Food Chemistry Advances 2 (2023) 100191

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Food Chemistry Advances

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/focha

Saponins: A concise review on food related aspects, applications and health

implications
Kartik Sharma a, Ramandeep Kaur b, Satish Kumar c, Ramesh Kumar Saini d, Surabhi Sharma e,
Subhash V Pawde f, Vikas Kumar b,∗
a
International Center of Excellence in Seafood Science and Innovation (ICE-SSI), Prince of Songkla University, Hat Yai, Songkhla, Thailand
b
Department of Food Science and Technology, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, Punjab 141004, India
c
College of Horticulture and Forestry, Thunag, Mandi, Dr YS Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry, Solan, Himachal Pradesh 173230, India
d
Department of Bioresources and Food Science, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Konkuk University, Seoul, Korea
e
University Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Chandigarh University, Mohali, Punjab, India
f
Research Scholar, Department of Food Packaging Technology, CSIR-Central Food Technological Research Institute, Mysore 570020, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Keywords: In recent years, saponins are gaining extensive attention due to their occurrence in several plants. Saponins and
Applications their derivatives are versatile glycosidic compounds, which play an important role in food, agriculture and phar-
Saponin maceutical industries, ranging from as a natural additive in food and having their role in traditional medicines
Biological activities
to various applications in the pharmaceutical sector. They possess immense therapeutic potential as hypolipi-
Therapeutic potential
demic, hypoglycaemic, anti-asthmatic, antioxidant, anti-hypertensive, and anti-microbial activity along with few
Industrial uses
adverse effects such as cytotoxicity, etc. These emerging properties led to increased demand for saponins and
therefore to meet the requirements, the researchers emphasize the synthetic production of saponins apart from
the natural ones. The composition and bioavailability of saponins in food are significantly influenced by pro-
cessing technologies because of the alterations between the linkages of aglycones and sugar chains. Therefore,
an attempt has been made to make the consumer aware of the potential health benefits upon consumption of
this magical compound. This review provides a concise and updated overview of saponins, the effect of different
processing methods, health implications along various remedial effects and industrial uses of saponins.

1. Introduction
Saponins are naturally occurring non-volatile glycosidic compounds
found in the majority of plants. ‘Saponins’ derived from the Latin word
‘Sapo’ which insinuates ‘soap’, are well known for their foaming proper-
ties (Góral & Wojciechowski, 2020). Saponins, like other anti-nutrients
such as tannins, phytates, lectins, etc., are also having the positive
as well as negative effects (Sharma et al., 2021). They are secondary
metabolites present in the form of triterpenoid and till now, around 60
kinds of different triterpenoid saponins have been extracted and char-
acterized from different parts of the plant (seeds, leaves, flowers, and
roots). Owing to their foaming properties, they were extensively used
in soaps and other detergents for cleaning purposes. They are surface-
active in nature as they contain hydrophilic sugar moieties covalently
attached to a triterpene backbone or hydrophobic steroid (Zhu et al.,
2019). In this way, it seems to be a good alternative as a natural emulsi-
fier, foaming, stabilizing, and drug delivery agent in the food and phar-
maceutical industry. Numerous studies have been available regarding
the use of saponin as an efficient additive for forming and stabilizing
oil-in-water and nano-emulsions (Liao et al., 2021). For instance, quil-
laja saponin is used to improve the anti-oxidant activity and stability of
nano-emulsion in food (Doost et al., 2019).
Apart from this, they possess several biological properties such as
anti-oxidant, anti-tumor, hypocholesterolemic, hypoglycemic, and anti-
inflammatory activities. Saponins are also associated with defense mech-
anism in plants related to their anti-microbial, anti-fungal, anti-parasitic
and molluscicidal effects (Shen et al., 2017; Kitagawa et al., 2016). The
dioscoresides present in saponins make them suitable for the treatment
and prevention of cardio and cerebrovascular diseases, whereas pseudo-
protodioscin, gracillin and dioscin are employed for rheumatism treat-
ment and are effective against other chronic diseases (Moghimipour
& Handali, 2015; Parama et al., 2020). In the pharmaceutical indus-
try, saponins were also acting as an initiative precursor for the semi-
synthesis of steroidal drugs (Ashour et al., 2019). On the other side,
studies are also reported on the safe limits of saponins for human from
different food sources such as fenugreek, which was 2500 mg/kg of

∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: vkchoprafst@rediffmail.com (V. Kumar).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.focha.2023.100191
Received 6 June 2022; Received in revised form 10 January 2023; Accepted 14 January 2023
2772-753X/© 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
K. Sharma, R. Kaur, S. Kumar et al.
body weight (Sureshkumar et al., 2018), tea saponins, in which the LC50
was 28 mg/ml (Shahriari et al., 2021), etc. Saponins obtained from few
plant sources such as leaves of Panicum dichotomiflorum, Panicum col-
oratum, Panicum schinzii, T. terrestris, Sesbania drummondii, Sesbania vesi-
caria, Agave lecheguilla; seeds of Bassia latifolia, Agrostemma githago, fruits
of Nolina texana, Kochia scoparia, flowers of N. ossifragum, Tetradymia
glabrata, etc. contain toxic saponins, the consumption of which may
prove fatal (Wina et al., 2005). Various studies suggest that the con-
sumption of saponins has positive effects if consumed within the safe
limits, for instance 1–1.2% saponins in diet is responsible for reducing
the liver cholesterol and plasma in rabbits. In addition, diet containing
40 mg/kg of body weight resulted in weight gain of rabbits. It has also
been observed that saponin interaction with other antinutrients such as
tannins resulted in reduced individual toxicity of both the antinutrients
(Ehsen et al., 2016). It has also been demonstrated that saponins may
exhibit insecticidal, molluscicidal properties against various terrestrial
gastropods but are considered safe in agronomic or other food products
(Adomaitis & Skujienė, 2020). Also, due to the numerous beneficial ef-
fects of saponins on health and their presence in several foods such as
tea, grains, legumes, and many medicinal plants, there is increased in-
terest among researchers to focus more on the saponins. Therefore, the
present review summarizes the updated knowledge on the structure, ef-
fect of processing conditions, health benefits, simultaneously the ad-
verse effects and safety limits along with industrial of saponins.
2. Saponin content in food
Saponins are present in the form of triterpenoid glycosides or steroids
in plant-based foods. Triterpenoid saponins can be found in legumes
such as alfalfa, chickpeas, broad beans, soybean, lentils, kidney beans,
peanuts, sunflower seeds, ginseng roots, horse chestnut, tea leaves,
liquorice roots, quillaja bark, spinach leaves, quinoa seeds, tea leaves,
sugar beets and other alliums species, whereas steroidal saponins are
found in Yucca, tomato seeds, ginseng roots, yam, aubergine, fenugreek
seeds, asparagus, capsicum peppers (Oleszek & Oleszek, 2020). How-
ever various factors such as origin, plant species, various environmental
factors, agronomic conditions, and post-harvest treatments such as the
effect of processing conditions, cooking, storage, etc. are responsible
for the saponin type and the final content of the saponin in food (Persic
et al., 2019). The content of saponin in the crop may vary from region to
region, species to species and in different stages of the plant. For exam-
ple, the content of tea saponins in tea seeds increases during the initial
stages of ripening, after which it decreases before becoming stable dur-
ing later stages of maturity. Also, with the passage of time, the content
of tea saponin tends to increase in leaves at the initial stages and then
decreases at later stages, reaching a maximum value in the fifth year (Yu
& He, 2018). In plants like yam (Dioscorea pseudojaponica) and gopo
berry (Phytolacca dodecandra), the accumulation of saponin is maxi-
mum during the development of tuber and fruiting stages, which plays
a significant role in protecting the reproductive organs of such plants
(Kregiel et al., 2017). Saponin is present in a wide range in different
foods such as 0.62–6.16% of saponins have been reported amongst 400
different varieties of soyabean in its hypocotyl fraction, 0.02–0.05% in
16 varieties of oats, while its content varied from 650 to 1270 mg/kg in
twenty different varieties of lentil cultivars and 1.2–2.3 g/kg in twenty
cultivars of Swedish pea (Rao & Gurfinkel, 2000). Grasses and cereals are
usually deficient in saponin with few exceptions viz. oats, which is a rich
source of steroidal as well as triterpenoid saponin Moses et al. (2014).
The content of saponin in different foods has been listed in Table 2.
3. Effect of processing conditions on saponins
Various researchers reported the reduction in the saponin content of
different foods after undergoing various processing conditions ( Fig. 2).
During processing, the hydrolysis, microbial, enzymatic alterations in
between the linkages of aglycones and sugar chains occurs, which are
2
Food Chemistry Advances 2 (2023) 100191
Fig. 1. Structure of Saponin Chaieb (2010).
responsible for the formation of prosapogenins, sugar residues and agly-
cones. This results in the transformation of the chemical structure and
degradation of saponins (Kregiel et al., 2017).
Several studies showed that processing conditions such as canning
and soaking reduce the saponins content in kidney beans, black turtle
soup, navy beans and pinto beans (Singh et al., 2017). Other studies
also reported somewhat similar results for saponins in peas and differ-
ent beans after the autoclaving, cooking and soaking processing condi-
tions (Margier et al., 2018). It was also observed that the treatments
like soaking, canning, and fermentation results in the reduction of the
overall bitterness hence, saponin content of the bamboo shoots. Similar
results were observed during the different processing techniques such
as polishing, milling, steaming and boiling of quinoa seeds. It was re-
ported that polishing reduced the saponin content from 1.7% to 0.46%
of quinoa seeds (Mhada et al., 2020). Similar results were observed
during the storage of dried peas and extraction of saponins from de-
hulled peas (Rao & Gurfinkel, 2000). Thus, to evaluate the content of
saponins in the finished product, it must be evaluated after processing.
Tea saponins in almost all types of teas can be consumed readily. In the
study of Fan et al. (2021), it was observed that the temperature of wa-
ter and time of soaking has a significant effect on the extraction of tea
saponins into tea infusion. The effect of different processing conditions
on tea saponins in different types of tea such as Green tea- BLC (Bilu-
ochun), Dark tea-LB (Liubao), Black tea-QMHC (Qimenhongcha), White
tea-BHYZ (Baihaoyinzhen), Oolong tea-DHP (Dahongpao) and Yellow
tea-JSZ (Jihuhizhai) along with the lateral effect of different processing
and extraction methods on saponins of different food crops is described
in Fig. 2.
4. Health implications
4.1. Bioactivities of saponins potential health benefits of saponins
Being amphiphilic, saponins possess various biological activities
such as anti-cancerous activity, hepatoprotective activity, anti-oxidant
activity, etc. and are involved in the treatment of various diseases such
as osteoporosis, obesity, diabetes, etc., however, their mode of action
is not yet clearly understood completely and very little is known about
them till date (del Hierro et al., 2018). Due to the increased demand
for anti-cancerous drugs, the work on anti-carcinogenic compounds is
drastically hiking. The anti-cancerous activity of saponins is not limited
to one or two types of saponins, but for the number of steroid saponins
and triterpenes, viz. glycyrrhizic acid, diosgenin (Liao et al., 2021), soya
saponins, ginsenosides, methyl protogracillin (steroidal saponin, from
Dioscorea collettii), methyl protoneogracillin, protodioscin (furastanol
saponin, from Dioscorea collettii), protoneodioscin and many. Few of
K. Sharma, R. Kaur, S. Kumar et al.
Fig. 2. Different methods of extraction of saponin Yu and He (2018a), (2018b), (2018c).
these saponins such as methyl protogracillin, methyl protoneogracillin,
protodioscin, and protoneodioscin has got the status of potent anti-
carcinogenic agents from NCI (National Cancer Institute) anti-cancer
drugs screen program (Nguyen et al., 2020).
Various researches demonstrate the toxic effects of saponins against
insects, parasitic worms, mollusks, fish, and bacteria, thereby determin-
ing their insecticidal activity, anti-helmintic activity, molluscicidal ac-
ticity, piscicidal activity and anti-bacterial activity, respectively. How-
ever, in the case of warm-blooded animals its toxicity is entirely de-
pendent on the concentration, composition and source of these com-
pounds. For instance, saponins derived from genus Agave possess abun-
dant bioactivities which include hemolytic activity, cytotoxicity, anti-
inflammatory, antihypertensive, gastroprotective, antioxidant, antimi-
crobial, phytotoxic, moluscicidal activity and many more (Sidana et al.,
2016); the seeds of genus Camelia possess hemolytic, hypolipidemic, an-
tioxidant, neuroprotective, hyaluronidase inhibitory activity, antimicro-
bial, anti-inflammatory, anti-cancerous activity, etc. (Guo et al., 2018).
Various studies (in vivo) indicate that saponins are enzymatically hy-
drolysed to sapogenins, which do not get absorbed in the alimentary
canal (Oleszek & Oleszek, 2020). Thus, it can be said that the biological
activity of saponins depends on the chemical structure of the saponins,
which in turn if modified, can modify the bioactivity too. For instance,
Murakami and others (2000) was observed that a mixture of saponins
obtained from the seeds of tea plant exhibit accelerating effect on the
gastrointestinal transit and inhibitory effect on emptying the gastric in
mice, while the principal saponins in tea are theasaponin E1 and E2 and
both are different from each other by position of acyl group. The potent
activity in the experiment was shown by theasaponin E1 , thus, structure
and the position of the acyl group are important in terms of pharmaco-
logical point of view. Apart from this, it has been observed that saponin
extract from sorghum exhibited the antimicrobial activity against gram
positive organisms, however the same was not observed with the gram
negative ones (Hassan, 2020). Similar results have been observed by
Avato et al. (2006) in their studies while observing the antimicrobial
3
Food Chemistry Advances 2 (2023) 100191
activity from different Medicago species (M. sativa, M. arabica, and M.
arborea), where they observed the antimicrobial activity of saponins
against various gram positive species such as Bacillus subtilis, B. cereus,
Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus faecalis. In addition, saponin extract
from lemon grass exhibited antimicrobial activity against Staphylococcus
aureus, Bacillus substilis, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Can-
dida albican and Aspergillus niger (Kolawole, Fafunso, & Dairo, 2021). Be-
sides this, the other potential health benefits of saponins include weight
reduction, inhibition of alcohol absorption, inhibition of hyaluronidase
which is responsible for decomplexion of hyaluronic acid (an essential
component of extracellular matrix) (Guo et al., 2018). Various bioactiv-
ities from different sources along with their health benefits are enlisted
in Table 1.
4.2. Adverse effects of saponins
Despite of number of beneficial effects of saponins due to presence
of numerous bioactive components, saponins also possess some adverse
effect due to their toxicity. On one hand, being cytotoxic in nature,
saponins have the potential to act as chemotherapeutic agent but on
the other hand its hemolytic ability hinder its application to be used
in the field of making anti-cancerous drugs (Sheik et al., 2021). Like
all other compounds, the toxicity of saponins also depends up on their
dosage. Thus, it must be mentioned clearly that saponins varies much
in their toxicity.
Various studies reported the negative impact of dietary saponin re-
sults in depressed growth, decreased egg production in poultry, lowers
the feed intake in gerbits, etc. The reduced feed intake is associated with
the irritating and astringent taste of the saponins. The saponins of alfa-
alfa have negative effects on swine and poultry, which include irritation
in digestive tract as well as in mucosal membrane of mouth. It also leads
to decreased diet intake and reduces the quality of dietary proteins. Few
saponins from sources such as corn cockle, cow cockle, broom weed and
soapwort causes listlessness, weight loss, diarrhea, anorexia, rough hair
K. Sharma, R. Kaur, S. Kumar et al. Food Chemistry Advances 2 (2023) 100191

Table 1
Biological activities of different saponins.

Source Part Model Health benefits Experiment Key findings References

Tea (Camellia Flowers Human Anti-proliferative/anti The experiment was conducted to • TFS (Tea flower Wang et al. (2017)
sinensis) cancerous evaluate the anti-cancerous effect saponins) at the rate of
of saponins from tea flowers (TF) 1.5 μg/ml showed
in ovarian cancer cell-lines of significant anti
humans. proliferative activity
against OVCAR-3 and
A2780/CP70 by
inducing S phase arrest
and apoptosis (p 53
dependent).
• The expression of
CyclinD1, Cdk2 and
Cdc25A was inhibited by
TFS.
• Upregulation of Cyclin A
and cyclin E.
• This overall indicates the
promising potential of
TFS against ovarian
cancer.

Seeds Mice Anti-obesity activity The study was performed to
Seeds Mice Alcohol dehydrogenase investigate the anti-obesity
activity activity of saponins extracted via
methanolic extraction from tea
seeds. The mice were
administered with normal diet,
high fat diet and high
carbohydrate diet. The green tea
seed extract (GTE) was given
300 mg/kg/day.
Saponin dosage at the rate of
100 mg/kg of body weight before
intake of ethanol was given to
mice to investigate the effect of
saponins upon alcohol intake.
• GTE prevents lipid Chaudhary
accumulation in a et al. (2015)
dose-dependent manner. Guo et al.,
• Reduction in the body fat 2018
mass and body weight
gain were observed in
the treated mice.
• Decreased ethanol
content in liver and
blood.
• Five fold increased
content of ethanol in
stomach.

Source Part Model Health benefits Experiment Key findings References

Panaxquinquefolius Leaves Mice liver protection activity Mice were pre-treated with
Panaxquinquefolius extract of
150 and 300 mg/kg for 7 days
before being treated with
Acetaminophen (250 mg/kg).
Panax ginseng Mouse Anti-metastatic effect Each mouse was given oral
and anti-angiogenesis dosage of 100–1000 μg of 20 (S)-
activity and 20 (R)- ginsenoside Rg3 to
investigate their effect on lung
metastasis of tumor cells.
Panaxquinquefolius extract Xu et al.
significantly decreased the (2017)
interleukin-1𝛽 (IL-1𝛽), serum
alanine aminotransferase,
tumor necrosis factor
(TNF-𝛼), aspartate
transaminase levels in a
dose-dependent manner
Panaxquinquefolius extract
shows a protective effect
against
Acetaminophen-induced
hepatic injury owing to its
antioxidant, anti-apoptotic,
and anti-inflammatory,
anti-apoptotic and
anti-oxidant activity.
• Inhibition of lung Park (2019)
metastasis of tumor cell
was observed in colon
26M3.1 and B-16-BL-6
melanoma, the
mechanism of which is
related to tumor cell
invasion, tumor cell
adhesion and
anti-angiogenesis
activity.

(continue on next page)

4
K. Sharma, R. Kaur, S. Kumar et al. Food Chemistry Advances 2 (2023) 100191

Table 1
(continued)

Source Part Model Health benefits Experiment Key findings References

Panax ginseng, Ant-inflammatory • Panaxextractsinhibited Rho et al.

Panax japonicas, activity the nucleotide-binding (2020), Liu et
and P. quinquefolius oligomerization al. (2021)
domain-like receptor.
• Panax can be used to
avert and treat
inflammatory and
inflammation-induced
disorders through
targeting
inflammasomes.

Holothuriathomasi Rats Anti-diabetic effect Diabetes induced by • Holothuriathomasi, El Barky

streptozotocin. extractact as a et al. (2016)
300 mg/kg of saponin extract hypoglycemic agent
was given after 35 days of and decreased the
diabetes induction for the period adiponectin, liver
of six weeks. l-MDA, TNF-𝛼
concentrations,
𝛼-amylase activity,
serum glucose and
adiponectin.

Momordica Caenorhabditiselegans Anti aging and The lifespan of Momordica- • Momordicamay act as Lin et al.
anti-stress effects treated C.elegans under various a nutraceutical in (2021)
stressors such as heat, paraquat, geriatric studies.
H2O2, and normal conditions
was studied.

Source Part Model Health benefits Experiment Key findings References

Quillaja saponaria Bark Mice paw Anti-inflammatory Quillajasaponaria saponin extract • Quillajasaponaria Sarkhel (2016)
was assessed for saponin extract
anti-inflammatory activity by significantly reduced the
carragenan induced mice paw carragenan induced mice
edema model (18–20 g) for acute paw edema
inflammation.
Standard anti-inflammatory drug:
indomethacin (10 mg/kg, bw).

coat, etc., the severity of which may lead to coma, arched back and
even death. Various other negative impacts such as Hemagglutination,
toxic effects on fish, reduced micronutrients absorption also reported in
the literature. Higher consumption of saponins by humans may reduce
availability of mineral for absorption (Samtiya et al., 2020).
5. Saponins as food supplement and medication
The nutrition of both humans and animals depends on saponins,
which is a common component of many plants and plant-based prod-
ucts. Also, many foods rich in saponins are suggested as dietary supple-
ments for patients suffering from diabetes or other disorders. Saponin is
well known for its interesting bioactive components which when added
to food may enhance its nutritional value along with its medicinal value.
For instance, Tribulus terretris, a well known herb is being used in folk
medicine throughout the world. Furthermore, its saponin extract as food
supplement with claims of a general stimulating activity is for sale in the
USA and Europe. In the field of medicines, its extract is employed for
the treatment of libido disorders in males and females, curing infertil-
ity and cardiac related diseases (Kostova & Dinchev, 2005). However,
the quantity and source of saponins that may be used in food items are
specified by laws in several nations. Saponins are heavily marketed as
dietary supplements and functional foods by the food industry. Quillaja
bark saponin can boost the activity of 𝛼-galactosidase, one of the most
significant and traditional biotechnological enzymes utilized in the food
industry (Weng et al., 2014). Another acquirement of saponins in the
pharmacology was observed in a dose-dependent manner, where total
saponins extracted from Aralia taibaiensis reduced polydipsia, polyuria,
polyphagia, and weight loss in diabetic rats by raising serum levels of in-
sulin, superoxide dismutase, and reducing glutathione (Kayukawa et al.,
2020). Over 90% of people with diabetes have T2 DM, a complicated
metabolic condition characterized by pancreatic dysfunction and vari-
ous degrees of insulin resistance. Saponins extracted from Corni Fructus
had therapeutic effect on T2 DM and has great potential to treat diabetes
in a natural manner (An et al., 2021). Similar observations have been
made by Meng et al. (2021), in which diosgenin (from fenugreek) was ef-
fective against diabetes milletus along with relief in oxidative stress and
cardiovascular disease. Gong et al. (2020) stated that saponins works
by increasing the concentration of insulin along with inhibition of glu-
cose transportation, which results in repairing of the damaged islet cells.
Mari and others reported steroidal saponins as the major components in
commercialized food supplements obtained from Ruscus aculeatus. Apart
from this, dietary supplementation with the saponins from sea cucum-
ber significantly suppressed the accumulation of adipose in rats fed with
high fat diet (Li et al., 2021). Shin et al. (2021) reported the use of
saponins, namely platycosides from balloon flower in various pharma-
cological activities. Platycosides has been extensively used in various
food and health supplements and has applications in curing respiratory
diseases. Nichakool et al. (2021) supplemented the curry by incorpora-
tion of saponins extracted from Bacopa monnieri (Brahmi, a herb) with
reduced bitterness and better taste. Gu et al. (2021) also reported the use
of daucosterol from the peels of Eleocharis dulcis as food supplement for
anti-hyperglycemia. Beside this, the other beneficial effects of saponin is
its anti microbial property. Some studies suggest that saponins also play
major role in the field of neurological disorders. Zameer et al. (2018) ob-
served that saponins derived from fenugreek possess positive impact on
the neurological health especially in Alzheimer. Due to anti convulsant
effect of saponins derived from the roots of Ficus religiosa, it has been

5
K. Sharma, R. Kaur, S. Kumar et al. Food Chemistry Advances 2 (2023) 100191

used in curing epilepsy since long, which is one of the most common
Table 2
neurological diseases existing worldwide at present.
Saponin content in different plant-foods. Thus, supplementation can be achieved by optimizing the concen-
tration of saponin in the food to achieve the desired effect. Also, be-
Food Scientific name Total saponins (%) cause they have the potential to improve nutrition and wellbeing, the
Legumes development of functional foods and nutraceuticals based on saponins
Pea (yellow split) Pisumsativum 0.11 should be widely encouraged. Additionally, additional study is required
Pea (garden) Pisumsativum 0.06 to enhance and optimize agricultural and culinary conditions so that
Pea (field) Pisumsativum 0.11–0.12
Pea (green) Pisumsativum 0.18
the plentiful supply of bioactive phytochemicals can be completely ex-
Peanut Arachishypogaea 0.01–0.1.6 ploited.
Scarlet runner bean Phaseoluscoccineus 0.18–0.34
Adzuki bean Vignaangularis 0.22 6. Safe limits and toxicity
Beans – 24.5
Butter bean Phaseoluslunatus 0.1
Canned broad bean – 0.31 The results of numerous studies have proven that they are almost
Cowpea Vignaunguiculata 0.12 nontoxic to the human body when ingested, because they usually stay
Green bean Phaseolus vulgaris 1.3 in the digestive tract and are absorbed at very low levels. (Jiang et al.,
Haricot bean Phaseolus vulgaris 0.3–1.21
2018). In addition, vegetarian human diet usually sums up to 200 mg of
Lentil Lens culinaris 0.11–0.51
Lupin Lupinusmutabilis 0.0055–1.7
daily saponin intake (Bhosale et al., 2021). However, as discussed ear-
Navy beans – 0.45–2.1 lier, the safe limits for consumption and its toxicity depends on several
Broad bean Viciafaba 0.35 factors such as source of saponin, type of saponins and many others. Re-
Canned baked bean – 0.45 cent study done by Zhang et al. (2022) on quinoa saponins depicts that
Chickpea Cicerarietinum 0.15–6
the adverse effect of saponins are gender based as well, where the female
Faba beans Viciafaba 0.43
Field beans Viciafaba 0.01–0.3 rats were more prone to have the adverse effect of saponins as compared
Kidney bean Phaseolus vulgaris 0.35–1.6 to male rats. According to them, there was no adverse effect below 50 mg
Lima beans Phaseoluslunatus 0.11 of quinoa saponins per kg of body weight per day. In addition, for Quil-
Mung bean Phaseolus vulgaris 0.05–0.57
laia saponins, the acceptable daily intake limits, as suggested by joint
Soybean (whole bean) Glycine max 0.09–0.53
Soybean (protein isolate) – 0.81
FAO and WHO committee, may vary between 0 mg to 1 mg/kg of body
Soybean (tofu) – 0.3–0.33 weight each day and there was no threat observed concerning genotox-
icity, since it gets hydrolysed in gastrointestinal tract and gets absorbed
Food Scientific name Total saponins (%)
by the body to much lower extent. Even upon increasing the concentra-
Soybean (Natto) – 0.25 tion up to 1200 mg/kg body weight/day, no adverse effect was observed
Soybean (soy flour) – 0.47–0.53 in the study (Younes et al., 2019). Similar results related to no toxicity
Soybean (soymilk) – 0.26–0.39
have been reported by even upon consumption of upto 2.6% saponins
Soybean (Miso) – 0.15
Soybean (whole bean) – 0.09–0.53 from lucerene, however the level above 3% was detrimental. According
Soybean (whole bean) – 0.09–0.53 to FEMA, quillaja saponins can be safely used as food additives upto
Horse chestnut Aesculishipocastanum 3 maximum level of 95 ppm in the beverages (George, 1965). For seed
Cereals & millets
growth in plants such as maize, mung bean, Chinese flowering cabbage,
Oats Avena sativa 0.04–0.1
Millet – 12.47
the tea saponins are considered safe up to 0.1% (Yu & He, 2018).
Pseudo cereals The safety of saponins can be problematic, for example, in severe
Amaranth Amaranthusflavus 1.7 cases, gastrointestinal injury or irritation or lesions may occur, thereby
Quinoa Chenopodium quinoa 1.03–1.08 allowing saponins to get into the blood stream. At this moment, the
Vegetables
lethal dose of intravenous injection can reach 1/1000 of the lethal dose
Spinach Spinaceaoleracea 2.35–4.7
Cauliflower Brassica oleracea 2.4 of oral injection. The result of saponins infiltration into the blood can be
Leek Allium porrum 0.0001 liver problematic, convulsions, coma, respiratory failure and hemolysis.
Oil seeds They are therefore recommended for the people suffering from cirrhotic
Mustard Brassica campestris 0.46
livers or inflamed intestines, who use several laxatives, should avoid the
Sesame Sesamumindicum 0.3
Allium species
foods containing saponin in them. Also, saponins sometimes may alter
Onion Allium cepa 0.0000021 the permeability of cells of intestinal mucosa and therefore may alter
Garlic Allium sativum 0.093–0.29 the process of absorption and excretion in small intestine, which result
Herbs in enhanced absorption of allergens and absorption disorder of essential
Fenugreek Trigonellafoenumgraecum 3.7
microelements (Oleszek & Oleszek, 2020). This enhanced absorption by
Alfalfa Medicagosativa 0.14–1.71
Others nerve cells may have direct effect on central nervous system, the initial
Sugar beet (leaves) Beta vulgaris 5.8 symptoms of which may includes convulsions followed by paralysis and
American ginseng Panaxquinquefolius 1.4–5.58 may ends up to death. However the exact lethal dose for the saponins is
Milkwort Polygala spp. 8–10
still vague as it depends on various factors; still few researchers state the
Food Scientific name Total saponins (%)
Quillaja bark Quillajasaponaria 9–10
general lethal limits for saponins which range from 100 to 6000 mg/kg
Sarsaparilla Smilax officinalis 2–2.4 of body weight. This wide range is capable enough to demonstrate the
Yucca Yucca schidigera 10 lethal effect of saponins from different sources (George, 1965).
Saffron crocus Crocus savitus 1–3.4 In addition, saponins are mostly toxic to cold blooded animals,
Ivy Hedera helix 5
whereas their oral toxicity is very low or almost negligible in case of
Chinese ginseng Panax ginseng 2–3
Primula Primula spp. 5–10 mammals (Sneha & Priyanka, 2020). Since they are toxic to various or-
Soapwort Saponariaofficinalis 2–5 ganisms, they are employed as fungicidal, insecticidal, antibiotic and in
pharmacological sector (Owoeye et al., 2018; Sneha & Priyanka, 2020).
Source: Oleszek and Oleszek (2020); Kregiel et al. (2017); Kim
&Wampler, (2009).
Thus further research still needs to be done to explore the toxicity of
the compound, however till date no such drastic adverse effect has been
observed by oral consumption of saponins in any human

6
K. Sharma, R. Kaur, S. Kumar et al.
7. Use of saponins in industrial and agricultural sector
Due to potent bioactive and pharmacological capabilities such as hy-
polipidemic, antiulcer, expectorant, anti-inflammatory, and androgenic
activities, saponins have been widely used in the food and pharmaceuti-
cal industries. In addition, saponins from plant also act as natural deter-
gents. Saponins have been investigated for a variety of uses, including
their advantageous physicochemical (for example, as a surfactant) and
biological (for example, as a biocide and antibacterial) qualities. Steroid
and triterpenoid saponins are the interesting compounds for industrial
uses because of their characteristics. Products containing saponins are
important in the food sector. Some of its principal applications include
encapsulation and stability of bioactive chemicals, as well as foaming
agents in beverages and emulsifiers in processed foods. One example is
the usage of the saponin glycyrrhizin (from Glycyrhiza species), which
is 50 times sweeter than sucrose and is used as a sweetener in the food
industries (Kao et al., 2014). Other uses in this industry include aer-
ating food items, enhancing bread dough fermentation, replacing eggs,
removing turbidity caused by cholesterol and proteins, and as solubiliz-
ing agents (Reichert et al., 2019). Saponin adjuvants are extensively pro-
duced from Quillaja saponins and the same is reported for gypsophila,
Saponaria, soya, and quinoa saponins for various functions. QS-21, a
derivative of Quil A along with other derivatives is being evaluated
for both animal and human vaccine formulations towards cancer, HIV,
malaria, viral, and other bacterial infectious agents. However, due to
toxicity, instability, hemolytic properties and structural complexity of
plant saponins, their use for the production of human vaccines are still
limited. The lablabosides and soyasaponins, in contrast to QS-21, pos-
sess higher adjuvant activity with lower hemolytic activity (Moses et al.,
2014). Presently, the work on new purification techniques with novel
processing technologies is in progress and along with it, immunologi-
cal adjuvant activity is also maintained in order to create the saponins
in terms of new generation vaccines (Netala et al., 2015). Some studies
indicate saponins as compounds similar to pre-biotics (del Hierro et al.,
2018). Apart from the food sector, saponins from Sapindus mukorossi and
Camellia oleifera are being used in cosmetics as wetting agent, cleaning
agent,in shampoos, conditioners, bath showers, liquid soaps, etc., and
other detergents due to their anti-dermatophytic ability, moderate de-
tergency and excellent foaming properties. Yu and He (2018) reported
that despite of the lower foaming ability of tea saponins in comparison
to ionic surfactants, they possess higher foaming stability than ampho-
teric surfactants. Quil A, derived from the plant Quillaja saponaria, is
made up by mixing of more than 25 saponins can be used an adjuvant
in making veterinary vaccines on large scale (Moses et al., 2014). The
extracts of Q. saponaria and Y. schidigera are used in the form of dietary
additives to control fecal odor (Paray et al., 2021).
Inspired from the naturally accumulated saponins, various stud-
ies and researches are now focusing on generating the semi-synthetic
derivatives to generate the drugs with reduced negative impacts and
increased efficacy. However, some work has already been done in this
field, for instance, the synthetic derivatives of ursolic acid, betulinic
acid, which is present in much higher concentrations in plants have been
found to be more active in the number of clinical applications as com-
pared to their parent compounds (Liby & Sporn, 2012). The number of
derivatives of these compounds (triterpenes) has been tested and found
beneficial in inhibiting the production of nitric acid by macrophages and
thus can be employed in making chemopreventive and anti-cancerous
drugs (Moses et al., 2014).
In agriculture, livestock and pet industries, saponins are employed in
animal nutrition and as natural biocontrol agents. These terpenes have
exhibited a number of characteristics that make them interesting nat-
ural pesticide substitutes that don’t harm the environment as well as
natural adjuvants for enhancing animal feed. As molluscicidal agents,
insecticides (both deterrent and antifeedant), and antimicrobials to cure
and prevent a number of plant diseases, saponins are at the forefront of
the biocontrol field (Hussain et al., 2019). Avenacins plays crucial role
7
Food Chemistry Advances 2 (2023) 100191
in resistance of Avena spp. against Gaeumannomyces graminis var. trit-
ici (root infecting fungus) (González-Castillo et al., 2018). This fungus
is responsible for causing ‘take-all’ disease in majority of the cereals.
In agriculture sector, the exogenous application of saponins has vari-
able biological processes, for instance, in the presence of saponins more
rapid germination of corn and pea seeds is observed due to absorption
of higher water content. The same was observed for tea saponins (Yu &
He, 2018). Saponin extract (crude) of Saponaria, Sapindus sp. and Quil-
laja has the ability to enhance the growth of isolated pea and wheat em-
bryos by two folds. Asiaticosides stimulate the growth as well as biosyn-
thesis of chlorophyll in pea (Linum, Lupinus sp.), and radish (Moses et al.,
2014). Pea saponins have ability to regulate cellulose synthesis and grav-
itropism in various plant species (Rahman et al., 2001). Chromosaponin
I stimulates the elongation and division of cortical cells, resulting in in-
creased root growth of Lolium multiforum, A. thaliana, Phleum pretense,
Lactuca sativa, Cryptotaenia japonica, Chrysanthemum coronarium, Cryp-
totaenia japonica, Medicago sativa, Brassica compestris, Trifolium repens,
Brassica juncea and Astragalus sinicus. In contrast, in the case of L. sativa
and A. thaliana a reduction in the diameter of the root was also ob-
served (Rahman et al., 2000). The 𝛼-tomatine, a steroidal glycoalka-
loid, has a potential role in inhibiting chlorophyll accumulation as well
as the elongation of stem in seedlings of Sorghum vulgare, Sesbania ex-
altata, Triticum aestivum, Senna obtusifolia and Vigna radiata. It is also
responsible for causing electrolyte leakage in Zea mays, Nicandra physa-
loides, Nicotiana tobacum and Cucumis sativus from their leaf discs. How-
ever, this electrolyte leakage is lesser as compared to electrolyte leakage
caused by aglycone tomatidine. The effects on root growth without any
effect on germination rate can be clearly seen in the case of A. thaliana
seedlings when exposed to pure tomatidine, which were shorter as com-
pared to those grown on a medium containing 𝛼-tomatine or control.
Biosurfactant tea saponins have significant potential in the removal of
heavy metal ions such as cadmium, copper and lead by 71.17%, 81.13%,
and 89.95%, respectively (Mulligan, 2021). In addition, tea saponins has
application in various soil remediation such as microbial remediation,
leaching remediation, phytoremediation (Yu & He, 2018).
8. Summary and conclusions
Saponin has gain importance in the field of food sector due to its
numerous health benefits associated with its biological properties and
also due to its various other properties such as foaming, stabilizing,
solublizing, emulsifier, wetting agent, cleaning agent and many more,
which proved to be a boon for the industrial sector. Though saponins
possess both beneficial as well as adverse effects, the adverse effects
of saponin have been ignored over the several health implications and
have been employed potentially to be used in the drug delivery sys-
tem. However, several studies reported the adverse effects of saponins
on fish and other cold blooded animals. Thus it is important to deter-
mine the safe consumption limits of saponins suitable for human body as
well in order to avoid any intoxication. However, apart from its bitter
taste, no other major side effect has been observed till date on mam-
mals. The complexity of saponins structure may be considered as a gap
for many researchers and scientists to determine the toxicity level of
saponins. Also, the extraction processing methods from natural sources
are not that much explored and hence are expensive, as a result of
which the goodness of this magical component has not been exploited
entirely. Currently, the studies are being performed on large scale to dis-
cover rapid method for determination and quantification of the intact
saponins. As regular vegetarian diet consists of saponins in one or the
other form in them, still very little information is available about the
content of different saponins in various foods and about the structural
variation that happens during processing and cooking. In addition, dif-
ferent processing conditions such as heating, cooking, soaking, canning
etc. reduce saponins to a significant level, and also due to the fact that
saponins from plant origin are comparatively considered safer and have
more demand than synthetic ones due to their minimal or no side ef-
K. Sharma, R. Kaur, S. Kumar et al.
fects, researchers need to focus on driving such cost effective methods
for processing of saponins, this in turn would inhibit the adulteration
of synthetic harmful saponins as well. For the industrial production of
medicinal and food-related plants, optimizing the processing technique
is an efficient way to increase the yield of bioactive components. Also as
discussed in the review, the progress is still on the track to understand
the mechanism of cellular action of the saponins.
Funding
This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agen-
cies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
No data was used for the research described in the article.
Acknowledgment
The authors are highly grateful to IHBT Palampur, PAU Ludhiana
and Dr. YSP UHF Solan for providing financial assistance and infras-
tructure for preparation of this review.
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