Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 53 (2016) 1591–1601

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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

DME blended LPG as a cooking fuel option for Indian household:

A review
P.K. Arya n, S. Tupkari, Satish K., G.D. Thakre, B.M. Shukla
Tribology & Combustion Division, CSIR-Indian Institute of Petroleum, Dehradun 248005, India

art ic l e i nf o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This paper reviews the present scenario of cooking fuel in India. Increasing demand of LPG and its impact
Received 4 February 2015 on Indian economy has been discussed. In context to the current cooking fuel scenario in India, DME
Received in revised form blended LPG has been recognized as a potential fuel substitute for LPG. To analyse the potential of DME as a
14 June 2015
fuel, the review compares its properties with those of propane, butane and natural gas that are relevant to
Accepted 13 September 2015
Available online 10 November 2015
combustion application. Current status of DME combustion research, related to combustion mechanism,
laminar burning velocity and characteristics of premixed and diffused flames of DME has been reviewed in
Keywords: detail. Current status of DME–LPG blend performance has also been reviewed. Based on this current
DME review, bio-DME has been identified as most suitable form of DME production for India. However, need for
LPG–DME blends further optimization of DME–LPG blend ratio, development of reduced mechanism for DME–LPG oxidation,
LPG
further study of DME diffusion flame and development of DME–LPG blend dedicated burner has been
Cooking fuel
identified as major challenges towards making DME as a substitute blending fuel for LPG.
& 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1592
1.1. Alternative cooking fuel options for Indian household . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1592
1.1.1. Biogas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1593
1.1.2. Producer gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1593
1.1.3. Natural gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1593
1.1.4. DME (Di-Methyl Ether) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1593
1.2. International status of LPG–DME blended fuel for cooking application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1593
2. Potential of DME production in India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1594
2.1. DME from biomass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1594
2.2. DME from coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1594
2.3. DME from other resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1594
3. DME production technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1594
4. DME as a fuel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1594
4.1. Physio-thermal properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1594
4.2. Special characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1596
5. DME combustion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1596
5.1. DME combustion reaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1596
5.2. Laminar burning velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1597
5.3. DME premixed flame. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1597
5.4. DME diffusion flame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1597

Abbreviations: LPG, Liquefied Petroleum Gas; DME, Di Methyl Ether; PNG, Piped
Natural Gas; NOx, Nitrogen Oxide; Qc, Heat of combustion; ρs, Saturated liquid
density; p, Vapour pressure; ρref, Reference liquid density; Zc, Critical Compressi-
bility factor; T, Temperature; Hv,, Heat of vaporization; Tr, Reduced Temperature; Tc,
Critical Temperature; ω, Acentric Factor; R, Gas Constant; [P], Parachor; λl,, Liquid
Thermal Conductivity; DDME-Air, Diffusion Coefficient of DME in Air
n
Corresponding author. Tel.: þ 91 135 2525832.
E-mail address: pkarya@iip.res.in (P.K. Arya).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.09.007
1364-0321/& 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1592 P.K. Arya et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 53 (2016) 1591–1601

6. Domestic cooking burners. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1598

6.1. Conventional burner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1598
6.2. Porous burner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1598
6.3. Swirl burners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1598
7. DME–LPG blend as fuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1598
8. Summary and scope of future work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1599
8.1. Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1599
8.2. Scope of future work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1600
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1600

1. Introduction industrial sector. Although the indigenous production of LPG

In rural and suburban areas72% of the India's household
resides. Rural Indian household use 64% solid biomass (mainly
Firewood) followed by other biomass sources like crop residue
(13%) and cow dung (12.8%) as their main cooking fuel [1]. How-
ever in suburban and urban areas, LPG is the most commonly used
cooking fuel followed by natural gas, firewood and kerosene.
Therefore, it can be concluded that solid biomass, mainly fire wood
is still the main source of cooking energy in India.
Conventional and improved biomass stoves are used for burn-
ing these biomass sources. A detailed study of household pollution
through biomass burning in India [2] has revealed that the bio-
mass stove used by rural Indian household has low efficiency,
while emitting sever pollutants. Although biomass fuels are
renewably harvested yet it is not sufficient to meet the cooking
energy demand. Therefore a switch from biomass to Kerosene and
LPG is recommended, however LPG is best suitable for Indian
household cooking application on the basis of its low environ-
mental impacts and entire fuel cycle [1].
LPG market commenced in India in the year 1955 by Burmah
Shell and later on started by Indian public sector Oil Company,
Indian Oil started marketing it in the year 1965 from Kolkata and
Patna. Quality of LPG improved from the year 1998. India is the
fourth largest consumer of LPG in the world after USA, China and
Japan. India is the third largest consumer in domestic sector in the
world after China and USA [3]. Indigenous production of LPG in
India from both crude oil refining and natural gas processing is
9.824 mmt. Major market of LPG is domestic sector. LPG is sup-
plied in bottled form through a distribution system in 14.2 kg and
5 kg cylinders. 3 million LPG cylinders are delivered per day for
household applications. For commercial use, it is supplied in 19 kg
and 47.5 kg. cylinders [3]. LPG is also delivered in bulk to the
business associates and as auto-LPG for transportation fuel. There
is a steady growth of 8% per annum in LPG consumption in India
[3]. LPG scenario of India can be understood by Fig. 1.
India's indigenous production of LPG has not been enough to
carter the requirement of ever increasing demand of domestic and
increased from 2.150 mmt to 7.273 during 1991–2002, but imports
were required throughout the period to meet the demand. With
the overall yields obtained at present in Indian refineries, LPG
accounts for only 4.5% of total crude oil processing. Hence, in spite
of the recent discoveries of natural gas and installations of new
refineries, estimates from the central Ministry of Petroleum and
Natural Gas (MoP&NG) indicate a persistent shortage of LPG, in the
near future. Besides, It is evident from various reports that at
present in India, there is a shortage of LPG supply and demand
between 7 and 8 Mt [1]. The major reason behind it is enhanced
domestic use of LPG. In addition, LPG is being increasingly used for
automobile fuelling. Consumption trend of LPG and other Petro-
leum Products has been shown as per Figs. 2 and 3.
LPG is being sold at subsidized rate to the Indian household. In
order to reduce the burden on economy due to subsidy, a new
regulation has been established in India. According to this new
regulation, consumers are allowed to consume only six subsidized
14.2 (kg) domestic LPG cylinders per year, beyond which they will
have to pay market price to be determined by the oil marketing
companies. An average household of four consumes one cylinder a
month or 12 cylinders in a year or 170 kg of LPG, which at sub-
sidized rates costs them Rs 400 per month or Rs 4800 per year for
12 cylinders. Now after the new order, the same household will be
shelling out a total of Rs 2400 for the first 6 cylinders and Rs 4620
for the next six cylinders, which takes its total cost just over Rs
7020 per year, or almost close to 45–50% more [4]. Trend of
increase in domestic LPG customers in India is shown in Fig. 4 and
rise in subsidy to the domestic LPG users provided by Indian
government can been seen in Fig. 5.
1.1. Alternative cooking fuel options for Indian household
Selection of alternative fuel for cooking application mainly
depends on actual energy requirement for cooking and Life cycle
energy analysis of cooking fuel. These factors broadly depend on
several other factors, like type of fuel, efficiency of cooking fuel,
cooking method, source of fuel and climate change potential.

18000 18000
16000 16000
14000 14000
12000 12000
TMT

10000 10000
Mt.

Consumption 8000 Naptha+NGL

8000
6000 Indegenous production 6000 LPG
4000 Imports 4000 Motor Spirit
2000 2000
0 0
2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
Year Year

Fig. 1. LPG scenario in India. Data reference: Report on Indian petroleum and gas Fig. 2. Consumption of Petroleum Products in public sector. Data reference: Report
statistics 2012–13. on Indian petroleum and gas statistics 2012–13.
 P.K. Arya et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 53 (2016) 1591–1601 1593

9000 1.1.1. Biogas

8000 Biogas is generated by the anaerobic digestion of bio waste
7000 (cow dung, Biomass, kitchen waste and other bio wastes). As
6000 reported by [MNES, 2003], nearly 3.482 million family size biogas
5000 plants are present in India out of which 60–80% are running suc-
Mt.

4000 Naptha+NGL
cessfully. But the success of biogas plant is limited on the delivery
3000 LPG
of feed material, operation, maintenance and other social reasons.
2000 Motor Spirit
Therefore use of biogas as cooking fuel has limited in rural and
1000
suburban areas, where the availability of the feed material is
0
2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 sustainable [IEI, 2003].
Year
1.1.2. Producer gas
Fig. 3. Consumption of Petroleum Products in private sector. Data reference: Report
on Indian petroleum and gas statistics 2012–13.
Producer gas is generated by the gasification of biomass waste
e.g. crop residue. Producer gas can be used for cooking application
and power generation [7]. There are some government and NGO
1600 run programs on the generation of producer gas from pine needle
1400 and other biomass wastes in India. However, one major concern is
1200 the leakage of producer gas as it contains carbon mono-oxide
which can be dangerous for the human health and may lead
1000
Lac.

to death.
800
600 LPG Customers 1.1.3. Natural gas
400 Natural gas is mainly methane (CH4) with a small percentage of
200 other hydrocarbons. It is extracted from the oil / gas wells and
transported through a network of pipelines across the consumers.
0
2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 Piped Natural Gas (PNG), as kitchen fuel is already in use in some
Year parts of Assam, Gujarat, Maharashtra and Delhi in India. The main
problem with PNG is the high investment required for installing its
Fig. 4. Domestic LPG customers in India. Data reference: Report on Indian petro-
leum and gas statistics 2012–13.
distribution system (pipe line network) and its low calorific value
in comparison to LPG. However, natural gas may be considered as
a suitable fuel for urban areas only [8].
45000
40000 1.1.4. DME (Di-Methyl Ether)
35000 DME is simple ether which can be produced from coal, biomass
30000 and natural gas. The physical properties of DME and LPG are quite
Rs. Crore

25000 similar due to this DME has been specifically identified as sub-
20000
stitute fuel for LPG. Due to ever increasing price of LPG, DME and
15000
Subsidy on LPG LPG–DME blended fuel have been widely suggested as alternatives
10000
or additives for use in cooking, heating and LPG-fuelled vehicles.
5000
DME can be a sustainable fuel option, as it can be generated from
many natural sources as mentioned above as well as synthetically
0
2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 through Fischer–Tropsch synthesis. Moreover, the DME blended
Year LPG in the bottled form would be the simplest way for quick
Fig. 5. Government subsidy on LPG. Data reference: Report on Indian petroleum penetration of DME into the Indian fuel market where there is a
and gas statistics 2012–13. well established bottled LPG supply system.

The average heat energy requirement per household for daily

cooking activities is estimated at 2629 kcal by Venkataraman et al. [5]
which is based on biomass fuel. Singh et al. [6] conducted a life cycle
energy analysis of Indian cooking fuels. This study was based on the
standardized LCA methodology (ISO 14040-14043). The author com-
pared 10 different fuels based on their calorific value, manpower
requirement for processing, efficiency of heating appliance; losses
occurred during the process and external energy requirements. LPG,
biogas and kerosene were identified as strong cooking fuel option for
Indian household. However, biogas was finally selected as most sui-
table cooking option for Indian household with 43.3% life cycle energy
efficiency. Selection of biogas was primarily based on its source and
efficiency of conversion. This LCEA is mainly based on energy content
of fuel and its conversion, whereas actual assessment of alternative
fuel option should be based on its sustainability, as many fuels cannot
be sustainable due to their limited availability. In context to it, some of
the identified alternative fuels have been compared in view of their
sustainability.
1.2. International status of LPG–DME blended fuel for cooking
application
LPG is one of the most widely used household fuels in many other
countries like China, Indonesia and Brazil. In view of high demand of
LPG for cooking application, China has increase its LPG production
from 2.4 Mt. to 9.2 Mt. during 1991 to 2001 [9], compared to India,
having increased its LPG production from 2.15 Mt to 7.27 Mt during
the same period. In-spite of this, both the countries largely depend
on imported LPG to meet its domestic LPG demand. China has
already identified DME as a substitute blending fuel for LPG. Con-
sidering its large natural gas and coal resource, China has already
identified coal as a potential source for DME production [9]. Few
commercial DME production plants are already in operation in china
and up to 20% DME is being blended with LPG for domestic cooking
application. India also has various natural resources which can be
used for DME production. Some of the resources have been reviewed
in the following section of this paper.
1594 P.K. Arya et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 53 (2016) 1591–1601
2. Potential of DME production in India
2.1. DME from biomass
India has availability of huge biomass resource. Hence, it is
important to consider renewable fuels that can be produced from the
large quantities of biomass available. Himabindu et al. [10] has
reviewed the potential of bio-DME generation in India and its
application as transportation fuel. Based on the estimate made in his
study, 1 ton of dry wood or other solid biomass can yield into
0.37 ton of DME through direct DME synthesis from syngas gener-
ated through biomass gasification. This amount of DME is equivalent
to 10212 MJ of energy. Whereas for the same amount of biomass, the
energy produced from biogas (bacterial digestion) is 9900 MJ and
energy produced from producer gas is 11500 MJ. It is further
observed that the net production of biomass residues in India could
be around 125.046  106 ton per annum. Therefore based on the
above information, around 46.26  106 tons of DME can be produced
in one year from biomass sources available in India.
2.2. DME from coal
Coal is the most important and abundant fossil fuel in India. It
accounts for 55% of the country's energy need. As per the survey of
Indian ministry of coal, 301.56 billion tonnes of Geological
Resources of Coal is available in India. Currently most of the coal
produced in India is used for power generation by direct firing.
Coal gasification is a potential alternative technique for the utili-
zation of coal as fuel in clean way. Gasification product of coal is
essentially a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen, which
can be used as direct firing fuel or as a feedstock for the production
of many chemicals including DME. Direct synthesis of DME from
syngas has advantages over two-step DME synthesis as it elim-
inates thermodynamic constraints in the methanol synthesis step
and improves the efficiency [11]. Besides it, Fischer–Tropsch
synthesis (FTS) and methanol synthesis are well established
indirect processes for coal liquefaction. In this process methanol
can be an intermediate to many other products including DME.
According to a technical report, DME will have a market size of
nearly 78.3 million tonnes per annum in Asia only by the year
2020 [11]. Therefore, the production of DME from coal can be the
most prominent method, provided effective CO2 sequestration
technique be incorporated in the process.
2.3. DME from other resources
Besides coal and biomass DME is traditionally produced from
natural gas. As per the Ministry of petroleum, Government of
India, India has 1437 billion cubic metres of confirmed natural gas
reserves as of April 2010. However India is a net importer of nat-
ural gas so DME production from natural gas seems to be non-
economical for Indian scenario. However, there are other resources
like coal bed methane, shale gas, municipal waste and petroleum
residue which can be considered as potential sources of DME
production India.
3. DME production technology
DME is most commonly produced by de-hydrogenation of
methanol from syngas. In this process DME is produced in a two
step process where syngas is first converted to methanol followed
by methanol dehydration [12]. The first step of direct DME pro-
duction includes conversion of the feedstock to syngas, which is
commonly done by steam reforming of natural gas and coal. For oil
residues and bio-mass, syngas is generated by partial oxidation
through gasification with high purity oxygen. The second step for
the direct DME production includes methanol synthesis with
copper-based catalyst while the third step includes de-
hydrogenation of methanol to DME using alumina- or zeolite-
based catalysts. While using the direct conversion route of syngas
to DME, the methanol synthesis and de-hydrogenation of methanol
to DME can occur simultaneously in one reactor using appropriate
catalysts. The final step includes purification of the raw products as
it may contain water and methanol in small quantities.
DME synthesis reaction depends mainly on both CO equili-
brium conversion and H2/CO ratio of syngas. Syngas is potential
raw material for chemical intermediates including both oxyge-
nated and hydrocarbon alternative fuels, octane enhancers, and a
myriad of other industrial chemicals such as acetyls, alcohols,
ethers, and olefins. In general, there are three processes for pro-
duction of syngas; CO2 dry reforming, steam reforming, partial
oxidation of methane or natural gas and tri-reforming of methane
[13,14].
The conventional DME production (a highly exothermic reac-
tion) is an indirect two-step process where syngas (a mixture of
CO, H2, and N2) is first converted to methanol followed by
methanol dehydration to DME. Past research has shown that high
quality DME is obtained with the use of ZSM-5 molecular sieve
catalyst that contains gamma Al2O3 /SiO2. However, the cost of
producing DME from methanol is influenced by the price and
availability of methanol, as it is an expensive chemical feedstock.
Also, in the two-step reaction, the equilibrium conversion of DME
is lower [14].
4. DME as a fuel
Dimethyl ether (DME), with a chemical formula of CH3OCH3
and molecular weight of 46.07 g/mol is the simplest ether having
lowest carbon to hydrogen ratio (C:H). DME in a gaseous state is
invisible under standard atmospheric conditions (0.1 MPa at
298 K). When it is pressurized above 0.5 MPa, it condenses to the
liquid phase. DME is a non-toxic and environmentally friendly gas.
DME produces a visible blue flame while burning over a wide
range of stoichiometric air ratios, similar to natural gas. Gaseous
DME is denser then air while liquid DME has density two third
that of water. DME is soluble in water; up to 6% by mass of DME
can dissolve in water. Besides water, it is highly soluble in many
other chemicals. DME is a colourless gas with a slight sweet smell
at ambient temperature and pressure. When DME and LPG is
compared the vapour pressure of DME is approximately the
average of those of propane and butane. The gas density and the
molecular weight are slightly higher than those of propane, but
approximately equivalent. However, it is widely accepted that
existing LPG technology can be used for storage and handling of
DME, still there are many discrepancies in the physical properties
that originate in the chemical structure differences between DME
and LPG. Besides it, DME has corrosive action on elastomers.
Therefore it is necessary to take into account the different prop-
erties of DME and LPG in system and application design [11,15–17].
4.1. Physio-thermal properties
Before the establishment of DME combustion model, the ther-
mal properties should be obtained first. Although some thermal
properties of DME are available in various technical literature
[12,17,18] yet these data are not enough since numerical simula-
tion of combustion require lot of thermal properties, especially its
correlation to temperature. Wang et al. [19] have proposed the
concept of molecular theory for the determination of thermal
properties of DME.
 P.K. Arya et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 53 (2016) 1591–1601 1595

Fig. 6. Saturated liquid density of DME at different temperatures. Fig. 7. Latent heat of vaporization of DME at different temperature.

(1) Heat of combustion

As DME is a pure substance the heat of combustion can be

calculated on the basis of following chemical reaction:

C2H6O þ 3O2⟶2CO2 þ 3H2O (R1)

The total heat release from DME combustion is calculated by

the formation enthalpies of DME, CO2, H2O and O2 respectively.
Putting the traditional value of enthalpy of formation in the
below mentioned equation we get the total heat of combustion of
DME.

QC ¼ HDME þ 3HO2 – 2HCO2 – 3HH2O ¼ 1328.53 kJ/mol ¼

28.88 MJ/kg (R2)

(2) Density
Fig. 8. Surface tension of DME at different temperature.
The density of DME is calculated by the method developed by
Rackett [20]. Based on the method liquid density of DME may be
predicted using following relation DME at different temperature as shown in Fig. 7

ρs ¼ ρref Z c p ð1Þ ΔH v
¼ 7:08ð1  T r Þ0:354 þ 10:95ωð1  T r Þ0:456 ð3Þ
RT c
The above relation may be used to predict the saturated liquid
density of DME in the temperature range of (  40 to 100 °C) [17] as
shown in Fig. 6
(5) Surface tension
(3) Vapour pressure
Surface tension of DME can be predicted by the correlation
The Antoine type vapour pressure equation may be used to predicted by Goldhammer [17] as shown in Fig. 8
predict vapour pressure of DME. This method gives good predic-
tion of DME vapour pressure in the temperature range of (  40 to
 4n
127 °C) [17]. 1Tr
σ ¼ ð½P ρlbÞð½P ρlbÞ4 ð4Þ
T  127 1  T br
Log p 1:73 þ 2:49  ð2Þ
T  244
(6) Diffusion coefficient

(4) Latent heat of vaporization The diffusion coefficient of DME in air is estimated with the
correlation presented by Fuller. After applying the parameters of
The latent heat of vaporization is the difference between the DME and air in Fuller's correlation, it may be expressed as below.
enthalpy of the saturated vapour and that of the saturated liquid at
the same temperature. The Pitzer–Carruth–Kobayashi relation 8:21  10  6 T 1:75
DDME  Air ¼ ð5Þ
may be used for the determination of latent heat of vaporization of 10p
1596 P.K. Arya et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 53 (2016) 1591–1601
4.2. Special characteristics
(1) High oxygen content
High oxygen content ( 35% wt) and absence of C–C bonds in the
molecular structure provides a virtue of smokeless combustion to
DME. However, low formation rates of particulates and high oxidation
rates of particulates are observed under CI engine operations [12].
(2) Low boiling point
Low boiling point of DME would lead to quick evaporation
when a liquid phase DME is sprayed.
(3) Non-toxic
DME is a colourless gas with a slight sweet smell at ambient
temperature and pressure. It is evident from many reported data
that DME is non-carcinogenic, non-teratogenic and non-mutagenic
gas therefore having least effect on human health [21].
(4) High cetane number
Because DME has a low critical temperature and the C–O bond
in DME breaks easily, the C.I. engine operations of DME has
resulted in short total ignition delays. The short ignition delay of
DME leads to a high Cetane number: the Cetane number of DME is
greater than 55 [22,23]. In comparison, the Cetane number of
diesel fuel falls in a range between 40 and 54 [24]. Therefore
(DME) is considered as a sulphur-free alternative diesel fuel due to
its low NOx emissions and almost no particulate formation during
combustion [25].
(5) Low combustion enthalpy
Since DME is an oxygenated fuel, it has a lower combustion
enthalpy compared to many other petroleum based fuels. There-
fore, to replace any other petroleum based fuel, larger volume of
DME should be injected, thus a longer injection time and larger
fuel storage tank is required for DME [12,13].
(6) Low viscosity
Special attention is required for designing the sealing system
for DME as it has low viscosity (  0.1cSt) which may lead to the
problem of leakage in the system [14]. Also the lower lubricity of
DME can cause intensified surface wear of parts which come under
contact [12].
(7) Modulus of elasticity
DME has lower modulus of elasticity when compared with
diesel. Modulus of elasticity is related to the compressibility of
fuel. Lower modulus of elasticity may lead to higher compression
work of the fuel pump [26].
(8) Flammability limits
While carrying onboard as liquid, DME is likely to have greater
explosion hazard if it is spilled due to the wide flammability limits
and also due to its low vapour density as the dispersion of DME is
faster than gasoline [10].
(9) Corrosive action on rubber material
DME is a strong solvent. Although it has no effect on metal
material, it can dissolve many kinds of rubber materials. If a diesel
engine without any modification is fuelled by DME, seals in the
fuel injection system and the gasket in the engine will dissolve and
engine safety will be threatened [27,28].
5. DME combustion
Combustion is the process of establishing self-sustained fire
using fuel and oxidizer in a controlled manner. It is basically a
chemical process in which fuel is burnt in the presence of oxidizer.
Combustion also includes various physical processes such as
transfer of mass, momentum and energy that govern the overall
chemical reaction of combustion. Therefore combustion is a mul-
tidisciplinary process which is governed by the laws of thermo-
dynamics, chemical kinetics, fluid dynamics, Heat and mass
transfer and turbulence [29]. Oxygen is the most common oxidizer
for combustion. This oxygen is generally taken from the air, which
is supplied to initiate combustion. When exactly a theoretically
correct amount of air/oxygen is supplied to initiate combustion for
any fuel, the process is called a stoichiometric combustion. Since
the chemical formula of DME is C2H6O, the theoretical amount of
air needed for the complete combustion of DME is 8.989 kg/kg of
fuel [DME handbook].
Adiabatic flame temperature is significant as an index of the
combustion characteristics of the fuel. It is the temperature of
flame at equilibrium state when all the heat released during
combustion is used to heat the combustion products. However
actual flame does not reach the adiabatic flame temperature
because part of the heat leaves the system by heat transfer and
radiation. Adiabatic flame temperature of DME at Φ¼ 1 is about
40 K greater than that of methane and almost same as that of
propane. At Φ 41 DME shows highest adiabatic flame temperature
followed by propane and methane [DME handbook].
5.1. DME combustion reaction
Several experimental and numerical studies have been con-
ducted to understand pure DME combustion. Pfahl et al. [30]
conducted shock tube studies in which he studied autoignition
delays of DME–Air mixture over a range of pressure and tem-
perature conditions. He found that ignition delay time of DME
shows a negative temperature coefficient in the Arrhenius plot. He
compared both n-heptane and DME self-ignition behaviour and
found that both follow a two step self-ignition behaviour at low
temperature including a short deflagrative phase followed by a
secondary explosion. However he observed shortest ignition delay
time for DME. Daguat et al. [31] developed a high temperature
kinetic model for DME which he studied in a jet-stirred reactor.
Curran et al. [32] used a detailed chemical kinetic model including
78 species and 336 reversible elementary reactions to study DME
oxidation over a wide range of conditions. Later on the mechanism
proposed by Curran was validated with shock tube data and jet
stirred reactor by other researchers. The other researchers
expanded the mechanism of Curran and also studied the low
temperature pathways for DME combustion.
Fischer et al. and Curran et al. carried out an experimental joint
study on high-temperature and low-temperature oxidation of
DME. Findings of the study were used to further refine the DME
oxidation mechanism earlier developed by Curran et al. Later on
Kaiser et al. [33] performed species measurement on DME flame at
standard pressure and compared it to a numerical simulation to
further refine the mechanism of Fischer et al. [34]. The updated
mechanism contained 55 species and was validated with jet stir-
red reactor data and high temperature shock tube. Zhao et al. [35]
 P.K. Arya et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 53 (2016) 1591–1601 1597

studied the thermal decomposition of DME theoretically by using

RRKM/master equation approach and presented a relatively com-
pact mechanism for DME. The model is a combination of high
temperature and low temperature mechanism. The new approach
was experimentally validated flow reactors, JSR, shock tube and
burner stabilized flame. Laminar flame speed prediction of DME is
also in agreement with experimental results. However, the sensi-
tivity analysis suggested the need of further model refinement
particularly for formaldehyde oxidation.

5.2. Laminar burning velocity

Laminar burning velocities of any fuel flame are important in

context to developing and justifying the chemical kinetics. It is
also important in predicting the performance and emissions of the
combustion systems [36]. Several experimental techniques, such
as counterflow double flames [37,38], flat flame burner [39] and
Fig. 9. LPG flame.
spherically expanding flames [40] have been used to determine
the laminar burning velocity fuel flames.
Daly et al. [41] measured the laminar flame speed of DME–Air
mixtures by using a constant volume spherical bomb. Zhao et al.
[42] measured the burning velocities of DME by using the particle
image velocimetry (PIV) method in a stagnation flame configura-
tion. The measurement of laminar flame speed of DME–Air at
elevated pressures was also conducted by Qin and Ju [43] using a
pressure-release type spherical bomb. Experimental results of
these studies have shown that the flame speeds of DME decreases
with the increase of pressure.
Besides laminar burning velocity, Markstein number of DME
flames has also been determined experimentally. The Markstein
numbers characterize the variation in the local flame speed due to
the influence of external stretching. This is important in under-
standing the initiation of flame instabilities and the stretch rates at
flame quenching. Huang et al. [44] conducted a study to measure
the burning velocities and stretch rate of DME–Air mixture at
various equivalence ratios by using the schlieren photographic
Fig. 10. DME flame.
technique in a constant volume bomb. He found high stretched
flame speed at equivalence ratio of 1.0 and at low initial pressure.
He also found that at low pressure (less than 0.1 MPa) stoichio-
metric mixture gives the higher value of stretched flame speed
than those at Φ¼ 1.2 and Φ¼ 0.8. It is evident from the study
conducted by Zuohua Han that Markstein numbers decrease with
the increase of the equivalence ratio. Therefore, lean mixture of
DME–Air will make higher stability of flame front surface than that
of rich mixture.

5.3. DME premixed flame

In order to study the flame structure of DME and to compare

flame properties with other fuels like natural gas and LPG a CFD
analysis was conducted a basic Bunsen burner port is with the
dimensions of 5 mm diameter and 10 mm depth Figs. 9 and 10.
The Bunsen burner is designed for 50% primary aeration, rest of air
required is supplied from port adjacent to the fuel port and sec-
ondary air is entrained with the help of diffusion. The height of
domain is taken as 160 mm so as to allow the flame to attain its
maximum height in case of normal combustion. Appropriate
width is also taken so that maximum amount of air is present for
flame also there will be no effect of any domain boundary. A flame
lift off phenomenon was observed in the case of DME leading to
lower temperature profile as compared to LPG as shown in Figs. 11
and 12.
Fig. 11. Temperature profile of LPG flame.
5.4. DME diffusion flame
DME diffusion flames have not been much studied compared to
DME premixed flames. Flame “lift off” phenomenon has been
observed when the mass flow rate of the DME exceeds a critical
value in burner. The flame lift off properties can be directly related
to Schmidt number which depends on kinematic viscosity and
diffusivity of the fuel [45]. Xue et al. [46] explained the
1598 P.K. Arya et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 53 (2016) 1591–1601
Fig. 12. Temperature profile of DME flame.
phenomena of DME flame lift off. Fuels having Schmidt number
greater than one show flame lift off phenomena. DME have a
Schmidt number of 1.15. Therefore, it is expected that the DME jet
diffusion flame will show lift off phenomena at higher fuel flow
rates. Besides it, the oxygen present in the DME molecules acts as
an extra oxidizer during combustion. The results of his study
showed that both flame stretch and the fuel oxygen affects the
flame lift off phenomenon of DME flame. He also explained the
effect of Lewis number and Schmidt number and found that
increase in Lewis number will cause a decrease of the critical
Schmidt number. He finally concluded that unique flame lift off
phenomena of DME is due to the presence of oxygen in DME
molecule.
6. Domestic cooking burners
Gaseous fuel burners are classified based on the air and fuel
mixing phenomena. They are either premixed type or diffusion
type. If the fuel and gas are premixed before passing through the
burner nozzle it is called premixed type. In diffusion type, a small
quantity of air is mixed in the flow of gas and there will be dif-
fusion between them. Industrial burners for gaseous fuel are dif-
fusive type. In diffusion burner air and gaseous fuel are supplied
separately in the furnace. These burners are also used for domestic
purposes. The mixing rate between air and fuel controls the
combustion process. The burners are also categorized based on the
applied gas pressure. The gas burners may be either atmospheric
or high pressure type. In the atmospheric type burner, the gas
pressure varies from 0.004 to 0.029 bar. Whereas, in the high
pressure type, 0.034 to 2.75 bar gas pressure is used with a large
combustion chamber.
6.1. Conventional burner
The conventional burner used for domestic cooking works on
the basic principle of Bunsen burner. The simplest form of
domestic burner consists of gas injector, pipe type mixing tube
and burner head with burner cap with circumferential holes on
the top surface. The inlet supply of gas is made through a fixed
orifice, known as the injector. Inlet gas then passes through a pipe-
shaped mixing tube where the primary air enters through two
ports and mixing of fuel and air takes place by venturi effect. The
narrow zone of the mixing tube is called the throat, which diver-
ges into the hind part is called bell. Air and gas mixes in the mixing
tube and through mixing chamber it comes out in the form of jets
through the ports of the burner head. The secondary air is
entrained to the combustion zone from the bottom of the mixing
chamber and air also diffuses to combustion zone from the cir-
cumferential area surrounding the burner head [47,48]. As per the
Table 1
Direct synthesis of DME.
Reaction formula Reaction heat (kcal/mol-DME)
2CO þ 4H2 - 2CH3OH þ43.4
2CH3OH - CH3OCH3 þ H2O þ5.6
CO þ H2O - CO2 þ H2 þ9.8
2CO þ 4H2 - CH3OCH3 þ H2O þ49.0
3CO þ 3H2 - CH3OCH3 þ CO2 þ58.8
reported data, thermal efficiency of the conventional domestic
burner is in the range of 65–68%.
6.2. Porous burner
Porous medium combustion (PMC) is an energy efficient and
eco-friendly combustion technique. It has several advantages over
free flame combustion, like higher burning rates, increased power
dynamic range, extension of the lean flammability limits, and low
emissions of pollutants. Muhad et al. [49] have analyzed the per-
formance of partially premixed LPG porous medium combustor. As
per the work conducted by him, reduction in NOx (by 59%) and CO
(by 21%) was observed compared to free flame combustion. Pan-
tangi et al. [50] have evaluated the performance of porous burner
fired with LPG. The highest thermal performance of porous burner
is found to be 68% in comparison with, 65% of conventional
domestic stoves (Tables 1 and 2).
6.3. Swirl burners
Heat and mass transfer are strongly influenced by swirl in a
number of natural and technological flows [51]. It has been shown
that swirl flow had great potential to lengthen the residence time
and enhance mixing by means of the rotating flow field [52]. Swirl
flows have been extensively used in many industrial furnaces and
boilers as well as internal combustion engines as they can enhance
mixing between fuel and oxidant and flame stabilization. The
same concept has been used to design the domestic cooking
burners with swirl flow. The swirl burner uses a set of guiding
vanes to give a swirling flow to the secondary combustion air. The
swirling action of the vanes creates a recirculation zone; it accel-
erates the process of mixing of fuel and combustion air. Reported
data indicates that swirling flow burner improves the heating
efficiency of a domestic cooker and also reduces the emissions in
comparison to the conventional burner [53].
7. DME–LPG blend as fuel
DME has the potential to be used in various applications; it can
be used as fuel for power generation, automotive fuel, domestic
cooking fuel, hydrogen source for fuel cells and as feedstock for
various chemicals [54,55]. All these application makes DME as
multidimensional fuel source. However, several studies have been
conducted on DME combustion and applications; less attention
has been paid on LPG and DME mixtures as a new alternative fuel
both for automotive applications and household purposes. More-
over, materials compatibility issues have not been examined in
context to seals, gaskets, pressure regulators. On the other hand,
DME and LPG did not seem completely interchangeable by using
typical LPG stoves; since, the Wobbe Index of DME is close to
methane than propane and butane. This fact is evident from the
study conducted in Japan [56] which has shown that stoves,
designed for methane can be used for DME with minor mod-
ification. Marchionna et al. [57] conducted studies on DME/LPG
 P.K. Arya et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 53 (2016) 1591–1601 1599

Table 2
Fundamental properties of DME.

Properties Unit DME Methane Propane n-Butane

Chemical structure CH3OCH3 CH4 C3H8 C4H10

Molecular wt g/mol 46.07 16.04 44.10 58.12
Liquid density g/cm3 0.67 0.37, 0.415 0.49, 0.582 0.599, 0.60
Gas density 2.057 0.716 1.969 2.595
Gas specific gravity 1.591 0.554 1.523 2.007
Melting point °C  141.5 -141.49  182.6,  182.48,  189.69,  138.35,  138.32
Boiling point °C  25,  24.8,  162, 161.5,  45,  42  11.7,  0.05
Critical temperature °C 126.85, 126.9  82.57,  82.55, - 96.55, 96.65, 152.03, 152.05,
Critical pressure Mpa 5.24, 5.37 4.6, 4.63 4.25 3.76, 3.8
Critical volume cm3/mol 171, 178 99, 99.3 202.9, 203 254.9, 255
Solubility in water g/100 ml @291 K 7, 7.6 none none none
Vapour pressure Mpa @ 293 K 0.51, 0.530 0.0053 (  86.3 °C) 0.830, 0.9119 0.2, 0.21
Liquid viscosity cP 0.15 (293 K) 0.020 (191 k) 0.099 (298 k) 2.074(298 K)
Gas viscosity 10  6 P 9.160 (298 k) 10.87 (290 K) 7.99 (290 K) 7.36 (290 K)
Cetane number 55–60 5
Octane number 130 96 90
Theoretical oxygen ratio Kg/kg 9 17.2 15.88 15.5
Flash point °C  41.11,  41  187  104,  102  72,  60
Ignition point °C 350, 537, 540, 632 450, 466, 470 365, 405, 411
Explosion limit Vol% 3.4-27 5.3  14, 5.3  15 2.37-9.5 1.86-8.41
Minimum ignition energy mJ 0.29, 0.45 0.28 0.25 0.25
High heating value MJ/kg 31.7 55.51 50.34, 50.35 49.49, 49.52
Low heating value MJ/kg 28.8, 28.9 50.2, 52 46.4, 46.5 48
Adiabatic flame temperature °C 1954 1963 1977 1982
Max. burning velocity cm/s 50, 54 30, 33.8 41, 48.5 37.9, 41
Wobbe index MJ/m3 52 54 81 91

Table 3
Thermal efficiency of conventional LPG stove.

Fuel used Change in thermal efficiency

LPG –
5% DME in LPG  1.92%
10% DME in LPG  2.21%
15% DME in LPG  4.59%
20% DME in LPG  5.26%

mixtures and found that under the specific conditions and
equipment adopted 15–20% DME with LPG brings significant fur-
ther improvements compared to pure DME. Makmool et al. [58]
investigated the performance of domestic cooking burner fired
with DME–LPG blend on conventional burner and on porous
radiant burner. 30% DME by weight was used for the investigation
and 20% blend was found optimum. However, on increasing DME
concentration decrease in thermal efficiency was observed in
conventional as well as PRB burner. Anggarani et al. [59] investi-
gated the performance test of LPG Mixed DME in existing LPG
stove. He characterized the DME–LPG blends in the range con-
centration of DME 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30% and 50% and
determined the heat input of these blends, fuel efficiency and
flame stability. He finally repeated the fact that increasing the
DME concentration the thermal efficiency decrease. He also
emphasized on developing efficient burner for higher DME con-
centration LPG. A similar study on thermal efficiency of DME–LPG
blends, as per Indian standard IS 4246 was conducted at LERC (LPG
Equipment Research Centre) India. This study also showed max-
imum decrease of 5.26% thermal efficiency while using a blend of
20% DME in LPG. A similar study was conducted at CSIR-Indian
Institute of Petroleum, to observe the changes in thermal effi-
ciency of a commonly used domestic LPG stove, observation of the
experiments have been mentioned in Table 3. A schematic of the
test set-up has been shown in Fig. 13.
Fig. 13. Schematic test set-up for DME–LPG fuel performance study.
8. Summary and scope of future work
8.1. Summary
Review of current Indian market indicates that indigenous
production of LPG has not been able to keep pace with increasing
demand. With the average yields obtaining at present at Indian
refineries, LPG accounts for only 4.5% of the crude oil processed.
Hence, in spite of the recent discoveries of gas and the major
refinery projects being undertaken, there will be a shortage of LPG,
at least in the near future. Besides it, a huge amount of govern-
ment subsidy on domestic LPG has put a burden on the Indian
economy. To cope up with the current situation of LPG demand,
DME blended LPG has been identified as a potential substitute for
the domestic LPG usage. Huge biomass resources available in India
have the potential to produces 46.26  106 ton of bio-DME. Besides
it, coal, natural gas, coal bed methane, shale gas, municipal waste
and petroleum residue are also among the potential sources of
DME production India. DME blended LPG can easily fill the gap of
7–8 Mt, between LPG demand and supply of India without
dependence on imports. Besides it, DME blended LPG can be easily
distributed among Indian users through a well established bottled
LPG supply system prevailing in India. Therefore DME has been
identified as a potential blending fuel for LPG for the Indian
market.
1600 P.K. Arya et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 53 (2016) 1591–1601
DME is a colourless gas with a slight sweet smell at ambient
temperature and pressure, it is non-toxic and environmentally
benign. Gaseous DME is denser than air while liquid DME has
density two third that of water. It dissolves in water up to 6% by
mass and is highly soluble in many chemicals. When DME is
compared with LPG, the vapour pressure of DME is approximately
the average of those of propane and butane. Gas density and
molecular weight are slightly higher than propane but is com-
parable. The theoretical amount of air needed for complete com-
bustion of DME is almost 9 kg of air per kg of DME. However, DME
displays a visible blue flame when burning over a wide range of
air–fuel ratios. Enthalpy of DME combustion is around 31.7 MJ/kg
compared to 50 MJ/kg of propane. Adiabatic flame temperature of
DME at ɸ ¼1 is comparable with propane whereas at ɸ 4 1 DME
shows highest adiabatic flame temperature followed by propane
and methane. In spite of many similarities with LPG, DME is a
strong solvent and reacts with most of the elastomers causing
deformation and corrosion. This is the only major dissimilarity
between DME and LPG which gives rise to special concern for the
selection of material.
DME combustion has been subject to numerous experimental
and numerical studies. A detailed chemical kinetic model includ-
ing 78 species and 336 reversible elementary reactions has been
used to study DME oxidation over a wide range of conditions,
which was validated by shock tube and jet stirred reactor data
Curran et al. [32]. Further this mechanism was expanded for low
and high temperature oxidation pathways including 55 species to
refine the DME combustion mechanism. Besides it, a compact DME
mechanism was developed by Zao et al. [35] in which an upgraded
high temperature model was coupled with low temperature
model.
Laminar burning velocity of DME has also been studied through
various experimental approaches using counterflow flames, flat
flame burner and spherically expanding flames. Zao et al. [35]
measured the laminar flame speed of DME–Air mixtures using a
constant volume spherical bomb using particle image velocimetry
technique. However, schileren photography method has also been
used to measure burning velocities of DME–Air mixtures at var-
ious equivalence ratios. Besides it, to study the onset of flame
instabilities and the stretch rate at flame quenching, Markstein
numbers has also been determined using experimental approach.
The experiments were conducted in constant volume bomb at
various initial pressure and various equivalence ratios. These stu-
dies revealed that at equivalence ratio of 1.0, low initial pressure
gives high stretched flame speed. It is evident that for DME,
Markstein numbers decreases with the increase of the equivalence
ratio. It indicates that the lean mixtures of DME and air will make
a higher flame stability of flame than that of rich mixtures.
Flame stability of DME has also been subjected to various stu-
dies. A new criterion of flame lift off has been presented by Xue
et al. [46] according to the study, flame stretch and fuel oxygen
affects flame lift off phenomenon and flame lift off height for DME.
Burning appliance for DME has also been subject to various
studies. A study carried out in Japan, reports that the household
cooking stove designed methane can be used for DME with minor
modifications, since the Wobbe index of DME is close to methane.
Therefore, DME and LPG are not completely interchangeable for
stove application. However, work carried out in this direction
shows that mixture of DME and LPG (15–20 vol% of DME) under
the specific condition shows better results as compared to pure
DME. However, various other experimental investigations shows
that on increasing DME concentration, decrease in thermal effi-
ciency is found in both conventional as well as porous radiant
burner.
8.2. Scope of future work
The present review shows that DME can be a potential sub-
stitute of LPG in India. However, DME can be used in blended form
with LPG. A maximum of 15–20% vol of DME can be used in
blended form with LPG under specific condition and equipment
adopted. From the presented literature it is inferred that there is
scope of further improvements in making DME and DME blended
LPG more suitable and reliable for household heating applications,
as listed below.
 Further optimization of LPG–DME blends is required to fully
realize the extent of DME blending in LPG. The optimization of
DME blending in LPG should be based on the application, per-
formance of the application, emissions, material compatibility
and economical viability.
 There is a need for understanding the basic combustion beha-
viour of various LPG–DME blends. The compact mechanism of
LPG–DME oxidation is required to be developed for better
understanding of combustion and emissions from LPG–DME
blends at low as well as high temperatures.
 Compared to DME premixed flames, diffusion flames have to be
studied in detail. Similarly the premixed as well as diffusion
flames should be studied for various LPG–DME blends also.
These studies would provide basis for burner design for DME as
well as for LPG–DME blends.
 Design and development of dedicated burners for DME and for
LPG–DME blends is also required for fully exploiting the
potential of DME blended LPG as heating fuel. The development
should be focused towards achieving higher thermal efficiency
of burner and selection of suitable material for tubing and
valves.
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