 2.
Sub-base course (100-300mm), 3. Base course (100-300mm), 4. Prime coat, 5. Binder coat (50-100mm), 6. Tack coat,
7. Surface course (25-50mm), 8. Seal coat.

Flexible pavement layering:

1. compacted subgrade (150-300mm)

• A base for all pavement layers.

• All the above pavement layers transfer stress to this layer
• Should be properly compacted to desired density

2. sub-base course (100-300mm)

• To provide structural support, improve drainage, reduce the intrusion of fines from the sub-grade in the
pavement structure

3. base course (100-300mm)

• Provides additional load distribution

• Contributes to the subsurface drainage
• Made up of different materials such as crushed stone & other stabilized materials

4. prime coat

• Applied by spreading bituminous prime coat on absorbent surfaces like granular bases
• To provide a bond between 2 layers & form watertight surfaces

5. binder course (50-100mm)

• To distribute load to the base course

• Consists of aggregate mixed with low asphalt & doesn’t require quality as high as the surface course

6. tack coat

• Little amount of asphalt diluted with water

• To provide proper bonding between 2 layers of binder course
• Must be thin & cover the entire surface uniformly & set very fast

7. surface course (25-50mm)

• Main layer that bears the direct traffic load

• Constructed with superior quality materials such as graded asphalt concrete
• Offers major characteristics like friction, smoothness, drainage
• Prevent the entry of excess water into the underlying base, sub-base, sub-grade

8. seal coat

• A thin layer to waterproof the surface & provide skid resistance

1. subgrade

- The most bottom layer

- Acts as base for all pavement layers above
- Must be compacted to desired density
- 150mm-300mm

2. subbase

- Provide structural support, improve draingae

3. base course

- To provide additional load distribution

- Contributes to subsurface drainage
- Made up of different materials such as crushed stone and other stabilized materials

4. prime coat

- A layer of bituminous prime coat is applied evenly to absorbent surface such as granular surface
- Used to provide bonding to 2 surfaces & provide watertight surfaces

4. binder course

- Transfer load to base course

- Consists of aggregate combined with low asphalt & doesn’t require quality as high as surface course

6. tack coat

- Little amt of asphalt diluted with water

- To provide bonding to 2 surfaces
- Must be applied evenly to all surfaces & must be thin & set quickly

7. surface course

- the layer that makes direct contact with wheel loads

- must be constructed of superior quality materials such as graded asphalt concrete
- offer major characteristics such as friction, smoothness, drainage
- prevent entry of water to following layers

8. seal coat

- to provide waterproof surface & provide skid resistance

L04 BUILDING STRUCTURE

1. Basic function of building:

a. To provide structurally sound & environmentally controlled spaces to house & protect occupants &
contents
b. As a shelter
c. To meet primary physical needs
d. Building technology & building techniques are interrelated
e. Enclose space so that the satisfactory internal environment may be created relative to the purpose
& intended function of the building
f. The space within the building must be suitable for the activities to take place in it
g. Comfortable, safe, stable
 h. must be well-designed & constructed
i. Must be designed in terms of size & shape, environmental factors
j.

Basic function of building

- To provide shelter
- To protect occupants, contents and property
- To meet primary physical needs
- Is an enclosed space that is suitable to carry out activities & the intended function of the building
- To provide a safe & comfortable environment for occupants to stay
- Must be well-designed & constructed
- Must be designed in terms of size & shape, and consider environmental factors
- Should be stable & structurally strong so it does not collapse easily
- Provide a structurally sound, environmentally controlled spaces to house

2. Elements of a building:
i. Foundation
- Lowest part of a building
- To support & anchor superstructure & transmits its load to earth
- The base on which a building rest
- To safely transfer building loads to a suitable subsoil
ii. Walls and columns
- To support superstructure & transfer load vertically to foundation
- Encloses and separate building area into compartments
- protects interior spaces & provide privacy
- Provide safety from burglary and insects.
- Keeps the building warm/cool during winter/summer.
iii. Door and Window
- Door – Gives access to different rooms in the building and deny access whenever needed.
Number of doors should be minimum possible. Size of door should be able to move the biggest
object considerable through the door.
- Windows – to get light and ventilation in a building. Located 0.75-0.9m from floor level. Should
be 15-20% of wall area.
- provide access to building & different rooms
- plays significant role in ventilation purposes & comfort in building
- Provide security by controlling access to the doorway to prevent unauthorized entry
- Provide thermal insulation, sound insulation, weather insulation
-
iv. Floor
- To transfer loads horizontally across space to either beams/columns/load bearing walls
- Base surface of a room to allow occupants to stand/walk/carry out activities
- Give working area for occupants.
v. Roof
- Primary sheltering elements protecting the interior spaces of the buildings
- Top most portion of building providing top leak proof cover to building. Tiled and (asbestos
cement) A.C sheet give leak proof cover easily. Tiled roof give good thermal protection.
 - Flat roofs are able to make way for additional floors if needed unlike sloping roof. Water tanks
can be easily placed on flat roofs.

Elements of building:

Foundation

- A base on which the building rest

- Transfer loads from superstructure to underlying soil
- To support & anchor superstructure
- The lowest division of the building
- The part under ground beam
-

Roof

- top most part of building providing leak proof cover

- Primary sheathing element to protect interior spaces of building
- Tiles can provide leak proof protection to building
- Tiles provide good thermal protection

Floor

- To transfer loads horizontally across beams/columns/load bearing walls

- A space where occupants stands/walks/carry out activities

Wall & column

- to separate spaces into different compartment

- protect interior spaces & provide privacy
- to transfer loads from upper level & roof to foundation
- provide security from burglar & insects
- keep building warm/cool during winter/summer

Door & window

- provide access to building

- plays significant role in ventilation purposes & comfort in building
- Provide security by controlling access to the doorway to prevent unauthorized entry
- Provide thermal insulation, sound insulation, weather insulation
 3. Construction method of suspended floor slab:
a. Formwork
• Formworks are assembled and erected in order to form a mould for the beam. The formwork can either be
plywood formwork or steel formwork. Formwork is a temporary structure in which concrete can be poured
and secured while it sets. It must be strong enough to support load of wet concrete which is 2400 kg/m3.
b. Reinforcement
• After placing one side of the formwork, reinforcement can then be installed & fixed.
• Necessary reinforcement detailing such as diameter and number of reinforcements bars and its required
length and spacing of stirrups are provided in structural drawings. Steel reinforcements are reasonably
costed and acceptable to overall design. Reinforcement steel must have a minimum cover of concrete to
give the steel protection from corrosion due to contact with moisture and provide fire resistance.
c. Stirrups and Hooks
• Used to resist shear and diagonal tension stresses in a beam. Shall be minimum size of 8mm diameter in case
of lateral load resistance.
d. Concrete pouring
• Concrete should be placed as soon as possible after it’s mixed. A typical concrete mix would be 1:2:4
(Cement: Fine aggregate: coarse aggregate). Poured concrete shall be compacted adequately using vibration
equipment to expulse air within the cement mix. Beware that over vibration may cause segregation of mix.
Typically, concrete working strength takes 28 days to achieve.
e. Curing
• Curing is the process of controlling the rate and extent of moisture loss from concrete during cement
hydration. Curing by continuously wetting the exposed surface thereby preventing the loss of moisture from
it. Spraying the surface with water are methods typically employed to this end.
f. Removal of Formwork
• Can’t be removed immediately, needs to be done slowly throughout hardening of concrete so that it will not
break as removing the formwork is like a shock to the partly hardened concrete. The side-shutter can be
removed 24 hours after pouring concrete. However, bottom shutter cannot be removed till concrete achieve
its strength. Appropriate time taken to remove bottom formwork can be tested using concrete tests such as
cube test or slump test.

Formwork

- Formwork r erected & assembled to form a temporary mould for the concrete to be poured & set. Can be in
steel formwork/wooden formwork. Must be able to support wet concrete load of 2400kg/m3.

Reinforcement

- After one side of formwork has been assembled, the reinforcement can be fixed. Reinforcement details such
as diameter, length, number of reinforcement bars, spacing of stirrups can be found in the structural
drawings. Reinforcement must have sufficient concrete cover so that the steel will not corrode due to
moisture and provide fire resistance
-

Stirrups & hooks

- Used to resist shear & diagonal tension stresses. Shall be in a diameter of min 8mm to resist lateral load
resistance
-

Concrete pouring
 - Concrete shld be placed as soon as possible after it’s mixed. A typical concrete mix would be (1:2:4),
(cement: fine aggregate: coarse aggregate). Poured concrete shall be adequately compacted to expulse air
bubble within the cement mix. Concrete working strength typically take 28 days to achieve.

Curing

- Curing is the process of controlling the rate and extent of moisture loss from the concrete. Curing by
continuously wetting the exposed surface to control the moisture loss. Spraying water to the surface are the
typical method used.

Removal of formwork

- Formwork cannot be removed immediately and it needs to be removed slowly to prevent it from breaking as
removing the formwork is like a shock the partly hardened concrete. The side shutter can be removed 24 hrs
after the concrete has been poured, the bottom shutter cnt be removed until the concrete strength has
been achieved. Appropriate time to remove bottom shutter can be tested using test such as cube test or
slump test.

4. Basic structural property of building

o Dead load – permanent loads which result from the weight of the structure itself or from other
permanent attachments
o Live load – temporary loads produced by the use and occupancy of a building or structure

L06 STAIRCASE CONST

1. Functional requirement of staircase:

a. Strength & stability – must support people, fixtures & fitting (live & dead loads)
b. Ease of use & aid movement – provide handrails & landings suitable for users (included disabled
use); ensure gradient suitable for users
c. Fire safety – remain stable in fire & resist spread of fire
d. Control of impact sound – reduce passage of impact sound
e. Safety in use – reduced risk of slips, trips and falling
f. Avoid risk of tripping – handrail suitably positioned to prevent fingers being trapped, open stairs &
balustrade gaps restricted to prevent a child’s head becoming lodged
g. Durability – the durability of a stair/ramp will be determined by the type of building it serves, the
amount of use received in services, and whether it is located inside/outside the building
h. Aesthetics – the stair/ramp may be designed to be a significant architectural feature within a
building & aesthetic requirements will the position & shape of the stairs/ramp as well as the
materials used to construct it
2. Handrail construction
a. There should be at least 1 handrail on a stairway
b. A handrail is a rail that is designed to be grasped by the hand so as to provide stability/support
c. Handrails are commonly used while ascending/descending stairways & escalators in order to prevent
injurious falls
d. Handrails are typically supported by balusters/attached to walls

Functional requirement of staircase

- Strength & durability, must be able to support occupants, fitting, fixture

- Fire safety – remain stable in fire & resist spread of fire
- Ease of use, aid movement – ensure gradient suitable for user, rise & treads must be in suitable length &
height, handrails & landings suitable for users
 - Control of impact sound – reduce impact sound
- Safety in use – reduce risk of tripping & slipping
- Aesthetic – aesthetic requirements determine position & shape of stairs, materials to construct it

Construction of handrail

There shld be at least 1 handrail on a stairway

Handrail is a rail designed to provide stability

Handrails are commonly used for ascending/descending stairways is to prevent injurious falls

Typically supported by balusters/attached to walls