362 M.H.L BAIRD, Yang, N. S., Shen, Z. Q., Chen, B. H., and McMillan, A. F. (1986) Ind. Eng. Chem, Des. Dev., 25, 660. Yang, N.S., Chen, B. H. and McMillan, A. F. (1986b) Ind. Eng. Chem. Proc. Des, 25, 776. Zheng, F., Fan, Z., Wang, D.-X., Li, X.-M. (1992) Proc. Intl. Solvent Extn, Conf, Ky Japan (ISEC 90), Elsevier, Amsterdam. p. 1453.CONTENTS 12.1 Introduction 366 {22 Industrial Mixing Equipment 367 {23 Single Phase Hydrodynamics 374 j24 Extraction Rate .. 376 12.4.1. Agitated tank extraction . 376 12.4.2 Laboratory kinetic studies 378 12.4.3 Discussion ........ 379 125 Drop-size Characteristics . . 379 12.5.1 Measurement of drop size 381 12.5.1.1 Photographic techniques . 381 12.5.1.2. Sample withdrawal . . 382 12.5.1.3 Laser techniques .. 382 12.5.1.4 Light transmission 383 12.5.1.5 Chemical method . 383 12.5.1.6 Conclusions 383 12.5.2 Correlations for drop-size distribution 383 12.5.3 Weber number correlations for average drop size . 384 i 12.5.4 Alternative correlations for average drop size 387 126 Modelling Coalescence—Redispersion Processes 388 12.6.1 Drop breakage model and functions .. 389 12.6.2 Drop coalescence model and functions 390 126.3 Discussion ............000005 392 12.7 Hold-up and Minimum Impeller Speed . 393 12.7.1 Continuous mixers .. 394 12.7.2 Batch mixers . . 395 E 12.7.3 Discussion 397 128 Phase Stability 398 12.8.1. Batch mixing 398 Lh 12.8.2 Continuous mixing 399 __ 12.8.3 Discussion 400 9 Entrainment . 402 Liquid Extraction Equipment ‘Eiiied by J.C. Godfrey and M.J. Slater © 1994 John Wiley & Sons Ltd364 J.C. GOD) 12.9.1 The settler 12.9.2. The mixer 404 12.9.3 Discussion 404, 12.10 Conclusions 405 NOTATION a order of rate process A cross-section area of mixer f A(d) number fraction of drops B baffle width ‘ c solute concentration | Cc coefficient or impeller clearance C, hold-up constant, Weber number correlation Co zero hold-up constant, Weber number correlation d,d’ drop size dax maximum stable drop size dean arithmetic mean drop size ds, Sauter mean drop size a, Sauter mean drop size at zero hold-up Dy impeller diameter Ey batch extraction efficiency E, flow efficiency F flow rate g gravitational acceleration gd) breakage function for drops of size d A collision frequency H pumping head or tank depth k rate constant K, rate constant for process of order a M hold-up mixing index n total number of drops N impeller speed P impeller power consumption ra) breakage rate for drop size d t extraction time tR mixer residence time T tank dimension Uy mean square of turbulent velocity fluctuations vy volume of mixing tank365 MIXERS Dimensionless numbers Bo Bodenstein number Fr Froude number Ga Galileo number Ne circulation number Nu head number Np pumping number Po power number Vi viscosity group We., _ ctitical Weber number for drop breakage We, impeller Weber number Z number of drop-drop collisions per unit time Greek symbols © exponent 8 viscosity ratio exponent in Weber number correlation f(d',d) daughter droplet probability distribution v interfacial tension Ad drop size interval on local energy dissipation per unit mass fn average energy dissipation per unit mass 4 microscale of turbulence 0 turbulence intensity factor a collision efficiency g dynamic viscosity yd’) number of daughter drops p density Ap density difference a variance o hold-up of dispersed phase (4) _ probability density function Vv viscosity function Subscripts av average C continuous phase or critical Cc contact (time) or capillary a dispersed phase D drainage (time)366 J.C. GODFREY f feed value i inversion m mixture P pumping R recirculation slip slip (velocity) 12.1 INTRODUCTION Mixer-settlers are widely used in solvent extraction processes for metals recovery, They are often chosen when the separation requires many equilibrium stages, when extraction kinetics are not rapid and when the separation flow sheet is complex and requires precise location of incoming feed streams with respect to counter-current extraction in multi-solute systems. Procedures for the deter- mination of the number of equilibrium stages required to effect a specified separation are well-understood and well-developed and will not be discussed here. The main content of this chapter is concerned with the hydrodynamics of the mixing process and particularly with those aspects related to the design of efficient and reliable mixing equipment. As with column contactors, recent research developments have led to an in- creasingly phenomena-based interpretation of liquid-liquid mixing. The ultimate in this respect is the opportunity offered by coalescence redispersion studies. From this concept an approach to mixer behaviour can be made in terms of the ‘lifetimes’ of drops in a mixer. In principle it is possible to make an assessment in terms of a cycle of repeated breakage and coalescence events and the consequences for drop size, drop-size distribution, drop-drop mixing, mixing of drop contents, drop mass transfer coefficient and ultimately extraction performance. All aspects have received at least preliminary attention and attempts have been made to illustrate the relevance to extraction performance. However the computational and knowledge demands of such a comprehensive modelling procedure are enormous and, certainly from any practical point of view, these studies are at their beginning. At a more mundane level there are many unresolved questions relating to drop size, drop-size distribution and their practical implications, and the very difficult problem of entrainment characteristics. From the practical point of view the most pressing needs are to be able to understand extraction rate data, to predict the level of agitation required to produce a well-mixed dispersion which is stable against phase inversion, the choice of optimum impeller type and size, and confident scale-up from laboratory and pilot data. In the material which follows an attempt is made to address these topics from the point of view of current knowledge and the relevance to research and design needs.MIXERS 367 12.2 INDUSTRIAL MIXING EQUIPMENT fn the study and practice of liquid-liquid extraction many mixer geometries andimpeller types have been used. Most laboratory studies have been conducted in simple batch agitated tanks and a variety of impeller types have been investigated. In industry the range of equipment is more varied. Continuous flow pump-mix designs have been very widely used, many different designs having been developed to combine pumping and mixing requirements in one unit, Asa result of the significant differences between the generally simple batch Jaboratory equipment and the generally complex continuous industrial equip- ment it is very difficult to exploit laboratory findings in quantitative analysis and design of commercial equipment. The main value of laboratory experience jgas a basis for understanding the many phenomena of importance in the opera- tion of liquid-liquid mixing equipment. Most laboratory studies, particularly of mixer hydrodynamics, have used six flat-blade disc (Rushton) turbines in cylindrical baffled tanks. Very frequently the standard circular tank configuration (STC) is used, a tank which uses the same liquid depth (H) as tank diameter (7) and with four, equally spaced, vertical baffles with width 10% of the tank diameter, This degree of standardiza- tion has been helpful in the comparison of results from different laboratories "and also in relating liquid-liquid studies to other aspects of mixer hydrodynamics | which are available for this extensively studied mixer geometry. The influence of mixer geometry has been studied and many different forms, including pump- | tix types, were the subject of early research (Davis and Colven, 1961; Roberts and Bell, 1957); more recently performance data have been published for a wide range of impeller types (Skelland and Ramsay, 1987; Godfrey et al., 1989). } In industrial equipment the pump-mix combination has long been favoured ‘as. a means of simplifying the overall plant layout by minimizing the number ‘of pumps used in multistage processes at the cost of increased complication and compromise in mixer design and performance. A significant problem is to design a unit which can provide both the pumping and mixing requirements reliably and predictably. The early design of Gordon and Ziegler (1939) used a radial flow pumping impeller in a small mixing chamber only marginally larger that the impeller itself. This design does not seem to have found extensive industrial use but the ‘use of a large radial flow impeller in a small mixing chamber has been applied dy IMI (Barnea and Meyer, 1983) and this design differs in that it allows sufficient residence time in the mixing chamber for recirculation of the mixed phases (Figure 12.1). One of its design objectives is the provision of conditions which allow operation at high volume fractions, up to 80%, of dispersed phase without problems of phase inversion. _ Another early design is that of Mensing (1946) which uses an axial flow impeller in a draft tube to provide pumping and mixing. The combination of Oe380 J.C. GODFREY. conditions and in equipment similar to the more specialized designs useq in mixer-settler plant. Both average drop size and size distributions have been reported. Average drop-size data, usually defined as the Sauter mean drop size, d;,, are often correlated with interfacial tension, y, continuous phase density, P., impeller size Dg, and impeller speed, N, in the form of the impeller Weber number correlation: 3,/Dy = Co(We,) °° (128) We, = N*Dap,/y (129) This form of the correlation has a theoretical background and is used for low volume fractions of dispersed phase. Empirical modifications are necessary to. describe volume fractions of practical interest: d,,=C,(1+C,o)We;°* (12.10) The zero hold-up constant, Co, is principally dependent on the mixer geometry. and particularly the power number, Po, and the non-uniformity of turbulence in the mixing, expressed by the turbulence intensity factor 6. The hold-up constant, C,, is thought to reflect the combined influence of drop~drop coales- cence and turbulence damping which occur in the presence of a significant volume fraction of dispersed phase. Drop-size distribution has been studied in many works and the normal and log-normal distributions have been used frequently for data description, in a number of cases it being argued that the distribution moves from the normal to the log-normal as the level of agitation is increased. Most distribution functions only describe the spread of the size distribution and do not contain terms for mixer geometry of physical properties. The existence of a distribution of sizes is due to a number of phenomena. When a drop breaks two or more smaller drops are created and these drops will probably be of different sizes, While drops break in the high energy impeller region they also tend to coalesce in the low energy regions away from the impeller. Hence drops coalesce producing a range of drop sizes depending on the size of the coalescing droplets, The evolution of a drop size distribution can be modelled by using a population balance equation to describe the outcome of the processes of breakage and coalescence. The knowledge of drop size and drop-size distribution cannot be directly applied to the design of mixer-settler plant. However it is of qualitative value since smaller average drop size is associated with higher extraction rates in the mixer and lower rates of separation in the settler. While neither of these rates can be determined with any accuracy from drop-size data, knowledge of the drop-size characteristics is of interest in anticipating the effects of change in impeller speed, size or type. For the present, drop-size information is of greatest value in developing an understanding of the scientific aspects of mixer perMIXERS 381 formance. It is from this understanding that practical and reliable design procedures will ultimately evolve. 42.5.1 MEASUREMENT OF DROP SIZE The experimental measurement of drop size is a well-established procedure and many different techniques have been developed. The variety reflects the many oblems to be overcome. Drop sizes in agitated tanks are small, of the order of 0.02-0.4mm and at the higher volume fractions of practical interest, ¢ > 0.1, only the wall region can be observed visually. At low hold-up average drop size can be determined conveniently by light transmission techniques and drop-size distribution by direct photography. In this hold-up region laser diffraction methods can also be used to determine drop-size distribution if the drop size is small enough, generally of the order of 0.2mm or less. Photography 4 often very time consuming as it is usually difficult to obtain images of sufficient quality for automatic assessment methods. Photography at the tank wall brings jnto question the relation between what can be seen and the contents of the interior of the tank. At high hold-up levels special equipment is necessary to allow observation of the interior of the tank. The use of optical probes allows visualization and photography of the tank contents but causes hydrodynamic disturbance which is probably at its worst at the point of observation. Samples san be removed for examination outside the tank but the effectiveness of the sampling procedure has to be considered. However, once outside the tank, the sample may be treated in a way which allows low volume fraction techniques 40 be applied to high volume fraction samples, e.g. light transmission or laser _ diffraction. Samples can also be passed along narrow bore capillaries and drop-size distribution determined directly by the measurement of plug lengths. These techniques offer the possibility of instrumented and continuous methods of size measurement and are much more convenient than photography. Average sample size has also been determined by measuring the rate of extraction for liquid-liquid system of known chemical kinetics. 12.5.1.1 Photographic techniques Photographs of drops can be taken directly through the vessel wall or by using optical probes to examine the interior of the vessel. In both cases considerable Magnification is necessary because of the small drop size. In addition fast shutter Speeds are necessary because of the fast-moving drops. In the past the demands vf magnification and shutter speed brought problems of adequate illumination but these have been eliminated by the availability of high speed films and Powerful flash units. In all cases some form of calibration is necessary. Direct photography has been used for both low and high volume fraction measurements. For the latter photographs can only be taken at the vessel wall382 J.C. GODFREY where the drops seen may not be representative of those in the bulk of the tank, The hydrodynamics of the wall region may be such as to give non-representatiye drops. Comparison of direct photography and drop samples for high hold-up conditions have been made (Godfrey et al., 1989). For measurement inside the vessel various photomicrographic and optical fibre probes have been developed with provision for lighting and photography, Here the problem is that disturbance at the point of observation should be minimized (Coulalogiou and Tavlarides, 1976). The optical fibre technique has been used for cine photography (Park and Blair, 1975). An alternative photographic procedure is to remove samples of the drop phase for photography. In some techniques the drops are stabilized against further breakage or coalescence by encapsulation (Mlynek and Resnick, 1972), or the use of surfactants (Ross et al., 1977, 1978). The sampled drops can then be photographed (Mlynek and Resnick, 1972). Alternatively the drops have been sampled without stabilization using suitable sampling procedures (Godfrey and Grilc, 1977), the drops were photographed as they were removed from the mixer in a large bore capillary of d. ~ 3d3, at a controlled flow rate. 12.5.1.2 Sample withdrawal Versions of the sample withdrawal technique above have also been used in conjunction with non-photographic techniques. Both stabilized and non-stabil- ized samples have been examined in small bore capillaries such that the drops could be viewed as extended plugs and the volume and drop size determined by measuring plug length. Plug lengths have been measured by conductivity and light transmission methods, both of which are adaptable to the simultaneous measurement of length and liquid concentration (Ross et al., 1977, 1978). 12.5.1.3 Laser techniques A number of laser applications have been developed for the study of a dispersed phase in multiphase flow. For low volume fraction dispersions there are a variety of techniques which might be used to determine drop size or drop-size distribution. Plawsky and Hatton (1986) reviewed measuring techniques available with a view to correlating signal and drop size. They summarized experimental methods in four classes according to signal type: (1) Signal visibility or fringe contrast. (2) Time difference between signals received from two or more spatially separated detectors, (3) Overall signal intensity. (4) Time of flight. The authors developed a small laser probe for use in column contactors andMIXERS 383 were able to determine both drop velocity and drop size for sizes in the range 0.3 to 1.5mm. {2514 Light transmission Measurement of light transmission through a dispersion allows calculation of the interfacial area per unit volume and, from the hold-up value, the average drop size, d3, (Vermeulen, 1955). The combination of optical path length and hold-up is limited so measurements at higher volume fractions require short path lengths and the development of special cells (Weinstein and Treybal, 1973a). ‘These arc inserted into the dispersion and raise the usual uncertainties regarding nydrodynamic disturbance at the point of measurement. With the light transmis- sion technique signal analysis is very rapid but calibration using another method, eg. photography, is necessary for every combination of liquid-liquid system to be tested so some of the convenience is lost. 42.5.1.5 Chemical method Determination of interfacial area, and hence average drop size, is possible from extraction rate data for a suitable liquid-liquid system (Sharma, 1983). The technique is limited to the small number of suitable systems available. There are also questions of the effect of the relatively fast reactions required on interfacial properties and the possibility that the coalescence-redispersion process may influence the extraction rate but is not included in the analysis. 12.5.1.6 Conclusions There are many techniques which allow estimates to be made of average drop size, drop size and drop-size distribution. In most cases, except for some measurements at low volume fraction, it is correct to emphasize ‘estimate’ as most techniques have one or more limitations. Measurements at high volume fraction are particularly difficult because of the problem of gaining access to the drops at a representative point in the mixer without creating disruptive hydrodynamic disturbance. Drop-size measurement has always attracted consi- derable interest in liquid-liquid mixing and the literature of the subject is very large. Drop-size measurement is still extensively used with photography and sample removal being the most-used techniques in recent publications. 12.5.2. CORRELATIONS FOR DROP-SIZE DISTRIBUTION Many techniques allow the full range of dispersed phase drop size to be measured and there has always been considerable interest in the nature of the distributions found. A number of distribution functions have been investigated; in general eee eeeeeiniidat402 J.C. GODFREY the inversion process. It is possible that the stability problem of large mixers has little to do with our lack of understanding of inversion and is Teally g mixing problem as discussed below. The knowledge of liquid-liquid mixing and the corresponding scale-up procedures are still at an elementary level, even if rather more satisfactory than is the case for phase stability. The lack of knowledge of the minimum conditions of agitation to create a dispersion has almost certainly led to problems of scale-up. There are two difficulties. First it is difficult to determine what is g suitable energy input to produce a uniform dispersion. Secondly there is no widely accepted scale-up rule, calculations usually lying somewhere between constant tip speed and constant power per unit volume. Thus it is quite possible that the level of agitation in some plant mixers is much less than that needed for a well-mixed dispersion. Under conditions of poor mixing the volume fraction in the tank can be significantly different from the flow ratio and there may also be layers of undispersed liquid at either the top or bottom of the mixer. Such conditions reduce stability and it is very likely that this is the nature of the inversion problem in some large-scale plant. There is also the question of what is a suitable impeller type and size for liquid-liquid mixing and it is probable that the power per unit volume requirements for adequate mixing will be very different for different impellers, There has been little investigation of this, even at laboratory scale. It is quite possible that this is also part of the problem in plant operation where many different impeller types and sizes are to be found: conventional turbines and propellers, several pump-mix impeller designs and various new impeller designs (Shen et al., 1991). In the short term it seems wise to deal with the design aspect of phase stability by ensuring that a well-documented or well-tested mixing condition is chosen and scaled up to maintain the quality of mixing, probably using constant power per unit volume as the criterion. It may be feared that this will give an intense agitation condition and cause high levels of entrainment. It is not possible to be sure if this problem will arise, since past experience which associated high entrainment with high impeller speed is in part related to high entrainment levels arising from a close approach to inversion due to poor mixing. As always, investigating large test equipment does a great deal to minimize scale-up problems. Conversely, data collected from very small equipment is of little use for scale-up. 129 ENTRAINMENT In optimizing the design of mixer-settler equipment consideration of entrainment characteristics is usually necessary. It is generally accepted that high power input means increased entrainment so high impeller speeds are usually avoided,MIXERS 403 eg. Fisher and Notebaart (1981). However, there are entrainment mechanisms {o be observed in both mixer and settler. Either or both of the continuous and dispersed phase can be observed as entrained droplets in the streams leaving the settler. | 129.1 THE SETTLER Settler performance, including consideration of settler entrainment mechanisms, js considered in Chapter 13. Briefly, a simple settler contains three layers: an upper layer of the light phase, a central layer of dispersion and a lower layer of the heavy phase. This stratification is due to the different densities of the three layers. Depending on the mixer operating conditions the dispersion could contain either light or heavy drops. The nature of the dispersed phase determines the detailed structure of the dispersion layer, the dispersion “band’. In the "discussion which follows the behaviour of a dispersion of drops of the heavy phase dispersed in the light phase is considered. The behaviour of a dispersion of light phase drops can be inferred from this by reference to the concepts of active and passive interfaces. In well-designed settlers the dispersion band will be of near uniform thickness along the length of the settler. Within the dispersion band the heavy drops coalesce with one another and the resulting larger drop settles to a lower level where there are drops of a similar size. Drop size increases by drop-drop __ goalescence everywhere in the dispersion band and the band is stratified into __ iayers, each containing drops of more or less equal size. The largest drops form ‘an interface at the bottom of the dispersion band. Here they are in direct contact with the clear heavy phase layer which has been formed from the coalescence of heavy phase drops. At this (active) interface coalescence occurs between drops in the dispersion band and the continuous heavy phase layer. The coalescence mechanism is the drainage and rupture of the light phase film that makes up the drop surface. It has been suggested that the rupture of the continuous phase film can lead to the production of micron size drops and their entrainment in the coalesced dispersed phase. At the upper (passive) interface of the dispersion band the smallest drops are found in loosely packed layers. At this interface the continuous (light) phase drains from the dispersion band into the upper light phase layer. As the continuous phase leaves the dispersion band there is a tendency to fluidize the smallest drops in the top layer leading to entrainment in the light phase. This $rocess can be enhanced if the velocity of the light phase layer is high (Orjans 4tal, 1977). As an approximation the drops at the passive interface can be fegarded as the smallest drops produced in the mixer but the entrainment mechanism at this point is also dependent on settler conditions, in particular the disengagement rate of the continuous phase and the velocity of the separated Continuous phase layer. OO404 J.C. GODFREY 12.9.2. THE MIXER It can be seen that small drops entering the settler could easily lead to disperseq phase entrainment at the passive interface as discussed above. As average drop size is closely related to impeller power input it is clear that the Possibility of this type of entrainment is increased as impeller power increases. New drop size measurement techniques have shown drop-size distributions which are bimodal (Chatzi and Kiparissides, 1992), there being a second distribution of drops smaller than the average diameter. Thus it may not be possible to make judgements about the smallest drops and entrainment based only on the con. sideration of average drop size. However, where dispersed phase entrainment is important, it is desirable to avoid the production of small dispersed phase drops by minimizing power input by using efficient impellers with low power require- ments as discussed in Section 12.6 above. There is also evidence of the effect of dispersed phase volume fraction on the entrainment of the dispersed phase (Rowden et al., 1975). The effect is qualitatively in line with the reduction of drop size that accompanies reduced dispersed phase volume fraction. There is another, less obvious, form of mixer-generated entrainment in the form of very small droplets (2~20 um) of continuous phase inside the drops of dispersed phase (d,,~ 0.3mm). These small droplets go into the settler inside the dispersed phase drops and are carried into the coalesced dispersed phase at the active interface. There is nothing that can be done by way of settler control to minimize this. At steady state this form of entrainment appears to be related to impeller power, reinforcing the need for efficient impellers when entrainment problems are anticipated. Continuous phase entrainment is also increased in unsteady state operation, e.g. during start-up, in operation close to inversion or if a significant quantity of air is present. In most cases a return to normal operation brings a return to lower entrainment. Batch mixing tests are not very useful in the study of continuous phase entrain- ment characteristics because the unsteady state conditions at start-up lead to the generation of unrepresentatively high entrainment. After steady state has been achieved there is no mechanism by which droplets within drops can be removed so the entrainment level remains high (Godfrey et al., 1978). It would appear that small droplets of continuous phase are generated whenever drops are broken so that systems with a high level of coalescence-redispersion may show high entrainment levels. This may be related to the high levels observed near phase inversion when the dispersed phase volume fraction will be high. 12.9.3 DISCUSSION From the considerations above it can be seen that entrainment of dispersed or continuous phase may originate in either the mixer or the settler. It may beMIXERS 405 that small amounts of entrainment of both types are unavoidable in mixer operation. At mixer start-up it is almost certain that high levels of continuous phase entrainment will be created but the level falls, probably by an order of magnitude, as a steady-state mixing condition is established. The steady state evel will depend on the physical properties of the liquid-liquid system, the impeller power input and the impeller design. For both types of mixer-generated entrainment the use of an efficient impeller design is a useful way to minimize entrainment by minimizing power input; a suitable impeller selection could be achieved by using the Skelland and Ramsay (1987) correlation as a basis for power consumption calculations as discussed in Section 12.5.3, This procedure will result in relatively larger drop sizes which may decrease extraction rates. ‘A further consideration is the role of system properties in the generation of entrainment. Given the current basic understanding of the phenomena of entrainment it is possible to test liquid-liquid systems in laboratory equipment with a view to selecting those liquids which have least entrainment problems. 12.10 CONCLUSIONS There has been much study of liquid-liquid mixing in agitated tanks but little of this work is directly applicable to liquid-liquid mixing in commercial mixer-settlers. The reasons for this are that most of this research has been conducted in conventional small impeller agitated batch tanks while most mixer- settlers use larger pump-mix impellers and operate continuously. However, much has been learned about the general principles governing extraction rate, Grop size, the coalescence-redispersion mechanism, agitation requirements, phase stability and entrainment and this knowledge can be applied in the develop- ment of sound design procedures for industrial equipment. For the present the basis of successful, practical mixer design is to ensure adequate levels of agitation and this should be considered as an item of top priority. Because of the present lack of knowledge it remains necessary to use the conservative scale-up criterion of constant power per unit volume to avoid problems of poor agitation. The effects of excessive power consumption can be minimized by the choice of an impeller which has low power requirements at the minimum impeller speed for creating a dispersion. For the future there is the advantage that most of the phenomena of mixing in mixer-settlers are well understood. However, there is much to be achieved since the theoretical aspects of the subject are still relatively weak. Much has een done in both the theoretical and experimental aspects of the studies of mass transfer rates and of the coalescence-redispersion process. The understanding of the combined mass transfer and chemical reaction processes that characterize most extraction processes continues to be the subject of considerable study but both aspects still present major theoretical challenges.406 J.C. GODFREY There seems to be no immediate prospect of a sound theoretical description which could be applied in mixer design. Good progress has been made in both modelling and computing aspects of coalescence-redispersion studies and the main need appears to be more realistic description of the breakage and coalescence processes. Success has been claimed for modelling exercises at low volume fraction and also for fast computer procedures which allow the incorporation of mass transfer and the prediction of extraction rates. However, as a sound theoretical description of extraction rate is still a long way off, empirical descriptions will be needed in the short term. It has also been proposed that empirical descriptions of coalescence and breakage phenomena should be used to avoid problems of inadequate models. The study of drop size and drop breakage continues to have a separate life from coalescence-redispersion studies and increased overlap would be beneficial, Recently there has been much discussion of alternative or additional breakage mechanisms compared with the general use of microscale of turbulence concepts and an improved understanding of breakage mechanisms could resolve some of the inconsistencies in reported data and correlations. From an empirical point of view much could be done to clarify the effect of impeller type and size on drop size, particularly for low volume fractions. Re-examination of existing data and correlations would be fruitful. The study of hold-up and minimum agitation requirements has been largely empirical. It seems that batch data for minimum agitation could form the basis of useful estimates for continuous mixers but confirmation is necessary. A number of conventional impellers have been studied and it would be advantageous to extend these simple concepts to the study of pump-mix impellers. In practical terms more power number data of better quality would greatly assist in the selection of power-efficient impellers. It is difficult to predict whether modelling exercises would be productive in improving the theoretical basis of hold-up and minimum agitation studies as only limited success has been achieved with the rather simpler problem of particle-liquid mixers. At present there is developing interest in the potential of computational fluid dynamics packages for the modelling of liquid-liquid mixing although little of any consequence has been published. It could be argued that, from the point of view of equipment design, the topics of hold-up and agitation are most in need of clarification since the requirement of a uniform dispersion is fundamental to the application of any existing calculation or scale-up procedure. There is little current research on either phase inversion or entrainment. Recent phase inversion studies indicate that batch phenomena are very complex. For continuous systems the evidence suggests that most mixers are inherently stable, at least at laboratory scale, and that most problems of phase inversion are the consequence of problems of inadequate agitation. The literature of entrainment studies presents a very complex and confusing picture. Conceptually some aspects of mixer-generated entrainment, especially continuous in dispersed,MIXERS 407 are reasonably clear but much remains to be done to present a clear qualitative description of the entrainment generation characteristics of the agitated tank. It is likely that system properties play a major role in entrainment production. A quantitative interpretation is completely out of reach for the present time. 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