Let us begin!

Big Picture

Week 1-3: Unit Learning Outcomes (ULO): At the end of the unit, you are expected to

a. Provide concrete examples and evidences on the nature of literature through analysis and critics;

Big Picture in Focus: ULOa. Provide concrete examples and evidences on the nature
of literature through analysis and critics.

Metalanguage

In this section, the most essential terms relevant to the study of literary criticism and to
demonstrate ULOa will be operationally defined to establish a common frame of reference as to how the
texts work in your chosen field or career. You will encounter these terms as we go through the study of
literature. Please refer to these definitions in case you will encounter difficulty in the in understanding
educational concepts.

A literary device is any specific aspect of literature, or a particular work, which we can recognize, identify,
interpret and/or analyze. Both literary elements and literary techniques can rightly be called literary
devices.

Literary techniques are specific, deliberate constructions of language which an author uses to convey
meaning. An author‘s use of a literary technique usually occurs with a single word or phrase, or a
particular group of words or phrases, at one single point in a text. Unlike literary elements, literary
techniques are not necessarily present in every text.

Essential Knowledge

To perform the aforesaid big picture (unit learning outcomes) for the first three (3) weeks of the
course, you need to fully understand the following essential knowledge that will be laid down in the
succeeding pages. Please note that you are not limited to exclusively refer to the resources. Thus, you
are expected to utilize other books, research articles and other resources that are available in the
university‘s library e.g. e-library, search.proquest.com etc.

CHAPTER 1- INTRODUCTION: THINKING ABOUT LITERATURE

What is Literature?

Literature, a body of written works. The name has traditionally been applied to those imaginative works
of poetry and prose distinguished by the intentions of their authors and the perceived aesthetic
excellence of their execution. Literature may be classified according to a variety of systems, including
language, national origin, historical period, genre, and subject matter.

The Scope of Literature

Literature is a form of human expression. But not everything expressed in words—even when organized
and written down—is counted as literature. Those writings that are primarily informative—technical,
scholarly, journalistic—would be excluded from the rank of literature by most, though not all, critics.
Certain forms of writing, however, are universally regarded as belonging to literature as an art. Individual
attempts within these forms are said to succeed if they possess something called artistic merit and to fail
if they do not. The nature of artistic merit is less easy to define than to recognize. The writer need not
even pursue it to attain it. On the contrary, a scientific exposition might be of great literary value and a
pedestrian poem of none at all.
LITERARY COMPOSITION

Western
If the early Egyptians or Sumerians had critical theories about the writing of literature, these have not
survived. From the time of Classical Greece until the present day, however, Western criticism has been
dominated by two opposing theories of the literary art, which might conveniently be called the expressive
and constructive theories of composition.

The Greek philosopher and scholar Aristotle is the first great representative of the constructive school of
thought. His Poetics (the surviving fragment of which is limited to an analysis of tragedy and epic poetry)
has sometimes been dismissed as a recipe book for the writing of potboilers. Certainly, Aristotle is
primarily interested in the theoretical construction of tragedy, much as an architect might analyze the
construction of a temple, but he is not exclusively objective and matter of fact. He does, however, regard
the expressive elements in literature as of secondary importance, and the terms he uses to describe
them have been open to interpretation and a matter of controversy ever since.

Thus, at the beginning of Western literary criticism, the controversy already exists. Is the artist or writer a
technician, like a cook or an engineer, who designs and constructs a sort of machine that will
elicit an aesthetic response from his audience? Or is he a virtuoso who above all else expresses himself
and, because he gives voice to the deepest realities of his own personality, generates a response from
his readers because they admit some profound identification with him?

This antithesis endures throughout western European history-

Scholasticism versus Humanism, Classicism versus Romanticism, Cubism versus Expressionism—and
survives to this day in the common judgment of our contemporary artists and writers. It is surprising how
few critics have declared that the antithesis is unreal, that a work of literary or plastic art is at once
constructive and expressive, and that it must in fact be both.

Eastern
Critical theories of literature in Asian cultures, however, have been more varied. There is an immense
amount of highly technical, critical literature in India. Some works are recipe books, vast collections of
tropes and stylistic devices; others are philosophical and general. In the best period of Indian
literature, the cultural climax of Sanskrit (c. 320–490), it is assumed by writers that expressive and
constructive factors are twin aspects of one reality. The same could be said of the Chinese, whose
literary manuals and books on prosody and rhetoric are, as with the West, relegated to the class of
technical handbooks, while their literary criticism is concerned rather with subjective, expressive factors
—and so aligns itself with the pseudo- Longinus‘ ―sublime.‖ In Japan, technical, stylistic
elements are certainly important (Japanese discrimination in these matters is perhaps the most
refined in the world), but both writer and reader above all seek qualities of subtlety and poignancy and
look for intimations of profundity often so evanescent as to escape entirely the uninitiated reader.

ANALYSIS, CLASSICS, AND THE LITERARY CANON

Literary Analysis
Purpose
The purpose of a literary analysis essay is to carefully examine and sometimes evaluate a work of
literature or an aspect of a work of literature. As with any analysis, this requires you to break the subject
down into its component parts. Examining the different elements of a piece of literature is not an end in
itself but rather a process to help you better appreciate and understand the work of literature as a whole.

For instance, an analysis of a poem might deal with the different types of images in a poem or with the
relationship between the form and content of the work. If you were to analyze (discuss and explain) a
play, you might analyze the relationship between a subplot and the main plot, or you might analyze the
character flaw of the tragic hero by tracing how it is revealed through the acts of the play. Analyzing a
short story might include identifying a particular theme (like the difficulty of making the transition
from adolescence to
 adulthood) and showing how the writer suggests that theme through the point of view from which the
story is told; or you might also explain how the main character‘s attitude toward women is revealed
through his dialogue and/or actions.

THE ELEMENTS OF A SOLID ESSAY

The Thesis Statement
The thesis statement tells your reader what to expect: it is a restricted, precisely worded declarative
sentence that states the purpose of your essay -- the point you are trying to make. Without a carefully
conceived thesis, an essay has no chance of success. Typically, the thesis statement falls at the end of
your introductory paragraph.

Examples:
Gwendolyn Brooks‟s 1960 poem ―The Ballad of Rudolph Reed‖ demonstrates how the poet uses
the conventional poetic form of the ballad to treat the unconventional poetic subject of racial intolerance.

The fate of the main characters in Antigone illustrates the danger of excessive pride.

The imagery in Dylan Thomas‟s poem ―Fern Hill‖ reveals the ambiguity of humans‟ relationship with nature.

The Introduction
The introduction to your literary analysis essay should try to capture your reader‟s interest. To bring
immediate focus to your subject, you may want to use a quotation, a provocative question, a brief
anecdote, a startling statement, or a combination of these. You may also want to include background
information relevant to your thesis and necessary for the reader to understand the position you are
taking. In addition, you need to include the title of the work of literature and name of the author.

Example:
What would one expect to be the personality of a man who has his wife sent away to a convent (or
perhaps has had her murdered) because she took too much pleasure in the sunset and in a compliment
paid to her by another man? It is just such a man—a Renaissance duke—who Robert Browning portrays
in his poem ―My Last Duchess.‖ A character analysis of the Duke reveals that through his internal
dialogue, his interpretation of earlier incidents, and his actions, his traits—arrogance, jealousy, and
greediness—emerge.

The Body of the Essay and the Importance of Topic Sentences

The term regularly used for the development of the central idea of a literary analysis essay is the body. In
this section you present the paragraphs (at least 3 paragraphs for a 500-750 word essay) that support
your thesis statement. Good literary analysis essays contain an explanation of your ideas and evidence
from the text (short story, poem, play) that supports those ideas. Textual evidence consists of summary,
paraphrase, specific details, and direct quotations.

Each paragraph should contain a topic sentence (usually the first sentence of the paragraph) which
states one of the topics associated with your thesis, combined with some assertion about how the topic
will support the central idea. The purpose of the topic sentence is twofold:

1. To relate the details of the paragraph to your thesis statement

2. To tie the details of the paragraph together

The substance of each of your developmental paragraphs (the body of your essay) will be the
explanations, summaries, paraphrases, specific details, and direct quotations you need to support and
develop the more general statement you have made in your topic sentence.

Example:
TOPIC SENTENCE Sammy's descriptions of the A & P present a setting that is ugly, monotonous,
and rigidly regulated. The chain store is a common fixture in modern society, so the reader can identify
with the uniformity Sammy describes.
EXPLANATIONS AND TEXTUAL EVIDENCE
The fluorescent light is as blandly cool as the "checkerboard green-and-cream rubber tile floor" (486).
The "usual traffic in the store moves in one direction (except for the swim suited girls, who move against
it), and everything is neatly organized and categorized in tidy aisles. The dehumanizing routine of this
environment is suggested by Sammy's offhand references to the typical shoppers as "sheep," "house
slaves," and "pigs‖ (486). These regular customers seem to walk through the store in a stupor; as
Sammy indicates, not even dynamite could move them out of their routine (485).

The Conclusion
Your literary analysis essay should have a concluding paragraph that gives your essay a sense of
completeness and lets your readers know that they have come to the end of your paper. Your concluding
paragraph might restate the thesis in different words, summarize the main points you have made, or
make a relevant comment about the literary work you are analyzing, but from a different perspective. Do
not introduce a new topic in your conclusion.

Example:
If the Duke has any redeeming qualities, they fail to appear in the poem. Browning's emphasis on the
Duke's traits of arrogance, jealousy, and materialism make it apparent that anyone who might have
known the Duke personally would have based his opinion of him on these three personality "flaws."
Ultimately, the reader‟s opinion of the Duke is not a favorable one, and it is clear that Browning intended
that the reader feel this way.

The Title of Your Essay

It is essential that you give your essay a title that is descriptive of the approach you are taking in your
paper. Just as you did in your introductory paragraph, try to get the reader's attention.

Audience
Consider the reader for whom you are writing your essay. Imagine you are writing for not only your
professor but also the other students in your class who have about as much education as you do. They
have read the assigned work just as you have, but perhaps they have not thought about it in exactly the
same way. In other words, it is not necessary to "retell" the work of literature in any way. Rather, it is your
role to be the explainer or interpreter of the work—to tell what certain elements of the work mean in
relation to your central idea (thesis). When you make references to the text of the short story, poem, or
play, you are doing so to remind your audience of something they already know. The principle emphasis
of your essay is to draw conclusions and develop arguments. Be sure to avoid plot summary.

Using Textual Evidence

The skillful use of textual evidence -- summary, paraphrase, specific detail, and direct quotations -- can
illustrate and support the ideas you are developing in your essay. However, textual evidence should be
used judiciously and only when it directly relates to your topic. The correct and effective use of textual
evidence is vital to the successful literary analysis essay.

Summary
If a key event or series of events in the literary work support a point you are trying to make, you may
want to include a brief summary, making sure that you show the relevance of the event or events by
explicitly connecting your summary to your point.

Paraphrase
You can make use of paraphrase when you need the details of the original, but not necessarily the
words of the original: paraphrase to put someone else's words into your own words.

Specific Detail
Various types of details from the text lend concrete support to the development of the central idea of your
literary analysis essay. These details add credibility to the point you are developing
Using Direct Quotations
Quotations can illuminate and support the ideas you are trying to develop. A judicious use of quoted
material will make your points clearer and more convincing. As with all the textual evidence you use,
make sure you explain how the evidence is relevant—let the reader know why the quotes you cite are
significant to your argument.

READERS, AUTHORS, AND MEANINGS

Reader – a person who reads.

Types of Readers Literary

Snobs
They are interested in ‗sophisticated‘ literature.

Series Fanatics
They are more interested in a particular book

Book Juggler
They are the ones who read multiple books simultaneously

‘Physical Books’ only

They are the ones who have a lot of book collection on their shelves but never read them actually

Nonfiction enthusiast
These readers prefer to read facts

Re-readers
They are the ones who love reading the books again after reading.

Fiction lovers
They are the ones who absolutely love fiction

Tacit readers
Tacit readers and learners lack awareness of how they think when reading. These readers lack
understanding of the concept and take longer to fully grasp what they are learning.

Aware readers
Are readers who realize when the meaning was broken down but do not know how to fix the problem.

Strategic readers
Are the people who use the abilities needed to fix the problem. These readers are good readers and they
understand what they are doing but also they want to improve as readers to reach the next level which is
reflective.

Reflective readers
They are very strategic about their work and use multiple strategies for their reading. They reflect about
what they are thinking about and use the experience to modify future strategies.

Author
Author, one who is the source of some form of intellectual or creative work; especially, one who
composes a book, article, poem, play, or other literary work intended for publication. Usually a distinction
is made between an author and others (such as a compiler, an editor, or a translator) who assemble,
organize, or manipulate literary materials. Sometimes, however, the title of author is given to one who
compiles material (as for publication) in such a way that the finished compilation can be regarded as a
relatively original work. The word is ultimately from the Latin auctor, ―authorizer, responsible agent,
originator, or maker.‖
CHAPTER 2- CLOSE READING: WORDS AND FORMS
Close reading is thoughtful, critical analysis of a text that focuses on significant details or patterns in
order to develop a deep, precise understanding of the text‘s form, craft, meanings, etc. It is a key
requirement of the Common Core State Standards and directs the reader‘s attention to the text itself.

Close reading includes:

• Using short passages and excerpts
• Diving right into the text with limited pre-reading activities
• Focusing on the text itself
• Rereading deliberately
• Reading with a pencil
• Noticing things that are confusing
• Discussing the text with others
o Think-Pair Share or Turn and Talk frequently
o Small groups and whole class
• Responding to text-dependent questions

Selecting a Text Not every text is appropriate for students to read closely. For example, while students
enjoy reading Diary of a Wimpy Kid books, these novels offer simple story lines and vocabulary that are
easily understandable. When you are done reading them, they don‘t leave you pondering deep ideas.
Close reading should leave you considering thought-provoking messages that go beyond the text. Close
read-worthy texts include enough complex ideas worthy of exploring and discussing to sustain one or
more days of instruction. According to Tim Shanahan, close reading is a multiday commitment to a text;
you want students to read a text that offers rich enough vocabulary, ideas, and information to read,
examine, and discuss over those days without feeling like you‘re beating a dead horse.

Questions to consider:
Qualitative
Does this text offer ideas or information that further students understanding of the topic?
Does the text include a text structure that …
Does the text follow familiar language conventions—sentence structures, word choices, etc.?
What background knowledge do my students need to have to be successful with this text?

Quantitative
Is this text on an appropriate readability level for the students in my group? How can I scaffold my
students to ensure their success with this text?
The primary leveling tool used by the Common Core is Lexile. For more information or to find the lexile of
a text, visit Lexile.com.

Reader and Task Considerations

How much prior knowledge do my students have about this topic?
How interested are they?
What will be difficult for my students in reading this passage?

WHAT MAKES TEXT COMPLEX?

Close reading should occur with appropriately complex text. There are a number of factors that contribute
to text complexity. Teachers should differentiate, or vary, how they approach a text with students
depending on the text complexity and students‘ needs.

Vocabulary
• Academic and domain-specific terms
• Tier 2 vocabulary: high utility complex words that can be used in multiple contexts
Syntax
 ♣ Coherence—Are the events and concepts logically connected and clearly explained?
♣ Unity—Do the ideas focus on the topic and not include irrelevant or distracting information?
♣ Audience appropriateness—Does the text match the background knowledge of the target reader?

Text structures
♣ Description
♣ Compare and Contrast
♣ Temporal Sequence
♣ Cause and Effect
♣ Problem and Solution

Text features
♣ Headings/subheadings
♣ Signal words

STEPS IN CLOSE READING

There is no specific sequence in a close read; these steps are meant to generally guide you in crafting a
lesson that scaffolds students and focuses on increasingly complex text dependent questions. Begin with
questions about the big ideas in the text and gradually ask higher level questions.
1. FIRST READ:
KEY IDEAS AND DETAILS - Set the purpose for reading and have students read text as
independently as possible. Depending on the text complexity and the readers, the first read may
be done independently, as a read aloud/think aloud, or paired or shared reading. The first read
should be without building background; students should be integrating their background
knowledge with the text as they read. Focus on the key ideas and details in the text, making sure
that readers know the main idea, story elements, or key details that the author includes.
2. SECOND READ:
CRAFT AND STRUCTURE - For a second, close read, select a portion or chunk of the text that is
―close read worthy.‖ That is, have students reread a section that includes complex elements or
ideas that they should explore to arrive at a deep understanding of the text. After rereading,
students discuss the text with partners or in small groups, focusing on the author‘s craft and
organizational patterns. This may include vocabulary choices, text structure or text features that
they author included.
3. THIRD READ:
INTEGRATION OF KNOWLEDGE AND IDEAS - The third close reading of a text should go even
deeper, requiring students to synthesize and analyze information from several texts or media.
They may record their ideas on sticky notes, graphic organizer, or a thinking sheet.

SCAFFOLDING STUDENTS IN CLOSE READING

While the goal for students is to read complex texts independently, not all students will be able to achieve
that immediately. Scaffolding instruction is a model in which the teacher supports students and gradually
releases responsibility to the student. Pearson and Gallagher (1983) coined this term based on the
1970‘s work of Vygotsky. A key model in scaffolding instruction is the Gradual Release of Responsibility.
In this model, the teacher begins by modeling, offering students the highest level of support. As
instruction continues and the teacher monitors students‘ learning progress, he/she gradually releases
responsibility to the students, guiding students‘ progress and eventually observing as they practice the
skill independently (Pearson and Gallagher, 1983).

Shared reading Interactive

read aloud
Comprehension Toolkit lessons QAR
Literature circles
Questioning the author
Reciprocal teaching
Connecting to themes/essential questions
Post-its
Think sheets Jigsaws
ANIMAL, VEGETABLE, OR MINERAL: WHY GENRE MATTERS
Genre, (French: ―kind‖ or ―sort‖) a distinctive type or category of literary composition, such as
the epic, tragedy, comedy, novel, and short story.

Animals are commonly found in the backdrop of works of literature, serving as props or setting or, on the
rare occasion, as plot point. Even rarer still are the occasions when an animal is the focus of a piece of
literature,
the main character and the crux more than the catalyst of a novel or short
story‘s plot. In modern times, an animal main character seems silly,
childish; animals are only allowed to be main characters without question
in picture books.
The significance of animals in literature allows the writer to reinforce
common themes that are fundamental to written works. Certain animals
are routinely used to express various themes and specific symbols

The representation of animals in literature has a long and venerable history. Animal characters are a
defining feature of the fable, one of the oldest and most popular narrative genres, and continue to figure
prominently in contemporary fantastic literature. Western poetry is almost unimaginable without animal
metaphors and animal imagery. Even realistic fiction relies on animals to achieve a wide range of
rhetorical effects, ranging from pathos, to bathos, and including the commonplace. Indeed, it is perhaps
this ubiquity and familiarity that is responsible for the dearth of scholarship on the representation of
animals in literature.

In today‘s social, political, and cultural context, it seems particularly urgent to put the question of the
animal on the agenda. Steven Connors has recently noted that ―the unignorability of ecological issues
and the rise of environmental criticism across the disciplines of the humanities are bringing the question
of animal to a new prominence‖

Much has been written, of course, on the symbolic use of animals in literature but this body of scholarship
does not address ―the question of the animal,‖ as will become clear in the ensuing discussion. 6
Bolongaro:0Syrimis 2/12/10 4:04 PM Page 105 EUGENIO BOLONGARO — 106 — encouraging. The
western philosophical tradition has been remarkably uninterested in developing a sustained reflection on
animals which, as Agamben (2002) notes, are typically mobilized merely to provide a foil for a definition
of what is essential about being human. Even when the turn to ethics in the 1990s resulted in an
obsessive preoccupation with alterity, the end of the human, the emergence of the inhuman and the post-
human, Western thinkers remained by and large ―single-mindedly uninterested in the proximate
otherness represented by the animal‖ (Connors 2007, 578). There are, however, some notable
exceptions to this rather puzzling lack of interest in the question of the animal. Among the contemporary
interventions, Connors notes the contribution to ethical philosophy by the ―animal rights‖ theorists such
as Peter Singer (1989), and is especially impressed by the late work of Jacques Derrida (2006) which in
Connor‘s view bridges the gap between the especially insensitive continental tradition and the somewhat
more receptive Anglo-American philosophers. The fundamental link between Singer and Derrida is that
they both consider the question of the animal central to the overcoming of the fallacies of ―speciesism‖
and anthropocentrism in human thought and practice

ANALYZING LANGUAGE:
What is the language analysis?
In simple words, Language Analysis means to understand what a writer is saying in his piece of writing
like an essay or an article. Analysis refers to how a writer is conveying his ideas through language
techniques, such as figures of speech, sentence structure, tone, word choice, etc. The analysis of
language is what you call as ―Language Analysis.‖ You have to study the article or an essay or
whatever text piece you have, very carefully and hence, identify each component in it. You might get to
write a language analysis assignment. So, not to worry, I will surely discuss all the aspects of language in
this article to help you analyze things better.

ELEMENTS IN LANGUAGE ANALYSIS

1. Author- First of all, identify who wrote that writing piece? Get to know the Author. According to me,
 we also develop that curiosity that who might have written the article? So, before moving on
ahead with the analysis, you note down the name of its Author. Sometimes, it also gives an
impression in mind
2. Text type- You should know what type of writing piece you are about to study. Is it an opinion
column, speech, a letter or an editorial
3. Publication- Check, from where did the write-up got published
4. Audience- You need to check, for what kind of audience is that write-up going to be published?
How will the audience react after reading it? Is the write-up appealing enough? You need to check
all this.
5. Contention- It means, what is the main point of view which the author is trying to convey in
his write-up.
6. Arguments supporting contention- Find out whether the arguments made are negative or positive.
Both can be used by an Author. Arguments influence the contention of a write-up.
7. Title- It is the most important part of a write-up piece. The audience tends to bend towards
winning titles. But, the titles should relate to the content. You have to check how is the title
engaging and persuasive?
8. Persuasive techniques- Find out the persuasive techniques that the author has put in his work. Find
out, whether those techniques are used throughout the entire write-up or in just a few sections?
9. Visuals- Pictures or videos or other visual items are essential to emphasize things which you
write in your write-up piece. Now, you need to check whether those visuals are complimenting the
author‘s contention or not? A good write-up will always have matching and strong visuals
supporting the content in the write-up.
10. Tone- It is the attitude of the author with which he expresses his write-up. The tone may change
or remain the same throughout the write-up. The tone is expressed by the use of syntax, the point
of view, diction and the level of formality in the write-up. So, you need to check the tone of the
Author

Language Analysis Techniques

Language analysis is a very useful skill in succeeding in many academic courses is necessary.

To Understand The Format

• First, you need to understand the purpose of language analysis. Once, you understand the need
then you are good to go.
• Now, you need to understand the methodology of language analysis. You must get familiarized
with different kinds of rhetorical devices and persuasive techniques used by writers.
• Next is to understand the desired outcome of language analysis.

Identify Rhetorical Language Use

• Understand this situation. It is important that you understand all of the factors in the current
situation which are surrounding the text you are analyzing.
• Be attentive towards word choice. See which word means what? If the author says that ―ended.‖
This word means something has ended or finished. It‘s up to you to find out the real meaning of
the word used.
• Entertain the arguments made by the writer in the text you have.
• See logical implementations in the text. That helps in giving you a proper understanding of
the Author‘s style.
• Check out the metaphors. I have already discussed above in language analysis features,
about metaphors.
• Bring out analogies. These are comparisons done between two things that intend to help the
reader understand a situation or an event.

Write Your Analysis

• Finalize a thesis statement.
• Avoid the thesis which is generally taught to beginner writers as that is a standard three-part thesis.
• Prepare a brief introduction for your thesis. A good introduction gives an amazing start.
• Now, write the body of the paper. Only present information that supports your thesis. Try to talk
point
 by point and with many clear motives.
• Finally, write a conclusion which summarizes your thesis.

Revise And Apply Final Touches

• Go through the whole essay of language analysis. Create a catchy title for your write-up.
• Revise your essay once and twice to make sure of no errors.
• Check on grammar issues.
• Finally, check for problems with quote incorporation or with formatting.

Alliteration
When you use words that have the same letter and same sound at the beginning of their pronunciation
like,
―Betty bought better butter,‖ is what you call as alliteration. It‘s a poetic device to make a chain of words
which start with the same consonant sound. There should be no heavy alliteration used in the whole
write-up, as sometimes it makes the write-up blur or might get you off the track too.

Simile
Another important feature of language analysis is the usage of Simile in the write-up. Simile is a
comparison made of one thing with the another. Example: ―He ran as fast as a Cheetah on the ground.‖
Now here, the man is being compared to a fast running Cheetah because that man may be running too
fast. So, the man was compared to a Cheetah, and thus this is where simile comes in.

Onomatopoeia
It literary means, ―the sound I make.‖ What I want to say is that Onomatopoeia is words which give the
feel of a sound being made like, ―splash, spray, sprinkle, drizzle, bang, etc.‖ We can easily feel the
sound when we pronounce these words. For example, ―He banged the door and left.‖ Here, banged
gave us the indication that the door got closed very hitting hard. So, such words give us the indication of
the activity which happens at that moment. We can visualize easily.

Metaphor
It is again one of the interesting features of language analysis. Metaphors are words which describe a
situation regarding something else. It‘s kind of indirect comparison. Metaphor shows that one thing is
another thing. Example: ―This girl is on fire.‖ Now, this metaphor doesn‘t mean that the girl has been
caught in a fire, rather it means that the girl is doing brilliantly in some activity.

Personification
It is a comparison where a non-human thing is described in terms of
human. Example: ―The last piece of the blueberry cheesecake, called my name.‖ So, blueberry
cheesecake is not a human being which is calling me, but I have personified it, and thus it is described as
if it‘s really calling me.

LANGUAGE ANALYSIS FEATURES

Vocabulary
You need to identify what kind of words, is the author using in his write-up and why? You need to
understand how the author is playing with words?
• A poet might use words in the exact way they sound or in a different way (assonance), playing
with initial letters of the words. This is for different effects in the write-up.
• Writers may use verbs depicting motion when they want to show some kind of emergency
like running or something else.
• An author may also use symbolic characters and place names to make his writeup more
interesting.

Syntax
You have to give attention to how authors use punctuation and sentence structure. They are either used
in a usual manner or an unusual manner. This trick is used to create effects at different points in a poem
or novel. The author might use the following tricks to play with language.
• No punctuation used
 • Heavy or short punctuated sentences
• The author might use simple and folktale narrative language
• Long lines which are not punctuated

Perspective
You need to check the point of view that the author is keeping in his writing. He might be talking in
perspective of the second person or the third person. What he is trying to portray, this you need to find
out. What perspective is the poet or the author trying to put in.

Grammar
Sometimes, writers use incorrect grammar but, that is not because they are not good at it, rather they
use it deliberately. It is because the writers have their own style of writing and it‘s up to them that how
they want to use words in their write up. You have to check this out whether, the writer has used the
incorrect grammar deliberately or whether it was a mistake? Try to consider the effects of tenses and the
rhetorical effects.

Imagery
You need to find out what kind of picture is the writer trying to make through his writing. The words can
also connect things. The write-up may be a mix up of many colours being involved which symbolize
something. Then comes nature/landscape/geography. You need to be sure that what feelings the writer
has. Focus on the examples that the writer has given. This puts more impact on the reader‘s mind.

How to Analyze a Text?

1. Read or reread the text with specific questions in mind.
2. Marshal basic ideas, events and names. Depending on the complexity of book, this
requires additional review of the text.
3. Think through your personal reaction to the book: identification, enjoyment, significance,
application.
4. Identify and consider most important ideas (importance will depend on context of class,
assignment, study guide).
5. Return to the text to locate specific evidence and passages related to the major ideas
6. Use your knowledge following the principles of analyzing a passage described below: test,
essay, research, presentation, discussion, enjoyment

Principles of Analyzing a Passage

1. Offer a thesis or topic sentence indicating a basic observation or assertion about the text or
passage
2. Offer a context for the passage without offering too much summary.
3. Cite the passage (using correct format).
4. Then follow the passage with some combination of the following elements:
a. Discuss what happens in the passage and why it is significant to the work as a whole.
b. Consider what is said, particularly subtleties of the imagery and the ideas expressed.
c. Assess how it is said, considering how the word choice, the ordering of ideas,
sentence structure, etc., contribute to the meaning of the passage.
d. Explain what it means, tying your analysis of the passage back to the significance of the
text as a whole.
5. Repeat the process of context, quotation and analysis with additional support for your thesis or
topic sentence.

POETICS AND LITERARY TERMS

Poetic devices and literary terms use in poetry analysis

Sound
Alliteration – the repetition of constant sounds in words that are close together.
Assonance – the repetition of similar vowel sounds followed by different consonant sounds, especially in
words close together.

Consonance – the repetition of the same or similar final consonant sounds on accented syllables or
in important words.

Onomatopoeia – the use of a word whose sound imitates or suggests its use or meaning.

Refrain/ (Repetition) – a word, phrase, line, or group of lines that is repeated, for effect, several times in a
poem.

Rhyme – the repetition of vowel sounds in accented syllables and all succeeding syllables.
• Internal – rhyme that occurs within a line of poetry or within consecutive lines.
• End Rhyme – rhyme that occurs at the ends of lines.
• Slant Rhyme – a rhyming sound that is not exact.
• Couplet – two consecutive rhyming lines of poetry.

Common Figures of Speech – a word or a phrase that describes one thing in terms of another and that Is
not meant to be taken literally

Cliché – a word or phrase, often a figure of speech, that has become lifeless because of overuse.

Conceit – an elaborate metaphor or other figure of speech that compares two things that are
startlingly different.

Hyperbole – a figure of speech that uses an incredible exaggeration, or overstatement, for effect.
Metaphor – a figure of speech that makes a comparison between two unlike things without the use of
such specific words of comparison as like, as, than, or resembles. They may be
• directly states,
• implied,
• extended,
• dead, or
• mixed.

Metonomy – a figure of speech in which a person, place, or things is referred to by something

closely associated with it. Example – referring to a car as ―wheels‖

Oxymoron - a figure of speech that combines opposite or contradictory terms in a brief phrase.
―Sweet sorrow,‖ ―deafening silence,‖ and ―living death‖ are common oxymorons.

Personification – a figure of speech in which an object or animal is given human feelings, thoughts,
or attitudes.

Simile – a figure of speech that makes an explicit comparison between two unlike things, using a word
such as, like, as, than, or resembles.

Symbol – a person, place, thing, or event that has meaning in itself and that also stands for something
more that itself. We can distinguish between
• public and
• personal symbols.

Elements of Literature

Allusion – a reference to someone or something that is known from history, literature, religion, politics,
sports, science, or some other branch of culture.

Atmosphere – the mood or feeling created in a piece of writing.

Connotation – the associations and emotional overtones that have become attached to a word or phrase,
in addition to its strict dictionary definition.

Diction – a speaker or writer‘s choice of words (formal, informal, colloquial, full of slang, poetic, ornate,
plain, abstract, concrete, and so on).

Imagery – the use of language to evoke a picture or concrete sensation of a person, a thing, a place or
an experience.

Irony – in general, a discrepancy between appearances and reality (verbal, situational, or dramatic).

Pun – a ―play on words‖ based on the multiple meanings of a single word or on words that sound alike
but mean different things.

Theme – the insight about human life that is revealed in a literary work (different from subject).

Tone – The attitude a writer takes toward the subject of a work, the characters in it, or the audience.

Style – the distinctive way in which a writer uses language. Examples in poetry – ballad – a song or poem
that tells story; Tone is the writer‘s attitude toward a subject, character, or audience and is conveyed
through the author‘s choice of diction, imagery, figurative language, details, and syntax.
• catalog – a list of things, people, or events;
• concrete poem – a poem in which the words are arranged on a page to suggest a visual
representation of the subject;
• epic – a long narrative poem, written in heightened language, which recounts the deeds of a
heroic character who embodies the values of a particular society;
• lyric poem – a poem that does not tell a story but expresses the personal feelings of thoughts
of a speaker;
• ode – a lyric poem, usually long, on a serious subject and written in dignified language; and
• sonnet – a fourteen-line poem, usually written in iambic pentameter, that has one of two basic
structure – Petrarchan – octave – abba, abba; and sestet – cde, cde, or Shakespearean – abab,
cdcd, efef, gg
•
Rhythm
Caesura – a pause or break within a line of poetry (indicated by punctuation or phrasing or meaning).

Rhythm – the alteration of stressed and unstressed syllables in language.

Meter – a pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables in poetry.

• Scanning – the analysis of a poem to determine its meter. Stresses or accents are indicated
by the symbol (′) and unstressed syllables by the symbol (ˇ)
• Foot – a metrical unit of poetry.
• Lamb – a metrical foot in poetry that has an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable,
as in the word protect. Iambic Pentameter is a line of poetry that contains five iambic feet.
• Refrain – a phrase or verse recurring at intervals in a song or poem, especially at the end of
each stanza; chorus
• Stanza – is a group of related words in a poem, similar to a paragraph of prose but does not have
to have complete sentences.

Dactyl – a metrical good of three syllables in which the first syllable is stressed ant the next two
are unstressed. The word tendency is a dactyl.
• Trochee – a metrical good made up of an accented syllable followed by an unaccented syllable,
as in the word taxi.

Spondee – the metrical good consisting of two syllables, both of which are stressed. The words true-blue
and nineteen are made of spondees.
 • Anapest – a metrical good that has two unstressed syllables followed by one stressed syllable.
The word coexist is an example of an anapest.
• Blank verse – Poetry written in unrhymed iambic pentameter.

Cadence – the natural, rhythmic rise and fall of a language as it is normally spoken. Cadence is different
from meter, in which the stressed an unstressed syllables of a poetic line are carefully counted to
conform to a regular patter.
• Free verse – poetry that does not conform to a regular meter or rhyme scheme.

OTHER DEVICES:
Aphorism
• a concise statement of a general truth or principle; like a
truism Example—
• A penny saved is a penny earned. - Ben Franklin
• The man who does not read good books has no advantage over the man who cannot read them. -
Mark Twain
• ―You never really understand a person until you consider things from his point of view – until you
climb into his skin and walk around in it.‖ from To Kill A Mockingbird by Harper Lee

Epigraph
• a quotation at the beginning of a literary work to introduce its
theme Example—
• But of the tree of the knowledge of good and evil, thou shalt not eat of it: for in the day that
thou eatest thereof thou shalt surely die.

Verbal Irony
• use of words in which the intended meaning is contrary to the literal
meaning Example
• ―Are we gonna do anything today?‖ or ―Is class gonna be fun today?‖
• In SHREK , when Fiona Says ―Where are you going?‖ and Shrek replies ―I‘ve got to save my
ass.‖ (Speaking of Donkey, of course.)

Situational Irony
• implying through plot or character that a situation is quite different from the way it is
presented. Example
• 'The Wonderful Wizard of Oz', Scarecrow always had a brain; Tin Man always had a heart;
Dorothy could have always gone home; the Cowardly Lion wasn‘t a coward after all.

Dramatic Irony
• dramatic device in which a character says or does something that he or she does not fully grasp
but which is understood by the audience
Example
• Lois Lane is constantly trying to get an interview with Superman, but she actually sees him every
day and doesn‘t know it (Clark Kent).

Sarcasm
• a bitter form of irony, can be intended to tease or hurt; often insinuated by the tone; late
Greek sarkasmós, f. sarkázein tear flesh, gnash the teeth, speak bitterly, f. sárx, sark- flesh.
Example—
• ―I‘m proud of you, Mom. You‘re like Christopher Columbus. You discovered something millions
of people knew about before you.‖ –Lisa Simpson P

Paradox
• a seemingly contradictory statement that on closer analysis reveals a deeper
truth Example—
• ―I‘m nobody.‖ --anonymous
• ―I can resist anything but temptation.‖ --Oscar Wilde
• ―Nobody goes to that restaurant; it‘s too crowded.‖

Self-Help: You can also refer to the sources below to help you further
understand

Online references:
*Retrieved from: http://theislandreader.com/7-types-readers/
*Retrieved from: https://cambridgeeditors.wordpress.com/2013/06/28/the-animal-in-literature/
*Retrieved from: https://jps.library.utoronto.ca/index.php/qua/article/download/11905/11408/
*Retrieved from: https://nieonline.com/tbtimes/downloads/CCSS_reading.pdf
*Retrieved from: https://prezi.com/9xzxvy45mn0a/four-types-of-readers/
*Retrieved from: https://www.allassignmenthelp.com/blog/language- analysis/#:~:text=In%20simple
%20words%2C%20Language%20Analysis,tone%2C%20word%20cho ice%2C%20etc.
*Retrieved from: https://www.birdvilleschools.net/cms/lib2/TX01000797/Centricity/Domain/ 407/Literary
%20Devices.pdf
*Retrieved from: https://www.britannica.com/art/author
*Retrieved from: https://www.britannica.com/art/genre-literature
*Retrieved from: https://www.britannica.com/art/literature
*Retrieved from: https://www.bucks.edu/media/bcccmedialibrary/pdf/HOWTOWRITEALITER
ARYANALYSISESSAY_10.15.07_001.pdf
*Retrieved from: https://www.dentonisd.org/cms/lib/TX21000245/Centricity/Domain/ 581/Poetry
%20Terms.pdf
*Retrieved from: https://www.goshen.edu/academics/english/literary-analysis-guide/