Electric Power Components and Systems

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The Smart Grid—State-of-the-art and Future

Trends

Mohamed E. El-hawary

To cite this article: Mohamed E. El-hawary (2014) The Smart Grid—State-of-the-art

and Future Trends, Electric Power Components and Systems, 42:3-4, 239-250, DOI:
10.1080/15325008.2013.868558

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Electric Power Components and Systems, 42(3–4):239–250, 2014
Copyright C Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
ISSN: 1532-5008 print / 1532-5016 online
DOI: 10.1080/15325008.2013.868558
The Smart Grid—State-of-the-art and Future Trends
Mohamed E. El-Hawary
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada
Consulting Editor, Electric Power Components and Systems Journal
CONTENTS
1. Introduction
2. Background and Definitions
3. The Motivation for Smart Grid
(Why Smart Grid?)
4. Smart Grid Attributes
5. Some Impediments to Smart Grid
6. Smart Distribution and Utilization Systems
7. Smart Grid Initiatives, Developments, Plans, and Example
Technologies
8. Recent Research on Smart Grid Topics
9. Sample Future Research Directions
10. Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
Keywords: Adaptive reconfiguration of distribution networks, alternative
energy sources, automated metering infrastructure, building automation and
control system, Canadian Electricity Association, data fusion, data
transmission, demand side management, Department of Energy,
deregulation, discrete wavelet transform, distributed energy sources,
distributed intelligence, distributed management system, distribution and
utilization systems, distribution automation, dynamic storage resources,
electric vehicle charging station, electric vehicles, embedded intelligence,
energy efficient building, environmental impact of power generation,
external cyber attacks, forecasting, fuel cells, fuzzy logic controller,
generation automation, generation carbon footprint, global positioning
system, green energy, grid of the future, integrated forecasting, intermittent
energy availability, International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC),
interoperability, Kentucky Smart Grid Roadmap Initiative, load
prioritization, microgrids, model predictive voltage control, multistage
mixed-integer stochastic programming, nanotechnology, observability,
optimal predictor-corrector resource dispatching, optimal sizing and
placement of distribution system resources, plug-in electric vehicles, power
quality, power system infrastructure aging, power system reliability, power
system restoration, prediction, pulse width modulation, renewable energy
sources, rural electrification, self-healing distribution systems, sliding mode
current control, smart appliances, smart building, smart grid, Smart Grid
Forum (India), smart grid roadmap, smart home, smart home energy
management system, smart meters, state estimation, State Grid Corporation
of China (SGCC), synchronized phasor measurements, synchronized smart
grids monitoring, US National Academy of Engineering, voltage source
inverter, wide-area monitoring system, wind turbines, wind-thermal-pumped
storage systems
Received 19 November 2013; accepted 19 November 2013
Address correspondence to Prof. Mohamed E. El-Hawary, Dalhousie
University, 1360 Barrington Street, P. O. Box 15000 Halifax, Nova Scotia,
B3H 4R2, Canada. E-mail: elhawary@dal.ca
The author is the consulting editor of Electric Power Components and
Systems.
Abstract—This paper introduces Smart Grid and associated techni-
cal, environmental and socio-economic, and other non-tangible bene-
fits to society, and articulates the need for the concept and the fact that
it is a dynamic interactive, real-time infrastructure that responds to the
challenges of designing and building the power system of the future,
rather than being simply a marketing term. To illustrate the diver-
sity of terminology, the paper compares an Electric Power Research
Institute (EPRI) definition with that suggested by a study group of
the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC). Next, a paper
sponsored by the Canadian Electricity Association (CEA) that cites
three example definitions to highlight the diversity of views of Smart
Grid is briefly reviewed. Early misconceptions and characterizations
of Smart Grid are discussed as a prelude to addressing challenging
issues that motivate developing and implementing related innovative
technologies, products and services. The paper then discusses the
potential promise of the Smart Grid, which is embedded in its often-
cited attributes of efficiency, accommodating, quality focus, enabling
and self-healing to name some. The paper then addresses some of
the often-cited impediments to accepting Smart Grid which are based
on concerns and issues confronting its forward progress, adoption
and acceptance. Distribution Automation (DA) and embedded intel-
ligence are discussed emphasising self-healing, optimizing operation
and facilitating recreation and recovery from abnormal events. Func-
tional and integration requirements of Distributed Energy Resources
(DER,) are detailed. Smart Consumption Infrastructure elements of
Distribution Management Systems (DMS,) Automated Metering In-
frastructure (AMI,) Smart Homes (SH), and Smart Appliances (SA,)
are discussed. Following the introductory section, this paper sum-
marizes contributions included in the double issue 42(3–4) of the
Electric Power Components and Systems Journal. To begin, papers
are offered discussing smart grid activities in China, India, and the
development of a Smart Grid roadmap for the US State of Kentucky.
The approaches of each of these cases reflect the diversity of pol-
icy initiatives in these jurisdictions. Two state of the art reviews are
given next. The first considers distribution network active manage-
ment and future development trends in technologies and methods,
where centralized and decentralized management frameworks and
applying agent-based coordination are discussed. The second offers
a review of smart home technologies and the goals of an energy
management system (SHEMS). This section is concluded by a letter
providing an overview of recent and expected advances nanotechnol-
ogy applications in Smart Grid. Following the state of the art review
section, ten papers offering new and innovative research approaches
and results are included. These papers cover Smart Grid topics such
as real-time energy control approach for smart home energy manage-
ment systems, optimal operation of energy- efficient buildings with
Combined Heat and Power (CHP) systems, energy management and
control of Electric Vehicle (EV) charging stations, voltage-frequency
control of a voltage source inverter (VSI) in a smart islanded micro-
grid, smart generation scheduling for wind-thermal-pumped storage
239
240 Electric Power Components and Systems, Vol. 42 (2014), No. 3–4
systems, optimized power system restoration, robust data transmis-
sion upon compressive sensing, data fusion for wide-area oscillation
monitoring, satellite based GPS synchronized monitoring systems,
stability in Smart Grid with emerging renewable energy techno-
logies.
1. INTRODUCTION
The electric power system enterprise has witnessed many re-
cent developments that not only revived interest in research and
development but also resulted in significant socio-economic
and other non-tangible benefits to the community at large. The
increased awareness of the environmental impact and the car-
bon footprint of all energy sources, including electric power
production, have given impetus to the growth and adopting of
renewable as well as alternative energy. The advent of power
system deregulation and the move away from the vertically
integrated utility business model is a second important devel-
opment that shaped the direction of electric power technology.
The rise of smart grid is a boon not only to society as a whole
but to all who are involved in the electric power industry, its
customers, and its many stakeholders. The intent of this arti-
cle is three-fold. First the article discusses the concept of the
smart grid and its various manifestations to allow for an ap-
preciation of the complexity, potential benefits, and challenges
involved in this exciting field. Next, the article briefly reviews
recent initiatives, developments, technologies, and research
described in the manuscripts included in the current double is-
sue 42(3–4) of Electric Power Components and Systems. The
article then concludes by offering a brief description of some
future research directions.
2. BACKGROUND AND DEFINITIONS
Currently available literature on the term “smart grid” shows
a vast array of publications. For example, an IEEE Xplore
search returned 9117 results, while in Science Direct, the same
search returned 618 results. The smart grid has evolved from
the worldwide power industry’s stakeholders’ desire to respond
to the challenges of designing and building the electric power
network “the grid” of the future. The concept was given dif-
ferent names, such as intelligent grid, grid wise, EPRI’s Intel-
ligrid, and others. While defining the term may initially appear
to be illusive, there is almost unanimous agreement that the
smart grid is a dynamically interactive real-time infrastructure
concept that encompasses the many visions of diverse power
system stakeholders.
An IEC document released in May 2010 suggested that
“smart grid” is used as a marketing term rather than a techni-
cal definition [1]. It is notable that the EPRI website offers a
succinct definition that states “A Smart Grid is one that incor-
porates information and communications technology into ev-
ery aspect of electricity generation, delivery and consumption
in order to minimize environmental impact, enhance markets,
improve reliability and service, and reduce costs and improve
efficiency” [2]. The IEC set up the Smart Grid Strategy Study
Group 3, SG3, which completed “IEC Smart Grid Standard-
ization Roadmap Edition 1.0” in 2010. In that document, SG3
defined smart grids as “the concept of modernizing the electric
grid. The Smart Grid is integrating the electrical and informa-
tion technologies in between any point of generation and any
point of consumption” [3].
A paper sponsored by the Canadian Electricity Associa-
tion [4] demonstrated the diversity of smart grid definitions by
citing three published examples [5–7] and identified the key
themes of communication, integration, and automation that
are sustainable, economic, and secure. That study offered a
concise definition: “the smart grid is a suite of information-
based applications made possible by increased automation of
the electricity grid, as well as the underlying automation itself;
this suite of technologies integrates the behaviour and actions
of all connected supplies and loads through dispersed com-
munication capabilities to deliver sustainable, economic and
secure power supplies.”
Early negative (and sometimes hostile) reaction to the smart
grid concept can be attributed to the misconception that it is a
step forward to modernize a “dumb network”. This misguided
characterization is evident in the often quoted statement, “If
Alexander Graham Bell were somehow transported to the 21st
century, he would not begin to recognize the components
of modern telephony—cell phones, texting, and cell towers,
etc.—while Thomas Edison, one of the grid’s key early archi-
tects, would be totally familiar with the grid.” The statement
is taken from a well-cited DOE publication [6] that goes on to
state, “While this thought experiment speaks volumes about
appearances, it is far from the whole story. Edison would be
quite familiar with the grid’s basic infrastructure and perhaps
even an electromechanical connection or two, but he would
be just as dazzled as Graham Bell with the technology behind
the scenes.” The document goes on to state, “In celebrating
the beginning of the 21st century, the United States National
Academy of Engineering set about identifying the single most
important engineering achievement of the 20th century. The
Academy compiled an estimable list of twenty accomplish-
ments which have affected virtually everyone in the devel-
oped world. The internet took thirteenth place on this list, and
 El-Hawary: The Smart Grid—State-of-the-art and Future Trends
‘highways’ eleventh. Sitting at the top of the list was electrifi-
cation as made possible by the electric power grid, ‘the most
significant engineering achievement of the 20th Century.”’ In-
deed, the power industry has been at the forefront of taking
advantage of advanced computer, communication, and control
technologies throughout the 20th century.
3. THE MOTIVATION FOR SMART GRID
(WHY SMART GRID?)
The electric power industry stakeholders (utilities, vendors,
manufacturers, regulators, consumers and their advocates, and
governments) recognize the need to address challenging issues
that motivate developing and implementing the smart grid and
its elements. While recognizing that the priority of local drivers
and challenges might differ from one jurisdiction to another,
the following is a partial list of issues concerned.
1. Aging and underinvested infrastructure: Much of the
existing power system infrastructure dates back to the
1950s or even earlier and is reaching the end of its
useful life.
2. Electricity demand throughout the world is steadily in-
creasing, causing high power system loading resulting
in overstressed system equipment.
3. Public interest groups are putting pressure on politi-
cians to reduce CO2 emissions through the adoption of
alternative energy sources and put in place regulations
to increase energy efficiency.
4. Increasing distance between generation sites and load
centers.
5. The changing mix of power generation operating cen-
tral power plants in parallel with large numbers of
small, decentralized (distributed) generation.
6. Intermittent and fluctuating energy availability of re-
newable energy sources, such as wind and solar,
are placing additional strains on existing grids. The
intermittence must be counter-balanced with more
intelligence in the grid, base load power generation
(hydro, nuclear), and storage.
7. Additional and new consumption models (smart plug-
in vehicles, smart homes (SHs), and smart buildings).
8. Increasing cost and regulatory pressures.
9. Utility unbundling increased energy trading.
10. There is a need for transparent consumption and pricing
for the consumer.
241
11. Regulators are pushing for more competitive and lower
energy prices.
12. There is a need for securing supply and meeting the
increase in energy needs.
13. Utilities need to adopt information and communication
technologies to handle new operational scenarios and
challenges while maintaining profitability and retain-
ing the ability to invest in infrastructure
14. Efficient and reliable transmission and distribution of
electricity is fundamental to maintaining functioning
economies and societies.
15. Sustainability.
To appreciate the motivations and, hence, objectives of the
smart grid, one may cite the U.S. Department of Energy, which
issued a Request for Information dated 11 May 2010 under the
title “Implementing the National Broadband Plan by Studying
the Communications Requirements of Electric Utilities To In-
form Federal Smart Grid Policy” [8] stating, “A Smart Grid
uses information and communications technologies to improve
the reliability, availability, and efficiency of the electric sys-
tem. In Smart Grid projects today, these technologies are being
applied to electric grid applications, involving devices at the
consumer level through the transmission level, to make our
electric system more responsive and more flexible.” In addi-
tion to economic- and policy-based motivations, smart grid
implementations respond to the rate of advances in emerging
technologies, such as communications, computing power, en-
ergy storage, and renewable generation. Clearly, a smart grid
employs innovative products and services together with intel-
ligent monitoring, control, communication, and self-healing
technologies to
• allow consumers to play a part in optimizing the opera-
tion of the system and
• provide consumers with greater information and choice
of supply.
The potential promise of the smart grid includes improved reli-
ability and power quality, reduction in peak demand, reduction
in transmission congestion costs, potential for increased en-
ergy efficiency, environmental benefits gained by increased as-
set utilization, increased security, ability to accommodate more
renewable energy, and increased durability and ease of repair
in response to malicious attacks or adverse natural events.
242 Electric Power Components and Systems, Vol. 42 (2014), No. 3–4
4. SMART GRID ATTRIBUTES
Many smart grid advocates cite some or all of its following
attributes as representative of its promise:
• efficient—capable of meeting increased consumer de-
mand without adding infrastructure;
• accommodating—accepting energy from virtually any
fuel source, including solar and wind, as easily and trans-
parently as coal and natural gas; capable of integrating
any and all better ideas and technologies (energy storage
technologies, for example) as they are market-proven and
ready to come on-line;
• motivating—enabling real-time communication be-
tween the consumer and utility so consumers can tailor
their energy consumption based on individual prefer-
ences, such as price and/or environmental concerns;
• opportunistic—creating new opportunities and markets
by means of its ability to capitalize on plug-and-play
innovation wherever and whenever appropriate;
• quality focused—capable of delivering the power qual-
ity necessary, free of sags, spikes, disturbances, and inter-
ruptions, to power our increasingly digital economy and
the data centers, computers, and electronics necessary to
make it run;
• resilient—increasingly resistant to attack and natural
disasters as it becomes more decentralized and reinforced
with smart grid security protocols; and
• green—slowing the advance of global climate change
and offering a genuine path toward significant environ-
mental improvement in the impact of electric power serv-
ing humanity.
5. SOME IMPEDIMENTS TO SMART GRID
As with many new innovative technological developments,
care must be taken to address particular concerns and issues
that confront the forward progress, adoption, and acceptance
of this enterprise.
1. Stakeholder Engagement: At the early stages of smart
grid implementations, stakeholders’ negative percep-
tions can derail even the most beneficial project, es-
pecially when the proponents fail to pay close attention
to the educational aspects. Advocates need to be able
explain and clearly identify the benefits of each com-
ponent of the smart grid to the customers that are the
potential key to service success.
2. Security: As a cornerstone of smart grids, the promi-
nence of information technology may introduce new
cyber-security vulnerabilities. Mitigating security risks
is among the most important research and development
smart grid activity.
3. High initial costs: High unsustainable costs of pilot pro-
grams can act as deterrents to acceptance and adoption
of smart grids. Cost burden sharing among jurisdictions
and potential beneficiaries can partially alleviate some
of these difficulties.
4. Fear of obsolesce: As many technology users (comput-
ers, smart phones, etc.) are painfully aware, the adoption
of new tools can open the door to new and additional
costs that may only be borne by the eventual consumer.
This fear can be addressed through the development of
interoperability standards and backward compatibility
of technologies.
5. Privacy: Insufficient oversight of how data are used in-
creases the risk of potential consumer privacy violations.
This concern needs to be addressed appropriately to gain
consumer acceptance and trust.
While much of the conversation concerning the smart grid
appears to be taking place between participants identified as
“stakeholders,” the role of the academy in educating, promot-
ing, and leading needs to be fully appreciated and nurtured.
As custodians to the educational programs of newer genera-
tions of engineers and scientists, academic programs need to
be re-examined and new interdisciplinary approaches devel-
oped to reflect the new paradigm shift away from the vertically
integrated business model to adopt and respond to the needs
and aspirations of the new models embraced by smart grid
thinking.
6. SMART DISTRIBUTION AND UTILIZATION
SYSTEMS
Given that the origins of many power system issues are typ-
ically based in the electrical distribution system, the point of
departure for grid enhancement and modernization is to be
found at the bottom of the supply chain. While the distribu-
tion system is a major part of the electric power system, it
comes as a surprise that there is not a corresponding apprecia-
ble level of embedded intelligence with the only information
available—that from the feeder at the substation. This makes
it difficult to optimize the operation of the distribution system
and to recreate and recover from abnormal events. Distribu-
tion automation (DA) was introduced in the 1970s and allowed
more integration into distribution systems. Adopting DA in
 El-Hawary: The Smart Grid—State-of-the-art and Future Trends
operation and control has been relatively slow because of the
large number of components, in turn requiring high capital
investment.
DA allows increased efficiency, reliability, and quality of
electric service. Moreover, it also facilitates more effective
utilization and life extension of existing distribution system
infrastructure. Advanced DA concepts promote automatic self-
configuration features, reducing outage times to a minimum
(self-healing grids). Distributed energy resources (DERs) in-
clude demand response (DR), renewable generation, storage,
and distributed generation (DG). DERs are able to create self-
contained cells (microgrids), which can in turn help to assure
energy supply in distribution grids even when the transmission
grid has a blackout [9].
Wakefield [10] discussed integrating DERs and some of
their functional requirements.
• Distributed intelligence: Systems that integrate DERs
need to possess high-speed data processing capability
and be able to make decisions locally through distributed
intelligence offered by low-cost embedded computing
facility.
• Visualization: This is a high-priority requirement to rec-
ognize available and controllable resources to maximize
economic and reliability benefits. Some visualization ca-
pabilities may be needed at the individual substation, to
a feeder, and even down to the individual resource.
• Forecasting and prediction: The ability to forecast and
predict the availability and performance of resources is
acknowledged as a key requirement. Forecasting is a
challenge because of the immaturity and low penetration
of DERs, which increases the uncertainty associated with
their performance.
• Interoperability: This requirement refers to the capabil-
ity of two or more networks, systems, devices, applica-
tions, or components to externally exchange and read-
ily use information securely and effectively. Integration
needs to follow agreed standards to meet the diverse cir-
cumstances and needs of all varying types of resources
considered.
• Integration challenging issues include the need for indus-
try consensus and maturity of new standards and cyber
security.
A distribution management system (DMS) is the counter-
part to the energy management system (EMS) and is therefore
the control center for the distribution grid. In systems where
outages are a frequent problem, an outage management system
(OMS) is an important component of the DMS. Other impor-
243
tant components are fault location and interfaces to geographic
information systems.
Automated metering infrastructure (AMI) places smart me-
ters in homes to measure and monitor electricity consump-
tion and production where appropriate. The goal for homes
is to take advantage of smart meters (electronic meters with
a communication link) to monitor energy consumption, on-
site grid-connected solar or wind generation, battery storage,
and electric (plug-in) vehicles. In addition, AMI allows re-
mote meter configuration, communicating dynamic tariffs,
power quality monitoring, and potential load control. AMI
fulfills the promise of SHs and smart appliances (SAs). SHs
are houses equipped with a home automation system that
interconnects a variety of controls, including lighting, secu-
rity, appliances, and other devices, in a common network
infrastructure that also allows it to become more energy ef-
ficient. SAs are appliances (i.e., thermostats, pool pumps,
clothes washers/dryers, water heaters, etc.) equipped with de-
vices that use wireless technology to receive real-time data
from the AMI system to control or modulate their operation.
The eventual goal is to integrate the metering infrastructure
with DA.
Building automation and control systems (BACSs) include
the instrumentation, control, and management technology for
all building structures, plant, outdoor facilities, and other
equipment capable of automation. Distribution feeders are to
be equipped with advanced power electronic switching devices
that control the system and sensors to measure flow of real and
reactive power, voltage, and current. The general idea is to im-
plement smart consumption infrastructure enabling DR, which
is located at the interface between distribution management
and building automation.
7. SMART GRID INITIATIVES, DEVELOPMENTS,
PLANS, AND EXAMPLE TECHNOLOGIES
7.1. Recent Advancements on Smart Grids in China [11]
Xu, Xue, and Wong from Hong Kong Polytechnic University,
China; State Grid Electric Power System Research Institute,
China; and University of Western Australia, Australia, respec-
tively, discuss China’s 12th Five-Year Plan (2011–2015) that
places smart grid development as a national priority for the
energy sector. China has experienced phenomenal economic
growth accompanied with an impressive increase of total en-
ergy use, which is still dominated by fossil-fuel-based thermal
power generation. The need for economic development and
environmental protection require an aggressive renewable en-
ergy policy with a vision to have renewable energy account for
15% of national primary energy consumption by 2020.
244 Electric Power Components and Systems, Vol. 42 (2014), No. 3–4
The State Grid Corporation of China (SGCC) established
the plan to implement smart power grids in China by 2020.
The second phase, between 2011 and 2015, involves compre-
hensive construction, where major breakthroughs in key tech-
nology and equipment for the smart grid should be achieved
to subsequently enable extensive application in the third
phase (2016–2020), involving upgrading and enhancing phase,
where the grid is optimized. That article offers an overview
of the Chinese electric power grid and the challenges encoun-
tered in system operation. Subsequently, that article deals with
governmental policy and strategy in support of development
and relevant pilot programs. Remaining gaps and additional
research needs for successfully implementing a strong and
smart grid strategy by the major utility SGCC are discussed
in their Section 3. That article reports on recent advances in
smart grids in China and concludes by discussing future scope
of work.
7.2. Smart Grid Initiatives in India [12]
Samantaray from Indian Institute of Technology Bhubaneswar,
India, reports that Indian smart grid initiatives are an emerg-
ing part of the energy policy of central and state governmen-
tal entities. The focus includes capacity increase to meet the
growing electricity demand, rural electrification, and optimiz-
ing electrical usage through load management and improving
operational efficiencies. The article reviews the jurisdictional
aspects of smart grid applications and the establishment of
the Indian smart grid with a fundamental emphasis on pri-
vate involvement in energy production/supply and unbundling
the power sector from total government control. High priori-
ties include advanced metering to reduce aggregate technical
and commercial losses, automation to monitor and control the
flow of power to/from the loads on an almost real-time basis,
improvement of system reliability, and intelligently managed
loads, congestion, and power shortfall.
Other organizations, such as the Smart grid Forum, con-
tribute to the smart grid vision of India on advisory basis, coor-
dinating with the Smart Grid Task Force. The combined work
effort of the two bodies is divided into the following work-
groups: advanced transmission, advanced distribution, com-
munications, metering, consumption and load control, policy
and regulation, and architecture and design. The author gives
further details of the smart grid plans and activities including
milestones.
7.3. Development of a Smart Grid Roadmap
for Kentucky [13]
This article by Liao, Turner, and Du from University of Ken-
tucky, USA; Purdue University, USA; and Mid American En-
ergy Company, USA, respectively, offers results of a recently
completed project aimed at developing a comprehensive smart
grid roadmap for the state of Kentucky (Kentucky smart), in-
cluding the methods and processes utilized and the achieved
roadmap plan. The authors begin by emphasizing the need to
perform studies to identify characteristics of the current grid,
identify key technologies that are needed, and propose a plan
for technology deployment in both the short and long term,
considering technological, societal, economical, and legisla-
tive aspects of deploying specific technologies.
Their Section 2 discusses the goals and tasks of the Ken-
tucky Smart Grid Roadmap Initiative (KSGRI). The KSGRI
includes six tasks to achieve the stated goals. Tasks 1 and
2 include evaluating conditions of electric transmission, and
distribution grids in Kentucky and identifying smart grid tech-
nologies applicable to transmission and distribution sectors,
respectively. Task 3 evaluates technologies to establish smart
grid facilities. Task 4 evaluates short-term and long-term tech-
nology compatibility. The estimation of a timeline for smart
grid technology deployment is the focus of Task 5, and Task
6 evaluates the necessary rate structures for smart grid imple-
mentation and legal barriers to smart grid deployment. Ques-
tionnaires, face-to-face meetings, workshops, and other com-
munication means were utilized to obtain needed information
from academic, electric utility, governmental, and stakeholder
representatives to complete the project.
Their Section 3 describes the current state of the Kentucky
power grid, including transmission and generation limitations
and constraints. Specific concerns regarding the implementa-
tion of smart grid programs include the need for cost recov-
ery and economic justification of programs, technical obsoles-
cence, and regulatory mandates. Section 4 presents a summary
of the “Kentucky Smart Grid Workshop Series,” held in 2012,
dealing with three topics:
1. technology, market, and policy factors with the greatest
impact on the development and modernization of the
Kentucky’s electric power systems;
2. the current state, optimal future state, and gap in be-
tween for Kentucky’s electric infrastructure in areas of
smart grid deployments and technology, applications,
and solutions, along with research and development,
that enable modernization of KY power grid; and
3. business models and regulatory approaches available to
electric utilities and government regulators to encour-
age grid modernization that will ensure equitable and
efficient regulatory and investment processes.
Barriers to smart grid deployments are discussed in their
Section 5. The roadmap developed for Kentucky smart grid
 El-Hawary: The Smart Grid—State-of-the-art and Future Trends 245

technology deployment is presented in Section 6, followed by role of communication and information technology, SAs, and
conclusions. energy storage systems. Section 6 speculates on conceptual
future developments, such as community energy storage using
rehabilitated EV batteries, trends in customer participation,
7.4. A Review of Active Management for Distribution and the idea of a virtual microgrid. The article includes a
Networks: Current Status and Future Development highly useful set of references.
Trends [14]
Zhao, Wang, Zhao, Lin, Zhou, and Wang from Wayne State 7.5. Smart Home Activities: A Literature Review [15]
University, USA; Zhejiang Electric Power Test and Research
Al-Sumaiti, Ahmed, and Salama from University of Waterloo,
Institute, China; and Chongqing University, China, respec-
Canada, review SH technologies, beginning with a discussion
tively, remind us that electric power distribution networks
of the goals of an SH EMS (SHEMS) and related definitions.
(DNs) convey power to end users, host DG sources and electric
The main objectives of an SH are to enhance home automation
vehicles (EVs), and are important in developing future smart
through improved communications, facilitate energy manage-
grids. In addition, the emergence of AMI and SAs has changed
ment by selecting efficient appliances and better consumer
DNs from passive to active. Meeting new challenges, next-
awareness, and reduce environmental emission by switching
generation DNs need active distribution management (ADM).
from fossil-fueled to renewable energy sources. The discussion
This article reviews recent development in ADM technologies
in their Section 1 deals with alternatives and recent proposals
and methods. The authors review three management frame-
to enable the three aspects of SHs.
works beginning with a centralized framework in which the
SHEMS allows the homeowner, utility, and others to mon-
voltage, power flow, and equipment status measurements at
itor, manage, and conserve energy, and their Section 2 starts
selected locations in the DN are sent to the DN central con-
by examining its definitions and elements. This is followed by
troller, which dispatches active and reactive power from DGs
a discussion of the goals of SHEMS from the point of view
as well as additional operation commands to enhance the op-
of a customer, a utility, society, the environment, and device
eration efficiency and keep the voltage and frequency within
manufacturers.
the prescribed safe range. The distributed nature of the DN
Section 3 deals with considerations affecting home energy
motivates the decentralized management framework, where
consumers and electricity bills, models needed for schedul-
equipment can be autonomous. The control decisions of local
ing an appliance, and reported studies related to appliance
controllers are based on local information or in coordination
scheduling, including such approaches as heuristic search,
with neighboring equipment. The potential for applying agent-
linear and mixed-integer non-linear programming, as well as
based coordination is also discussed. A third framework is that
neural networks, game theory, and others. The challenges as-
of the hybrid hierarchical management (HHM), which consists
sociated with SHEMSs and possible solutions are explored,
of several supervisory control layers.
and the energy factors contributing to a customer’s electricity
Their Section 3 deals with voltage and energy manage-
bill are discussed. Price schemes and the load models needed
ment approaches of active distribution networks (ADN) which
for solving related scheduling optimization problems are also
includes planning functions for optimal sizing and place-
presented. In addition, this article includes a review of the lit-
ment of capacitors and distributed generators and opera-
erature related to EMS scheduling with respect to its control,
tional dispatching approaches. A second category discussed
automation, and communication systems.
deals with active voltage management via distributed gen-
erators and active DC-link controllers. The concept of de-
7.6. A Brief Overview of Nanotechnology Applications
ploying DGs as voltage regulators is also explored. The
in Smart Power Grid [16]
impact of plug-in EVs (PEVs) on the DN performance
is discussed, noting the important role an ADM approach In their article, Abdelsalam and Abdelaziz from Kafrelsheikh
would play in enhancing the DN performance. The section University, Egypt; and Ain Shams University, Egypt, respec-
is concluded by a brief discussion of demand-side manage- tively, indicate that application of nanotechnology in electrical
ment and its potential to improve investment efficiency in energy production and storage is in the early stages of develop-
a DN. ment and research. They present a brief overview for the recent
In their Section 4, various distribution management tech- and expected advances in nanotechnology applications and
nologies, such as DA, AMI, fault location, automated reconfig- benefits in photovoltaic (PV) cells, wind turbines (WTs), fuel
uration, and VAR control, are discussed. Section 5 considers cells, PEVs, energy storage batteries and smart sensors, smart
emerging technologies, such as advanced power electronics, grid power electronics, computing, and communications.
246 Electric Power Components and Systems, Vol. 42 (2014), No. 3–4
8. RECENT RESEARCH ON SMART GRID TOPICS
8.1. Real-time Energy Control Approach for Smart
Home Energy Management System [17]
Zhou, Wu, Li, and Zhang from University of Birmingham,
UK, report on a home in which the appliances include an elec-
tric water heater (EWH), air conditioner (AC), clothes dryer
(CD), EV, PV cells, critical loads (CLs), and a battery system.
The authors propose a DR mechanism to allow households to
participate in DR services.
The half-hour-ahead control approach combines rolling op-
timization (RO) and a real-time control strategy (RTCS) to
achieve economic energy consumption to benefit the house-
hold and allow dealing with complex operating environments.
While RO can schedule energy consumption off the high price
periods based on forecast information, the RTCS can adjust
the real-time power for each appliance based on practical con-
siderations.
A fuzzy logic controller (FLC) is used to determine the
charging/discharging power level of the battery; proper rules
are proposed to ensure the benefits from operating the battery
under the real-time electricity price. Simulation test results
indicate that the proposed control approach can optimize the
schedule for home appliances and charging/discharging be-
havior of the battery even when the forecast information is
inaccurate. A physical test platform has also been built and
tested in the lab to support the operation of the whole system.
The authors caution that although the SH can participate in
DR services to shift loads off the peak load periods, new peak
load periods might appear. Further studies need to be carried
out about the outcome of different DR mechanisms.
8.2. Multi-stage Stochastic Optimal Operation
of Energy-efficient Building with Combined Heat
and Power System [18]
Liu, Fu, and Kargarian from Mississippi State University, USA
contend that to minimize the cost of energy use under uncer-
tainty, one needs to determine the building’s daily optimal
power production of all energy sources, including the elec-
tric grid, battery, and combined heat and power (CHP) with
a boiler unit, considering controllable electric and thermal
loads. They propose a hybrid approach combining multi-stage
mixed-integer stochastic programming and the rolling schedul-
ing method for the optimization task.
Taking into account the randomness of non-controllable
electric and thermal loads as well as solar power genera-
tions through the multi-stage scenario tree, the operation of
energy-efficient buildings will be more robust against changes
in uncertain variables. With information of uncertainties up-
dated hourly, the rolling scheduling method is introduced to
determine an adaptive power output of electric grid, charg-
ing/discharging status of the battery, and operation of the CHP
with a boiler unit. The concept of scenario reduction is intro-
duced to take into account the intermittent characteristics of
solar power generation and imprecise forecasting of electric
and thermal loads. To utilize the hourly updated information
of uncertainties, a rolling scheduling scheme is applied in the
proposed model. It is shown that CHP is effective in improv-
ing the overall thermal efficiency by coordinating the electric
and thermal power supplies. The numerical results demon-
strate that the multi-stage stochastic model is more adaptive
and practically relevant to the optimal operation of building
systems. The simulation results offer a set of adaptive decision
solutions within the scheduling horizon.
8.3. Energy Management and Control of Electric
Vehicle Charging Stations [19]
Li, Bao, Fu, and Zheng from University of Alabama, USA
study energy management and control aspects of an EV charg-
ing station, which consists of an AC/DC converter to interface
with the grid and a number of DC/DC converters that con-
trol EV charging/discharging. Properly managed, and due to
their distributed and mobile nature as well as their high charge
and discharge power demand, EV charging stations can con-
tribute to efficient use of renewable resources. For the grid-
side AC/DC converter, a direct-current control mechanism is
employed to control reactive power, AC system bus voltage,
and DC-link voltage. This technique has demonstrated supe-
rior performance for grid-to-vehicle (G2V) and vehicle-to-grid
(V2G) operations of the charging station.
On the other hand, for EV-side DC/DC converters, constant-
current and constant-voltage control mechanisms are used for
charging and discharging of simultaneous multiple EVs in a
dynamic price framework. The authors report on real-time
simulation results obtained under both steady and variable
charging and discharging conditions to evaluate how the EV
charging station can meet G2V, V2G, and vehicle-to-vehicle
charging and discharging requirements.
8.4. A Dual-loop Model Predictive Voltage
Control/Sliding-mode Current Control for Voltage
Source Inverter Operation in Smart Microgrids [20]
Abo-Al-Ez, Elaiw, and Xia from Mansoura University, Egypt;
University of Pretoria, South Africa; and King Abdulaziz Uni-
versity, Saudi Arabia, respectively, propose a dual-loop con-
troller for voltage frequency control of the voltage source in-
verter (VSI) in islanded microgrid. The outer loop is a voltage
controller designed using the model predictive control (MPC)
strategy to regulate microgrid voltage and frequency and
 El-Hawary: The Smart Grid—State-of-the-art and Future Trends
generate the reference inverter currents for the inner loop.
The inner loop is a fast response current controller designed
using a sliding-mode control strategy and generates the pulse-
width modulation (PWM) voltage commands to regulate the
VSI current under overload conditions. A standard space vec-
tor algorithm is used to realize the PWM voltage commands.
The controller is essential for reliable operation of DERs fol-
lowing islanding conditions. The proposed control strategy is
tested under different operating conditions.
8.5. A Joint Smart Generation Scheduling Approach for
Wind Thermal Pumped Storage Systems [21]
Yuan, Zhou, Zhang, and Li from North China Electric Power
University, China; and University of Birmingham, UK, respec-
tively, propose a two-stage generation scheduling approach for
minimizing operating costs of an electric power system with
mixed wind power, pumped storage, and thermal power re-
sources. In addition, the outcome accommodates uncertain
wind power as much as possible and evens out the output fluc-
tuations encountered thermal units while making the system
operate in a relatively reliable way. At the outset, a day-ahead
optimal thermal unit commitment (UC) and pumped storage
schedule are obtained. Subsequently, a real-time, pumped stor-
age schedule is updated to compensate for wind power fore-
casting error and therefore avoid curtailing wind power gener-
ation. A binary particle swarm optimization (PSO) algorithm
to solve the formulated problem is presented. Case studies are
presented on a ten-generator test system to validate the pro-
posed approach. The expected operating cost, net load demand,
and net load duration curve are used to evaluate the generation
schedule. The impact of different pumped storage sizes in the
system is also investigated.
8.6. Permutation-based Power System Restoration in
Smart Grid Considering Load Prioritization [22]
Hou, Xu, Dong, and Wong from Hong Kong Polytechnic Uni-
versity, China; University of Sydney, Australia; and University
of Western Australia, Australia, respectively, propose a new
model for power system restoration within an optimized flex-
ible duration considering available generator capability and
load prioritization. The model formulates the power system
restoration problem as a permutation-based combinatorial op-
timization problem to maximize the restored load per unit time;
this maximizes the restoration efficiency. A quantum inspired
differential evolutionary algorithm is applied to the problem
due to its fast convergence and enhanced high-population di-
versity. The outcome is a flexible system restoration plan that is
needed to improve reliability and efficiency. A flexible action-
by-action time schedule for generator startup and load pickup
considering load prioritization are obtained. The effectiveness
247
of the proposed restoration approach is tested using IEEE 39-
and 57-bus systems, respectively.
8.7. Robust Data Transmission upon Compressive
Sensing for Smart Grid [23]
Yan and Wu from North China Electric Power University,
China recognize that smart grid implementation requires
transmitting large sets of power system data. Loss of data
packets during transmission will clearly impact the quality of
the received data. The article proposes a robust data trans-
mission method using compressive sensing (CS), which re-
places the least squares method by an L1 norm and linear
programming reconstruct signals. The method is reviewed in
their Section 2. At the sending end, multi-scale discrete wavelet
transform (DWT) translates the data into the wavelet domain.
Then the wavelet coefficients are processed through threshold-
ing, and small wavelet coefficients are reset to zero. The DWT
coefficients are sampled by the CS algorithm, which are trans-
mitted in the communication channel. At the receiving end,
the CS sampled data are reconstructed to recover the wavelet
domain coefficients, and then wavelet inverse transforms are
applied to recover the power system signals. The authors report
that experiments show that the method has lower ratio distor-
tion error compared with direct data transmission. In addition,
the method is reported to combat packet transmission losses.
8.8. A Statistical Data-fusion-based Framework for
Wide-area Oscillation Monitoring [24]
Messina, Reyes, Moreno, and Pérez from the Center for Re-
search and Advanced Studies (Cinvestav) of the IPN, Mexico;
and University of Colima, Mexico, respectively, treat power
swing monitoring via a proposed multi-sensor multi-temporal
data-fusion approach. Data fusion is the process of combining
data from different sources (sensors or phasor measurement
units [PMUs]) to provide a complete description of an environ-
ment or process. The outcome is useful in analyzing and mon-
itoring wide-area signals obtained using synchronized PMUs
and, hence, in systematic assessment of wide-area stability. The
approach involves four steps: data acquisition and cleansing,
feature extraction, feature-level fusion, and decision support.
The method combines the ability of statistical methods to iden-
tify dominant structures in an ensemble of observations with
that of time frequency techniques to extract temporal features.
Exploratory data analyses demonstrate that the fusion of data
from multiple sensors can substantially increase the accuracy,
reliability, and precision of wide-area measurements. The pro-
posed approach is computationally simple while generalizing
conventional modal estimation to apply to fusing data col-
lected from multiple sensors. Methods to quantify the spatial
and temporal structure of critical modes are also described,
248 Electric Power Components and Systems, Vol. 42 (2014), No. 3–4
and key research directions in the area of data fusion are dis-
cussed. To conclude, the authors indicate several issues that
remain for further research.
8.9. Vulnerability Analysis of Satellite-based
Synchronized Smart Grids Monitoring Systems [25]
Vaccaro, Zobaa, and Formato from Universita degli studi del
Sannio, Benevento, Italy; Brunel University, UK; and Univer-
sita degli studi di Salerno, Fisciano, Italy, respectively, present
the results of an experimental analysis to characterize the po-
tential attack scenarios and main vulnerabilities of a global
positioning system (GPS)-based wide-area monitoring sys-
tems (WAMS) to external cyber-attacks and external interfer-
ences, such as jamming signals. The correct operation of these
synchronized WAMS requires a common and accurate timing
reference usually provided by equipping the remote PMUs by
a satellite-based synchronization system. Although the timing
accuracy easily exceeds the needs of the power industry, they
are extremely vulnerable to radio frequency interference. Jam-
ming signals with specific combinations of frequency, power,
and shape can lead the PMU to lose its synchronization. In
this case, if not properly managed, the correct operation of the
overall WAMS may be compromised.
The article outlines potential strategies to be adopted to
protect GPS receivers from external cyber-attacks and pro-
poses decentralized defense strategies based on self-organizing
sensor networks aimed at assuring the correct time synchro-
nization in the presence of external attacks. Deploying decen-
tralized and self-healing synchronization architectures based
on cooperative sensor networks represents one of the most
promising research directions to reduce this vulnerability to
external cyber-attacks. Moreover, to avoid or mitigate this risk,
it is necessary to adopt suitable strategies aimed at raising the
power levels required by the jammer signal to compromise the
correct system operation. This requirement makes the attack
too expensive, unsustainable in terms of the power required,
and easily detectable and thus readily intercepted.
8.10. Stability Concerns in Smart Grid with Emerging
Renewable Energy Technologies [26]
Gopakumar, Bharata Reddy, and Mohanta from National Insti-
tute of Technology, Tiruchirappalli, India; and Birla Institute
of Technology, India, respectively, discuss stability concerns
in smart grids with significant renewable energy DG sources
to meet day-to-day load demand. The diverse characteristics
of renewable-energy-based DG technologies compared to con-
ventional power plants have led to many technical challenges,
including operational stability concerns requiring real-time co-
ordinated control strategies for both conventional as well as
renewable energy sources. The issues discussed include lower
angular stability due to lower overall system inertia, lower
voltage stability due to lower power sharing support, low-
frequency power oscillations, worsening of smart grid tran-
sient profile during microgrid islanding, and the inability to
serve as system reserve.
9. SAMPLE FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS
To successfully implement the smart grid requires careful at-
tention to the multitude of new needs for applied research. A
few examples are now given.
Optimal sizing and placement of distribution system re-
sources. There is a wealth of literature dealing with optimal
sizing and placement of capacitors, compensators, DG, and
harmonic filters treated separately. The smart grid requires
integrated solutions to well-formulated problems that reflect
facts on the ground where all such devices are to coexist to
achieve smart grid goals of efficiency through loss mini-
mization and high-quality power delivered to the ultimate
user.
Optimal predictor-corrector resource dispatching. Han-
dling distributed resources, stochastic demand, and optimal
response to smart loads is at the core of smart grid goals.
Most current literature decouples the forecasting functions
from the resource optimization. There is a school of thought
that recognizes that for the smart grid to gain acceptance,
realistic dispatching results are needed. In this regard, the
need exists for new formulations that combine the predic-
tion and optimization functions while looking for optimal
modes of operation.
Integrated forecasting suites. Load and generation forecasts
are intricately entwined to varying degrees of complexity.
Formulations and solutions are required to allow for new
realistic decision making.
Optimal adaptive reconfiguration of DNs. The current liter-
ature formulates reconfiguration problems in isolation from
the potential undesirable consequences. Here again, there is
a need for a post-reconfiguration module (or add-on mod-
ule) to ensure acceptable results.
DN state estimation and observability. Measuring and mon-
itoring of the vital variables throughout the electric power
network is enabled by sensors that are strategically placed
throughout the various levels of system. These tools are a
prerequisite for a smart grid capable of assessing its health in
real time, predicting its behavior, and adapting to new situ-
ations and environments. The placement of instrumentation
throughout the grid must be done to allow observability to
support advances in system operation and control. Practi-
cal affordable sensing and monitoring at the distribution
 El-Hawary: The Smart Grid—State-of-the-art and Future Trends
level requires careful attention to network observability and
high-speed state predictors so as to initiate new defensive
strategies.
Integrating static and dynamic storage resources in dis-
patch. Conventional static storage facilities are familiar
to the power system specialist. New territories are opened
through the advent of customer-based storage capabilities.
This is true because of the stochastic nature and intermit-
tency of the utilization patterns of EVs, residential thermal
storage, and cooling
10. CONCLUSIONS
This article offers commentaries on the smart grid and some
of its aspects before summarizing the articles included in this
special publication, followed by a non-exhaustive sample of
new research directions as perceived by this author.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author would like to offer special thanks to Editor-in-
Chief Dan M. Ionel for organizing this issue and to all our
contributing editors for their efforts.
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BIOGRAPHY
Mohamed E. El-Hawary is Professor of Electrical and Com-
puter Engineering at Dalhousie University. He received his
Bachelor’s from University of Alexandria, and Ph.D. degree
from the University of Alberta, all in EE. He served on fac-
ulty at Memorial University of Newfoundland, COPPE at the
Federal University of Rio de Janiero and the University of
Alexandria. He was Associate Dean of Undergraduate Studies
for twelve years and Chair of the Academic Senate of Dal-
housie University for six years. His work in computational
solutions for economic operation of power systems includ-
ing hydro-thermal systems, and applying computational in-
telligence techniques to power system operational problems
is frequently referred to by users, and is documented in ten
textbooks and research monographs and more than 300 re-
search articles. He is Consulting Editor, Electric Power Com-
ponents and Systems Journal, IEEE Press Power Engineering
Series Editor, and Founding Editor, Power Letters of PES. He
is Editor, Electrical Power Engineering, McGraw-Hill Ency-
clopedia of Science and Technology. He is a Fellow of IEEE,
Canadian Academy of Engineering, Engineers Canada, and the
Engineering Institute of Canada. His research interests cover
renewable energy engineering, system and distribution studies
of smart grid, and applied computational intelligence.