DC-DC CONVERTERS FOR ELECTRIC VEmCLE APPLICATIQNS

Dakshina M. Bellur and Marian K. Kazimierczuk

Wright State University
Abstract: An integral part of any modern day electric
vehicle is power electronic circuits (PECs) comprising of
HV Battery
DC-AC inverters and DC-DC converters. A DC-AC
inverter supplies the high power electric motor and utility
loads such as air-conditioning system, whereas a DC-DC
converter supplies conventional low-power, low-voltage
loads. However, the need for high power bidirectional DC-
DC converters in future electric vehicles has led to the
development of many new topologies of DC-DC converters.
This paper presents an overview of state-of-the-art DC-DC
converters used in battery electric vehicles (BEVs), hybrid
electric vehicles (BEVs), and fuel cell vehicles (FCVs).
Several DC-DC converters such as isolated, nonisolated,
Au)(.iliary Sattety
half-bridge, fuU-bridge, unidirectional and bidirectional
topologies, and their applications in electric vehicles are
presented.
DC - DC Converter
Key Words: Automotive Power Electronics, Traosaxle (tncludiog Etect·rk: Mota,.}
Bidirectional DC-DC Converters, Electric Vehicles, Fuel Figure 1. Power electronic components in a 2001 Toyota Prius hybrid
Cell Vehicles, Hybrid Electric Vehicles. car [32].

I. INTRODUCTION
Fig. 1 shows the main components of PEC in a 2001
Toyota Prius hybrid vehicle [32]. The components are
As the focus in vehicular technology [1]-[35] shift
DC-AC inverter, DC-DC converter, battery, and electric
toward replacing more and more mechanical, hydraulic,
motor. OC-AC inverters supply the electric motor from
or pneumatic systems by electrical systems, power
the battery and also supply utility loads, such as air-
electronic circuits (PECs) have gained a lot of
conditioning and AC power outlet. DC-DC converters
importance in the last decade [1]. Increasing vehicular
supply various vehicular loads set to operate at different
loads such as utility, entertainment, luxury, and safety
voltages. In the near future, high power DC-DC
loads have increased the demand for compact and
converters are needed for EVs since the vehicular power
efficient PECs. Commercial electric vehicles may be
requirements are continuously increasing due to which
broadly classified as: (1) battery electric vehicles
the present day 12-V/14-V electrical system will be
(BEVs), (2) hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), and fu~l
replaced by 42-V/300-V architecture [1]. DC-DC
cell vehicles (FCVs). In addition, heavy duty electrIC
converters are well developed for low and medium
vehicles find industrial applications such as deep well
power applications, whereas development of highly
mining. BEVs are purely electric vehicles (EVs),
efficient and cost effective high power DC-DC
whereas HEVs combine EVs and internal combustion
converters for vehicular applications is in continuous
engines (ICEs). FCVs use power from both battery and
progress. This is partly due to the stringent
fuel cell stack. The popularity of BEVs has reduced,
electromagnetic interference (EM!) standards and also
whereas FCVs are yet to gain popularity as both are not
due to temperature related issues.
currently cost effective. In contrast, HEVs have made an
impact in the market and will continue to do so until fuel In this paper, a brief review of recently developed DC-
cell technology becomes feasible for commercialization. DC converter topologies, especially high power
bidirectional isolated DC-DC converters suitable for
This work was supported by US Department of Energy, State electric vehicle applications is presented. Design
Technologies Advancement Collaborative Program (STAC), Contract challenges and possible solutions are discussed. Section
No. DE-541-0319-3, '~ergy Conversion Science for Operations and IT presents an overview of basic DC-DC converters.
Security of Large-Scale Systems," Contract No. 04-STAC-l. Section ill presents the applications of DC-DC
converters in EVs. Bidirectional DC-DC converters in
EVs are presented in Section IV. Discussion about

978-1-4244-0446-91071$25.00 @2007 IEEE 286

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 DC-DC Converter Applications in Vehicles
~------
DC DrivJ Syst_s
Electric Traction
Sensors, Controls and Actuators
Entertainment
sa,fety gqu1ipmentS
Bonisolated
l
Isolated
Buck Flyback
Boost Forward
Buck-Boost Push-Pull
Half-Bridge
Full-Bridge
Figure 2. Applications ofDC-DC converters in electric vehicles.
high temperature electronics and design challenges
follow in Sections V and VI, respectively.
II. OVERVIEW OF DC-DC CONVERlERS
A DC-DC converter in its basic form converts
unregulated DC input voltage at a certain level to a
regulated DC output voltage at a different level with very
high conversion efficiency (>90%). Modern day DC-DC
converters are switching regulators operated at high
frequencies (10 kHz - 1 MHz). The size of the
components such as inductors, transformers, and
capacitors are drastically reduced at high frequency
operatim. Transistors such as Metal-Oxide-
Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor (MOSFETs) and
Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBTs) are used as
switches. The former is usually preferred in high
frequency, low and medium power applications, whereas
the latter is preferred in low frequency high power
applications. The switches are tmned ON and OFF by
pulse-width modulation (PWM) technique. Based on the
current waveform of the energy storing inductor, the
converter operation is classified into two modes, namely:
continuous-conduction mode (CCM) and discontinuous-
conduction mode (DCM).
DC-DC converters can be classified into two main
categories: (1) hard-switched DC-DC converters and (2)
soft-switched DC-DC converters. Most of the modern
day DC-DC converters are soft-switched converters.
Soft-switching is a technique in which zero-voltage
switching (ZVS) and/or zero-current switching (ZCS) of
the switches are achieved mostly using the parasitic
and/or additional components. Furthermore, DC-DC
converters can be classified as nonisolated, isolated
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I--_- -- ~
Regeneratile Braking
Onboard Backup Power
I
Fuel Cell Systems
Battery Recharging
Isolated Bidirectional Boost Converter with
Start-up System
Boost Full-Bridge
Boost Half-Bridge
(transformer version), unidirectional, and bidirectional
converters. Several basic DC-DC converter topologies
are buck (step-down), boost (step-up), buck-boost,
SEPIC (single ended primary inductor converter), dual
SEPIC (Zeta), and Cuk converters, all of which are
nmisolated topologies [12]-[14]. Other topologies such
as forward, push-pull, half-bridge, and full-bridge are
transformer (isolated) versions of buck converter. The
flyback converter is the transformer version of buck-
boost converter. Isolated versions of Cuk, SEPIC, and
dual SEPIC converters are also available.
Many new DC-DC converter topologies, such as soft-
switching converters, developed for various applications
are primarily based on, or extended versions of the
aforementioned converters.
ill. DC-DC CONVERlERS FOR ELECTRIC
VEIDCLES
DC-DC converters in an electric vehicle may be
classified into unidirectimal and bidirectional
converters~ Fig. 2 shows the applicatims of DC-DC
converters in electric vehicles. Unidirectional DC-DC
converters cater to various onboard loads such as
sensors, controls, entertainment, utility, and safety
equipments. They are also used in DC motor drives ~d
electric tractim. Bidirectional DC-DC converters find
applications in places where battery charging,
regenerative braking, and backup power are required.
The power flow in a bidirectional converter is usually
from a low voltage end such as battery or a super
capacitor to a high voltage side and is referred to as boost
operation. During regenerative
287
 Customized
Rickel-Metal Hydride
(Ni-MH)
Battery Pack
Integrated
DC-DC
Converter
Low voltage bus
Figure 3. Power electronic circuit arrangement in HEVs [28], [31].
···r"·
I
Ct.an".Ilt:-f.d
Side
I
···· .. 1
t•••.••
Figure 4. Bidirectional DC-DC converter.
braking, the power flows back to the low voltage bus to
recharge the battery (buck mode). As a backup power
system, the bidirectional DC-DC converter facilitates the
safe operation ofthe vehicle when ICEs or electric drives
fail to drive the motor. Due to the aforementioned
reasons, high power bidirectional DC-DC converters
have gained a lot of importance in the recent past.
Electric motors used for propulsion can be categorized as
DC and AC motors. Earlier, even though DC motors
were less efficient, they were preferred for electric
propulsions as they were simpler to control. However,
with the development of control techniques for AC
motors, hybrid vehicles make use ofAC motors [15]. DC
motor drives are usually used in steep trolleys, rope-
ways, and locomotives, whereas AC motors are used in
EVs and HEVs. The latest hybrid vehicles such as
Toyota Prius and Honda Civic/Accord use permanent
magnet synchronous motor (PMSM). PMSM have high
power density, high efficiency, and are usually controlled
by field-oriented control (FOC). AC motors in EVs and
HEVs are fed by inverters which in-turn is fed by a high
voltage DC-DC converter. This arrangement is shown in
Fig. 3 [28], [31]. In Fig. 3, the output of the battery (a
stack of number of Nickel-Metal Hydride cells) is
connected to the input of a customized integrated DC-
DC converter, which converts the low voltage to a high
voltage to feed the inverter and later the high power
PMSM For example, in the latest 2007 version of
Toyota Prius, the low voltage bus is at 201.6 V (Ni-MH
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Permanent Magnet
-----·---rnvertef---- Synchronous Motor
(PMSM)
High voltage bus
battery output), which is converted into 500 V by a
simple boost converter to feed a 50 kW (1200-1540 rpm)
PMSM[33].
Both unidirectional and bidirectional DC-DC converters
are preferred to be isolated to provide safety for the
loading devices. In this view, most of the DC-DC
converters incorporate a high frequency transformer.
Inclusion of a transformer leads to the following
problems:
1. Leakage inductance of the transformer leads to
high voltage stresses across the converter
switches and diodes due to ringing caused by
the leakage inductance and the transistor/diode
output capacitance.
2. Increases converter area, volume, weight, and
cost.
3. Increases EMI.
Most of the DC-DC converter designs are aimed to
overcome these problems to yield highly efficient, cost
effective converters. Since power in full-bridge
converters can flow in both directions, development of
bidirectional full-bridge based converters are in demand.
To reduce the number of components and still maintain
the benefits of full-bridge versions, many half-bridge
based topologies are also developed. In additim to these,
to overcome the high voltage/current stresses due to
energy stored in the transformer leakage inductance,
passive snubbers, active-clamping, active commutation,
soft commutation, and soft-switching solutions have
been incorporated. In the following section, examples of
such converters proposed and designed for utilization in
electric vehicles are presented
IV. BIDIRECTIONAL DC~DC CONVERTERS
A bidirectional DC-DC converter can be divided into
three main blocks, as shown in Fig. 4. The primary side
(low voltage side) usually consists of a buck or boost
type half or full-bridge converter and the secondary side

L1k
S2
:'r--1
Figure 5. Conventional bidirectional full-bridge isolated boost DC-DC converter.
(a)
Figure 6. Voltage clamping solutions. (a) Passive snubber. (b) Active-clamp. (c) Active/accelerated/soft commutation
is usually half or full-bridge arrangement. Based on the
application, power level, and frequency range, power
MOSFETs or IGBTs are used as switches. The mode of
operation may be categorized as energy storing and
energy transferring modes. Due to the presence of
transformer leakage inductance Llk shown in Fig. 5,
during the transfer of energy from primary to secondary,
high tum-off voltage spikes are produced across the
switches on the primary side (hard-switching). This
leakage energy cannot be dumped into a passive resistor-
capacitor-diode snubber (RCD snubber) shown in Fig.
6(a) due to high dissipative losses caused by high
primary charging current. Active-clamp solutions [18]-
[22] shown in Fig. 6(b) consisting of a clamp capacitor
and an additional switch may be used to achieve soft-
switching (ZVS) of the switches. However, these circuits
need very high voltage clamp capacitor and a complex
drive circuits.
Active commutation control scheme is used in [23]-[25]
to clamp the primary side switch using a passive RCD
clamp arranged differently, as shown in Fig. 6(c). An
improved soft-commutating scheme of active
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S5
~ *
S6
~r-1~*
C+
P
R
v'VV1* i
__L
0
(b) (c)
commutation is developed in [2]. A few other converters
[5]-[6] utilize coupled inductors to cancel the ripple in
the primary current. This type of arrangement is
particularly useful in providing ripple free dc cmrent to
the battery on the primary side. A multi-stage (four-level,
12 MOSFETs) nonisolated bidirectional DC-DC
converter is developed for dual voltage architecture in
[9]. Large number of components and oscillator based
gate control scheme is needed for this circuit. A hybrid
of current-fed full-bridge on the primary and the current-
fed half-bridge on the secondary along with self-driven
synchronous rectification using coupled inductors is
recently published in [11]. This converter is three times
smaller in size when compared to current-fed full-bridge
counterpart.
A few examples of DC-DC converters used in hybrid
vehicles are shown in Fig. 7 [30], [34]. In [30], a 12-V
output DC-DC converter incorporating soft-switching
was designed and implemented for a four-door sedan
Honda Civic hybrid (Fig. 7(a». In [30], it is reported that
incorporation of soft-switching resulted in 22% size
reduction, goA» weight reduction, and had higher
 I ;oJ 1
1 "1 ~
Battery -=---
<a)
6
I
(b)
Figure 7. DC-DC converters used in vehicles. (a) 12-V DC-DC converter circuit [30]. (b) Battery recharging DC-DC converter circuit with automatic
temperature control [34].
efficiency compared to the hard-switched converter
previously used in Honda Insight. This enabled the
manufacturers to utilize a cooler, which consumed lesser
power and space thus increasing the fuel efficiency. Fig.
7(b) shows a DC-DC converter [34], which
automatically senses temperature and limits the currents
and voltages such that the cut-off temperature is not
exceeded. Note that the converters shown in Fig. 7 are
based on isolated full-bridge topologies.
v. mGH TEMPERATURE ELECTRONICS
The electronic circuits operated in temperatures
exceeding 125°C are considered to be high temperature
electronics (HIEs) [35]. Reliable operation of electronic
circuits used in automotive applications can be ensured
by placing them under the hood (lITH) of the vehicle
instead of placing them away from the load. For
example, placing the electronic controls of a
transmission system under the rear seat and connecting it
via long wires and connectors may lead to, unsafe
operation. This forces the designers to place PECs close
to, or on the surface of the engine. The typical range of
temperatures in the vicinity of the engine varies between
105°C to 140 °c [35]. In addition to the ambient
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temperature, PECs working at higher power levels
generate additional heat.
The DC-DC converters in EVs will be placed in the
vicinity of the vehicle propulsion system wherein they
experience high temperatures. Hence, DC-DC converters
built for EV applications must be designed to operate
effectively in higher temperatures. With the transition of
14-V architecture to 42-V/30o-V architecture, the
operating power levels of the PECs are bound to
increase. This results in higher junction temperature of
the operating devices. Moreover, PECs also have to
operate in extreme weather conditions. Commercially
available power MOSFETs and IGBTs are limited in
ratings. For high power and high temperature
applications, special MOSFETs and IGBTs have to be
built. The anti-parallel and rectifier diodes used in the
converters suffer from reverse-recovery problems,
especially, when operated at higher temperatures and
higher frequencies. Reliable operation of PECs is
required in order to ensure safety of the vehicle. In order
to be reliable, PECs placed in high ambient temperatures
must have additional cooling system. This increases the
cost and size ofthe vehicle.
Wide band gap semiconductors are known for better
T.ABLEI
thermal conductivity, higher breakdown strength, and PROPERTIES OF SILICON AND SILICON CARBIDE
higher maximum operating junction temperature than PROPERTY Si SiC
their silicon counterparts. A few examples of wide band Band gap energy (eV) 1.12 3.26
Breakdo\VlI electric field (V/cm) 2;-.·.1()5 2.2,106
gap semiconductors are silicon carbide (SiC) and gallium Dielecb"ic cOllb"1ant 11.9 9"
nitride (GaN). SiC and GaN based diodes, MOSFETs, Electron mobility at T= 300 K (Cll¥/VS) 1360 900
and IGBTs will reduce temperature related problems in Hole mobility at T= .lOO K (cm2jVs) 480 120
Saturation electron drift velocity (CUlls) S'l()6 2.7" . 107
the near future [28]-[29]. For example, in [28], a high 1..5:,:1010
Intrinsic call'ier concentration at T = 300 K (CIll- 3 ) 1.lxlO-8
frequency, high efficiency DC-DC converter using SiC TIlenllal conductivity ('V/clllK) 1.5 4.56
JFET and SiC Schottky diode is designed based on the ?vlaxilllumjulldion temperahu'(: (':'C) 200 600
Toyota Prius II converter model and demonstrates !he
requirements, problems, and associated solutions of
elimination of a secondary cooling system, thus savmg
bidirectional DC-DC converters were discussed. DC-DC
space and cost.
converters play an important role in efficiently
distributing electric power in vehicles. With increasing
The SiC material has favorable electrical characteristics
demand for power electronics in electric vehicles, it may
when compared to Si material only in higher power
be concluded that DC-DC converters will continue to
levels and higher temperature operation. Table I gives a
play a major role in the technological advancement of
few properties of Si and SiC material. As can be seen in
vehicles in the future.
Table I, higher thermal conductivity, higher maximum
junction temperature and lower intrinsic carrier
concentration of SiC material makes them preferable for
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Dakshina Murthy Bellar received his BE degree in
electrical engineering from Visveswaraiah Technological
University, Belgaum., India, and MS from Wright State
University, Dayton, OH in 2003, and 2006, respectively.
He is currently pursuing PhD at Wright State University.
Ins areas of interest are PWM dc-de converters, resonant
power converters, and magnetics.

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automotive environment: high-temperature Fellow ofIEEE and has published more than 250 papers.
electronics," IEEE Trans. Electronics Packaging He is the co-author of the book "Resonant Power
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293
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