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LONG TERM ATHLETES’ DEVELOPMENT (LTAD) – A PATHWAY AND PLANNING

TOOL FOR ELITE PERFORMANCE

Article · September 2005

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Andrei Vorontsov
Russian State University of Physical Education, Sport, Youth and Tourism (SCOLIPE)
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 1

LONG TERM ATHLETES’ DEVELOPMENT (LTAD) – A PATHWAY AND

PLANNING TOOL FOR ELITE PERFORMANCE.

A.R. VORONTSOV, Ph.D., National Performance Director/Head Coach, Russia.

The analysis of sport biographies of elite athletes, practical experience of coaches and research
of scientists convincingly prove that a multi-year training (MYT) of age group and junior
swimmers is a compulsory precondition for achieving of top performance level in adult athletes.
It is commonly recognized that such training facilitates the output of the growth and
development of young athletes (within individual genetic programme), while without purposeful
MYT and learning of motor skills it would not be possible to achieve full individual potential of
the motor abilities and form highly specific structure of abilities and specific performing skills.
The concept of Long Term Athletic Development (LTAD) considered the process of MYT and
Motor Learning in relationship to particularities of growth and development of young athletes’
organism.

The Prime Objectives of LTAD are to:

o maximize physical growth and functional development of juvenile athletes before the age
of full biological maturity
o form a body build and composition matching to specific requirements of sport swimming
o develop specific structure of “swimming” abilities
o develop specific competitive skills and variety of training skills
o provide education and development of personality and motivation

PERIODISATION OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT:

The framework of LTAD towards sporting excellence superimposed on process of Growth and
Development. It’s total duration in swimming may last 8-10 years for girls and 10-12 years for
boys. Therefore, the utmost importance has the knowledge of key concepts, describing growth
and development through late childhood, adolescence and youth as well as ability to use that
knowledge when planning training and competitive programmes for junior swimmers.

The Programme of LTAD should incorporate the models of growth and development
describing:
- rate of growth and development of functional and motor abilities at different ages;
- morphological and physiological differences between boys and girls;
- effect of individual differences in maturation (biological age) upon growth, physical
development and sport performance of junior athletes;
- age periods of maximal response to motor learning, different types of training and workloads
(sensitive periods).
 2

All individuals grow up in predictable manner passing the same stages of growth and
development, while the rate of growth and maturation may demonstrate significant intra-
individual differences (Harre, 1971; Tanner, 1971; Bulgakova, 1973; Armstrong & Welsman,
1997). In relation to LTAD of juvenile swimmers the most interesting periods of phases of
human growth and development are: late childhood, adolescence (including pre-pubescent and
pubescent periods) and early adulthood (post-pubescent period).
1. Late Childhood - the age of 6-9 years

This is a period of slow increase in size of the body and internal organs. No significant
differences in growth patterns and physical development between boys and girls. At the same
time during this period occurs a rapid development of brain structures, responsible for motor
learning and coordination. Children are capable to learn basic skills and techniques like running,
jumping, skating, swimming, skiing etc.
The organism is ready to participate in exercises required aerobic capacity with short bursts of
anaerobic alactic activities. Therefore, playing games is the best method to develop general
fitness (endurance) in children.

2. Yearly Adolescence (Pre-Pubescent Period – “Hypophysial Stage”)

9-12 years of age for girls/ 10-14 years for boys

At this stage the growth spurt (acceleration of growth controlled by HGH) begins.
It involves an increase of height, systolic volume, cardiac output, VC, VE
Girls demonstrate a peak height velocity (PHV) in average two years earlier than in boys
(respectively at the age 11-12 ♀ and 13-14 years ♂).

N.B.! GROWTH SPURT starts BEFORE onset of puberty

Before the growth spurt due to slow increase of the size of heart and blood vessels, the organism
responds to increase of physical load (intensity) predominantly by increase of the heart rate.
Peak velocity of the weight increase (PWV) occurs 3-12 months after PHV - between 12-13 ♀
/14-15 years of age ♂. Weight spurt marks the beginning of puberty.
On fig. 1 is represented the dynamics of annual increase of Height and Bone Mass in females and
males. Peak bone mass velocity (PBMV) is associated with increase of thickness and density of
bones and occurs after PHV. Girls in average have PHV 12 months before Me+, while PBMV
very closely precedes the Me+ and is followed by rapid deceleration of bone mass increase and
stunt of growth after Me+. In boys PBMV occurs in average 15-18 month after PHV.
Peak increase of the muscle mass usually has place between PHV and PBMV – 6-9 month after
PHV.
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Fig. 1. Dynamics of annual increase of Height and Bone Mass in children and juvenile
females and males (adaptation from J. Tanner by S. Norris).

At the beginning this developmental stage (ages 10-12 years) due to rapid development
of brain structures responsible for motor learning boys and girls have accelerated ability to
acquire new skills and perfect skills learned before. This ability, supported by corresponding
training, allows young athletes to achieve high level of motor coordination in wide range of
general and specific skills (as it was shown by Bulgakova, Vorontsov & Fomichenko (1990), up
to the age 11-12 year young swimmers of both genders attain the adult patterns of swimming
technique).
Before the onset of puberty, when possibilities of muscle hypertrophy are low,
improvement in inter- and intra-muscular coordination (neural adaptation) is the major factor of
strength improvement. Strength training of pre-pubescent girls and boys should emphasis on
learning of technique of strength exercises, improvement of joint stability, strengthening of core
body and eliminating of muscular disbalance (low body vs. upper body, left side vs. right side of
the body). Best suited for that purposes are exercises with small or medium resistance (stretch-
cords, medicine balls, swiss-balls) or exercises employing as resistance the own body weight of
young athletes.

3. Late Adolescence (Pubescent Period or Puberty):

12-15 years for girls / 14-17 years for boys.

During puberty occurs a rapid maturation controlled by hormones of gonads – sexual glands.
Therefore this stage sometimes is called by scientists and pediatricians “gonadial” stage. This
stage characterized by:
Rapid rise in production of sex hormones accelerates the growth of muscle mass, increases
secretion of adrenaline/nor-adrenaline and glycogen stores
 4

Peak of increase of maximal power and other strength abilities - 1-2 years after peak gain of
body mass (at the age of 13-15 girls/15-17 years - boys)

Optimal biological background for development of anaerobic energy system, maximal

strength and power, explosive strength and maximal speed.

Girls enter into puberty approximately 3-6 month after PWV. As suggested by some scientists,
PWV or establishing of definite individual ratio between height and weight may serve as a
trigger for menarche (Me+) – first menstruation. Me+ usually happen between 12 and 14 years
of age, but may occur as early as at the age of 10 or as late as 16-17 years. Up to the age of Me+
girl achieves 97-98% of adult height and muscle mass. Scientific studies report (Vorontsov,
Solomatin, Chebotareva, et al., 1998) that average age of Me+ for girl-swimmers is somewhere
between 13.5 and 14.5 years - a bit later than in normal female population. It may reflect positive
effect of swimming training at early ages on growth and development.
Pubescent period ends in girls with establishing of regular menstrual cycle –
approximately 6-12 month after Me+ (at the age 14.5-15 years).
Short growth spurt is altering by rapid deceleration of growth caused by dual action of estrogens:
1) closing of growth zones in tubular bones
2) fat accumulation

Establishment of a regular Me cycle marks the end of natural growth and motor development of
young female. Any further increase of motor abilities and performance will be related only to
training!

During puberty the acceleration of muscle tissue growth takes place. Muscular hypertrophy
becomes the dominant factor of improvement in strength abilities – maximal strength, power,
explosive strength and local muscular endurance. Rational strength training at previous
development stage focused on motor learning, strengthening of joints and core body prepares
young athletes to gradual increase of intensity of strength training.

4. EARLY ADULTHOOD.
15(16)-18 years for young females / 17-20 years for young males.

Post-Pubescent period – rapid deceleration of growth and achieving of full maturity

a gender dimorphism – maximal difference between males and females in physical development
is established.
Young females achieve definitive height and full physiological development toward the moment
when a regular menstrual cycle will be set – in average at the age between 15 and 16 years. After
that age females, if are not trained, may lose significant amount of aerobic and anaerobic
capabilities and strength. Insufficient training, first of all a reduction in training volume may lead
 5

to formation of plato or even decline in swimming performance. As an important measure to

prevent a decline in physical abilities B. Sweetenham (1998) recommended a secondary increase
of annual training volume for female swimmers at the age of 16 years or maintenance of the
“breakpoint volume” for the next 2 seasons. Yong females also need higher than males volume
of dry-land training and specific diet in order to maintain optimal weight and body composition.
Males continue growth and development, although at slower rate, up to 20-22 years of
age. They surpass females in height, weight, and muscle mass, motor abilities, aerobic and
anaerobic power.

THE EFFECT OF GENDER DIFFERENCES IN PHYSICAL AND MOTOR

DEVELOPMENT UPON TRAINING DURING PUBESCENT PERIOD.

As a rule, training groups of age groupers include representatives of both genders – boys and
girls with some variation in age. So, in the same training group may be boys and girls aged 11-12
and even 13 years. In such case a coach must consider, when does planning of training
workloads, the fact that boys aged 11-13 years still are at their pre-pubescent stage of
development while majority of girls already entered to pubescent stage of development. As a
result of gender differences in maturity boys are inferior to girls of the same ages in physical
development, general and specific working capability (height, weight, strength, VO2max) and in
swimming performances. After pubertal “growth leap” (in average at the age of 14-14.5 years)
boys take over girls in physical development. They become taller, heavier and stronger than
girls. They also overcome girls in aerobic and anaerobic capacity and power (Fig. 2).

Fig.2. Differences in height, weight, VO2 max and maximal pulling force during tethered
swimming between boys and girls aged 11-16 years (Vorontsov at al., 1990).
 6

The following recommendations based on gender differences of young swimmers can be made:
1. In every age between 11 and 16 years girls are more biologically mature than boys (in
average, girls are 2-3 years “closer” than boys to definite level of maturation).
2. As early as at age of 11-12 years they have high adaptation capabilities for extensive
aerobic training. Due to this particularities girls aged 11-16 years need higher volume and
intensities of training than boys of the same ages (girls need to perform so called “break
point volume“ – 2000-2400 km per season between ages 13 and 14 years, while boys
must build such volume of swimming between ages 15 and 16 years).
3. Before Me+ (age 13-14 years) the strength training for girls must be focused on
development of core body strength and specific pulling force during swimming, after
Me+ (age 14-16 years) the focus of strength training for girls moved on development of
maximal strength and power (speed-strength).
4. During puberty young females need a control upon weight and body composition. They
may need to follow some nutritional guidance and conditioning land training. During the
next 2-3 years after menarche the volume of strength and conditioning training in girls
may be kept 20-25% higher than for boys.

For physically talented and more matured girl-swimmers aged 12-13 years and
specialized in breaststroke* and distance swimming exists a high probability of performance
progression accordingly the pattern of “fast track”. If such girls will be identified at proper age
and undergo “bespoke tailored” training programme they may pass all stages of MYT-LTAD
during the following 2-4 years and achieve international performance standards at the age 14-17
years (it worth to be mentioned here such swimmers as Lisel Jones, Yulia Efimova, Ruta
Meilytite, Yulia Bogdanova, Catherine Ledecky and many others).
 7

It is highly recommended to girls specialized in breaststroke swimming to perform 55-60% of

daily swimming volume using breaststroke (skills & drills, kicking and full stroke swimming).
Skills & drills should compose 10-15% of total swimming volume, breaststroke kick – 20-25%
of total volume, main sets (“straight” sets) – 15-20%.

BIOLOGICAL VS CHRONOLOGICAL AGE.

As it was said above, human growth follows a predictable course and all individuals pass through
the same stages. At the same time each individual has a unique growth pattern in respects to
duration of each stage and growth rate. Pubescent boys and girls of the same age demonstrate
notable individual variation in growth rate and maturity
The chronological boundaries of developmental stages given in previous section relate to so
called normal, “average” population of boys and girls and should be considered as conditional.
In pubescent period, due to uneven rate of maturation, at every age for girls from 11 to 14
and boys from 12 to 16 years 60-65% of population demonstrate “normal” trend of growth and
development, while about 20-25% are related to “early developers” (accelerants) and about 10-
15% are “late developers” (individuals with retarded rate of maturation). During the onset of
puberty the difference in maturity between individuals of the same age may achieve +1-2,
sometimes, even 3 years.
Individual variations in maturity result in variations in motor abilities and performance (Harre,
1971). The greatest variation in maturity, motor abilities and swimming performances are
observed in girls - at the age of 11-13, in boys - 13-15 years (Vorontsov, 1998, 2006).
Early Developers demonstrate higher levels of physical abilities and performance than
their peers with Normal level of maturity or Late Developers. This “superiority” of early
developers disappears to the age when their less mature mates achieve full maturity. In fact, early
growth spurt related to early stop of the growth and functional development. This may explain
the fact why 70-80% of swimming champions in age groups 10-15 years later disappear from
sport horizon (see fig.2)
Many such young athletes started intensive anaerobic training without proper swimming skills
and sufficient aerobic training background. In a few years time they usually are overtaken by tall
boys and girls with high level of aerobic abilities and
 8

Fig.2. The numbers of Top All Time 100 freestyle swimmers aged 17-18 years who
demonstrated Top All Time 100 times in age groups 10 and under, 11-12, 13-14 and 15-16 years
(G. Sokolovas, 1999, based on US Swimming Top 100 Statistics).

swimming skills and normal or slightly delayed maturation. At the same time among the early-
matured individuals may be found young athletes of extraordinary talent, such as Ian Thorpe and
Michael Phelps. These athletes toward the moment when they achieved first international
success had very solid history of aerobic and skill training.
It follows that:
1) early, average and later developers need different timing of training emphasis for
development of aerobic and anaerobic endurance, maximal strength and power
2) biological age should be considered as one of the major criteria of individual’s readiness
to different types of endurance and strength training and predictor of swimming performance.

In club environments it is not possible to use such expensive methods of biological age
assessment as wrist X-Ray scanning or such ethically sensible method as assessment of
development stages based on secondary sex characteristics. Therefore, consultations with parents
and team/personal doctor may be necessary. In this respect it may be very useful to remember
that acceleration in body parts’ growth occurs in definite sequence:

Hand and Feet

↓ 1st
Forearm and Low Leg
↓ 2nd
Shoulder and Upper Leg
↓ Last
Torso (Spinal Column)
 9

Scientists (Bulgakova, 1986; Balyi, 1998, 2004; Vorontsov, 1990, 2002, 2005) recommend use a
few biological “landmarks” (reference points) as indicators of maturity:
Both for girls and boys:
- Foot and Hand peak velocity (3-6 month prior PHV)*
- PHV**
- PWV
- PBMV
For girls in addition to mentioned above criteria:
- Me+
- Regular MC

* Rapid foot growth which closely precedes the growth spurt may be tracked with the help of the
parent who will notice a rapid change in foot ware size of their child.
** - In order to pinpoint the beginning of growth spurt, the precise measurements of height
(standing and sitting) should be taken with intervals of 1-3 month. Measurements of height
should be continued until growth cessation. Repeated measurements should be performed at the
same time in the morning, better – after day of rest.

SENSITIVE PERIODS IN DEVELOPMENT OF PHYSICAL ABILITIES AND MOTOR

LEARNING.

Studies performed in the field of junior sport (Harre, 1971; Balyi, 1998, 2002; Norris, ) including
those performed in swimming (Bulgakova, 1974; Schramm, 1983; Vorontsov, 1990-2002)
suggest that the maximum effect of physical training on growth and developmental patterns of
motor abilities will be achieved by:

o exposing juvenile athletes to specialized training during the periods of rapid growth (see
fig. 3)
o changing accents and content of training in accordance with the rhythm of the growth and
level of maturation

Next fig. shows sensitive (optimal) age margins for motor learning and purposeful training of
physical abilities in boy and girl swimmers during their growth and maturation between 10 and
18 years of age.
 10

Fig. 3. Periods of most intensive growth and motor development in young swimmers
(Bulgakova, 1974; Schramm, 1983; Vorontsov, 1990, 2002).

Reference points for structuring of MYT/LTAD for young swimmers

Girls Boys
Peak Height Velocity 11--12 13--14 before puberty
Peak Weight Velocity 12--13 14--15 during puberty
Peak Bone Mass V 12.5--13.5 15--16 during puberty
Me+ 13--14
Periods of intensive development (age in years)
MOTOR LEARNING 6-9/11-13 6-9/11-13 before & during puberty
Aerobic Capacity 10--14 12--15 before & during puberty
Aerobic Power (VO2) 12--14 14--17 during puberty
Anaerobic Power/Cap. 13-16 14-18 after puberty
Maximal Strength 14--16 15--18 after puberty
Pulling Force 11--15 12--17 before & during puberty
Strength Endurance 9--13 11--15 before & during puberty
Speed/Strength 13--16 15--18 after puberty
Flexibility 9--12 11--13 before puberty

LTAD/MYT should be sub-divided into stages in accordance with particularities of growth and
development. Each stage has specific objectives and content (fig.4) :
 11

- Lower stages of MYT aim to build functional foundation of aerobic endurance and basic sport
skills, assist to health improvement and develop in young athletes an interest and commitment to
the sport swimming
- Higher stages of MYT aim to develop specific abilities and functions, limiting the level of
achievements in elite athletes, develop specialized technical skills to the highest level of
perfection, create strong and stabile sport motivation

OBJECTIVES AND CONTENT OF TRAINING AT DIFFERENT STAGES OF

LTAD
(Based on I. Balyi, 1998, 1999; 2002; R. Gordon, 1999, 2000; B. Sweetenham, 1998, 1999; A.
Vorontsov, 1996, 1998, 2006).

1. FUNDAMENTALS: BASIC MOVEMENT LITERACY!

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The optimal age to initiate multi-year preparation for swimming is 5-8 years for girls and 6-9
years for boys. Beginning earlier will simply increase the total duration and cost of LTAD
without any significant eventual benefit because of very slow physical growth and development
of children within the age range of 5-8(9) years. A too-early start also may lead to an early loss
of interest in swimming as a competitive sport. The duration of this preliminary sport preparation
is 1-2 years.
The fundamental skills and motor abilities to be developed are the ABCs (Agility, Balance,
Coordination, and Speed), RJT (Running, Jumping, and Throwing), KGBs (Kinesthetics,
Gliding, Buoyancy, Striking with the body) and CKs (Catching, Kicking, Striking with an
implement). At this stage of LTAD participation in multi-sports should be encouraged.

Content of Motor Learning:

1. Adaptation to water medium.
2. Games in gliding, floating, diving, orientation.
3. Games with ball and toys.
Focus on fun, enjoyment, exploration, encouragement.

Knowledge and attitude goals:

1. Enjoyment in aquatic environment.
2. Knowledge of basic swimming skills and technique.
3. Knowledge of simplified rules an ethics of sport.
4. Getting used to group activities and discipline.
5. Knowledge of safety rules and measures

Content of preparation at this stage:

On land: Simplified warm up, elements of gymnastics, stretching.
Water:
- sculling, breathing, lying and gliding, diving, variety of motor co-ordinations in the
water; games.

2. SWIMSKILLS - THE STAGE OF PRELIMINARY SPORT PREPARATION

Age: girls 8-11, boys 9-12 years.

The dominant content of this stage is learning of basic swimming techniques while employing a
large number of preparatory and special exercises with a major accent on natural necessity of
participation and competition in motor activity and multi-sports.

Content of Motor Learning:

1. Specific technical skills – all 4 strokes,
2. Starts and turns.
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3. Ball Games in the water.

4. Development of broad spectrum of general motor skills.
5. Development of basic endurance, agility, flexibility.

Knowledge and attitude goals:

1. Knowledge of swimming technique.
2. Knowledge of rules related to stroke technique
3. Deeper knowledge of competitive rules
4. Getting used to regular participation in lessons/training sessions and galas.
5. Warm up and cool down
6. Basic self-management skills: lifestyle, daily regimen, hygiene (how to show off, dry off,
etc), re-hydration and nutrition.

Content of preparation at this stage:

On land: gymnastics, running, jumping, ball exercises and games, mobility flexibility drills,
group exercises.
Water:
- practicing all four competitive strokes: kick, pull, variety of drills,
- practicing starts, turns, diving.
- relays
- team games with and without ball, basics of water polo, volleyball.
- basic elements of training as interval and continuous exercises
- galas and competitions.

Teaching and tuning techniques and skills require slow pace, performance of variety of basic and
special drills.

Goals of physical development at this stage are:

health improvement, correction of pose and elimination of muscle disbalance (upper-body to low
body, right side of the body to left side);
development of coordination, agility, flexibility, overall fitness.
Additional goals development of concentration, conscience control over movements,
will power required to perform learning tasks. These goals may be achieved through learning and
repeated execution of drills and swims.
Training Progression (development of physical abilities such as basic endurance, agility,
speed) is achieved through regular participation in lessons/sessions, maximal use of training time
in every single session, gradual increase of the number and duration of sessions (from 2-3 time
per week to 4-6 times, from 45-60 min to 75-90 min), performance of different complex motor
tasks and games, maximal use of training time in single session.
Dry land strength training should be limited by stretch-cord (tubing), medicine ball, swiss
ball and own body weight exercises.
 14

Do not expose children to excessive stress. Make learning process, galas and
competitions fun and interesting. Focus on process of competitions rather than outcome:
victories may be as stressful as losses. On both occasions give to youngsters positive feedback.

3. TRAINING TO DEVELOP - THE STAGE OF BASIC TRAINING

The average age to begin the Stage of Basic Training is 10-11 years for girls and 11-12 years for
boys. Normally, this stage lasts from 3-4 years.

Objectives of the Stage of Basic Training:

 Development of general motor abilities and a functional (aerobic) base. Identification of the
most gifted young swimmers on the basis of morphological criteria, indications of endurance,
and pulling strength of a general and specific nature.
 Perfection of technical swimming skills in all strokes with gradual specialization in at least
two strokes.
 Formation of a positive attitude toward regular training.
Content of Training and Motor Learning

1. Development of aerobic power and capacity

2. Basic speed training, pacing
3. Stroke specialisation, development of swimming technique to higher standards
4. Specific training for specific events:
a) Race pace (quality) training
b) Introduction Race Models
c) Tapering
5. Development of functional strength and power
6. Development of core body strength and stability
7. Maintenance of flexibility and mobility
8. Individual and team competitions
9. Racing strategies and tactics

Mental Skills and Attitudes:

Consistency and regularity in training

Willingness to train and compete
Basic knowledge in hydrodynamics and biomechanics of swimming
Basic knowledge in exercise physiology
Participation in planning of training and competitions, composing of race models, training
schedules
Mastering in self-control: log book, monitoring of body weight, HR, training volume, nutrition,
recording of training and competitive results, tests, etc.
 15

Main Aspects and Content of Training:

Land Training:
Early in the season – jogging, games
Introduction of weight and resistance training
Core body and stability training
Flexibility – active and passive exercises, PNF method.

Water:
Increase of the volume of Quality Training: sprints, broken swims, race pace work.
Utmost development of aerobic system – intensive aerobic training
Resistance training in the water (paddles, added resistance – belts, buckets, pulley resistance,
stretch-cords)
Alternation of work and rest at micro-cycle level
Relays and games (water polo)
Competitions at county, district and national junior level
Two and three cycle season planning
This stage of MYT is the most important for building of functional foundations of aerobic
endurance (aerobic capacity & efficiency), mastering of specific swimming skills in all strokes,
development of core body strength, flexibility, mobility and stability of joints. It is characterized
by a progressive annual increase in total swimming volume and general physical land-exercises.
The total swimming volume in the last year of this stage may reach 2000-2400 km for girls and
1800-2000 km for boys. An analysis of the most successful coaches reveals that optimal
workloads in the total training volume include 70-75% extensive aerobic exercises, 20-25% of
“mixed” aerobic-anaerobic activities, and 3-5% of anaerobic alactic work (sprint training).
As swimmers grow up, the pulling power and speed of swimming during workouts should
increase. It may be facilitated by use of additional resistance (e.g., belts, paddles and stretch
cords). Despite a notable increase in aerobic capacity and efficiency, the ability to perform
training workloads at the level of maximal oxygen uptake and anaerobic abilities are very limited
when compared to older swimmers.
The development of anaerobic abilities is achieved mostly by periodic use of glycolytic and
alactic training exercises and an annual increase in the number of competitions.
At this stage of LTAD it is very important to teach young athletes the proper techniques of
strength exercises, which employ free weights (e.g., dumbbells, barbells) and pulling devices
(e.g., stretch-cords, biokinetic benches, the VASA swim trainer, pulley weights). The preferred
choice to develop muscular power and strengthening of connective tissues (e.g., tendons and
ligaments) should be through “natural” motor exercises (e.g., push-ups, chin-ups, squats, sit-ups),
which use the individual’s body weight as the loading factor. The major emphasis should be on
the development of muscular endurance in exercises involving big muscle groups or the whole
body. The implementation of different exercises with low resistance and high repetitions
promotes muscular endurance. The organization of appropriate training may be circuit training
as well as station training. The main benefits of such training are reduction in energy costs and
 16

improved regulation of muscle contractions and coordination. It takes a long time to teach young
athletes the art of perfect coordination.
Near the end of this stage of MYT it is important to introduce land training exercises with
both high and submaximal resistances.
The development of specific pulling force in the water in young swimmers is a very influential
factor for forming effective swimming techniques. It is achieved by teaching conscious control
of discerning the optimal ratio between stroke rate and stroke distance with an accent on stroke
distance.
Practical Recommendations:

 Late event specialisation: all age group swimmers should be considered as middle
distance and 200-400 m IM swimmers (except girls breaststroke swimmers)
 Accent on aerobic training before and during puberty 75-80% of total swimming volume
– extensive aerobic training at 70% of VO2 (40 BBM), steady state swimming with
stroke control
 Skill and stroke efficiency development (SR/SL ratio): first within a range of low aerobic
velocities, then at fast aerobic velocities and at race pace
 Development of efficient leg kick since early ages - 80% of kick – time controlled Peak
increase of the volume - before onset of puberty
Gradual/consistent increase of intensity – during & after puberty

At the beginning of this stage the LTAD competition policy encourages participation of young
swimmers in competitions where awards are given for aggregate scoring in multi-event
programme including IM and middle distance swimming. Toward the end of the stage 3 the
emphasis is gradually shifted to improvement of individual performance in 1-2 best strokes at
specific distance events (100-200, 200-400 or 400-1500 m). Here takes place the final chose of
future swimming specialisation.

4. TRAINING TO COMPETE

14-16 years for girls

15-18 years for boys

Content of Training and Motor Learning

1. Maintenance of high aerobic endurance
2. Development of anaerobic glycolytic energy system
3. Development of maximal strength and power
4. Development of functional strength
5. Development of specific strength (pulling force
6. Development of race specific endurance
 17

7. Deeper event specialisation: race models, race speed-race pace training, race simulation
8. Competitions as importance form of preparation: participation in developmental and elite
competitions. Girls begin to participate in senior national and international events.

Mental Skills and Attitudes:

1. Knowledge of specific training methods and their training effects
2. Nutrition and hydration for training and competitions
3. Rest and Recovery techniques and methods
4. Mental Techniques/Auto-training (visualisation, self-talk, relaxation)
5. Pre-race routines
6. Monitoring and analysis of training and performance
7. Lifestyle planning: balance between training and educational needs, work and rest, goal
setting (short-term, medium-term, long-term)
8. Mental toughness, responsibility and risk taking.

Main Aspects and Content of Training:

Land Training:
Maximal Strength and Power Training
Functional Strength training with free weights and pulling machines
Climbing
Core body strength and stability training
Maintenance of flexibility and mobility: active/passive exercises, PNF method.

Water:
Maintenance of high aerobic volume
Race Specific training: race pace, race speed, broken swims, fast interval training,
Race simulation.
Sprint training
Aquatic resistance training
Assisted training

The readiness of young swimmers for increased training demands should be decided on
individual’s maturity level, overall fitness, training history and actual performance.
More specific training: development of the functional power and capacity via training in
swimming. Transfer of endurance developed in exercises like running, skiing, rowing onto
swimming decreases after the age of 14-15 years.
Total swimming volume in the final year of this stage may reach 1800-2100 km for boys / 2200-
2400 for girls (Breakpoint volume) comprised of 70-75% aerobic swimming, 15-25% of race
specific training (lactate & VO2 max), and 5% of alactic (sprint) training.
 18

EXPOSURE TO COMPETITIONS AT SENIOR NATIONAL AND JUNIOR

INTERNATIONAL LEVEL.

Practical Recommendations:
 specialize swimmers into specific strong events and specific training for those events.
 Prepare 2-3 “spare” events in case if performance plateau will occur during maturation.
These events should be middle or long distances. Maintain the consistency of average
volumes of swimming over an extended period (4-6 weeks) followed by
recovery/adaptation week (rest on demand!).
 Introduce RACE MODELS into functional and skill training.

TRAINING TO WIN – STAGE OF SPORT EXCELLENCE.

Females 16+ years

Males 18+ years
Objective:

This stage focused on the ultimate goal of MYT – maximization of individual performances and
consistency of performance under pressure and various environments.

At the Stage of Excellence swimmers are mastering maximal training volume (1800-2200 km
per year for sprinters, 2200-2600 km for middle distance swimmers, 2800-3000 km for distance
swimmers) and peaking at major competitions.
Training to Win characterized by high specialization. Physical parameters (volume,
intensity, frequency) and technical demands (stroke rate/distance per stroke ratio, pacing,
breathing patterns) must be adjusted to individual abilities and specific requirements of
competitive event(s).
Training process is optimized and guided on the base of long-term (multi-year) and
annual training plans and schedule of competitions. Double, triple and multi-cycle planning
usually are used in preparation of elite swimmers.
At this stage athletes accept major share of responsibilities over own preparation and
performance. Together with a coach he/she takes part in goal setting, planning of training
progression and schedule of competitions, recovery breaks, balance between training activities
and education or work.
Training, recovery and performance at this stage require a well developed and integrated
sport science and medical support.

CONTENT OF PHYSICAL TRAINING:

 19

Focus on the maintenance and possible improvement of functional (aerobic and anaerobic)
abilities.
Fully individual approach (focus on strong qualities or on weak qualities)
Strength training to maximize maximal strength and power
Specific strength training to transfer maximal strength and power to propulsive force during
swimming
Strength training for injury prevention

TECHNICAL PREPARATION:

Refinements and tuning of specific competitive skills and training skills.

Use of race models.

MENTAL PREPARATION:

Life style management

Competition strategies
Race tactics
Anxiety and stress management skills and techniques (relaxation, self-talking, visualization,
breathing exercises, concentration)
Pre-race routines (warm up, call room, pool deck, feedback, swim down)

Practical Recommendations:

 Further individualisation and specialization of training programme based on race models

 Further perfection of swimming skills, start & turns
 Consistent increase of Quality Training  Race pace, Race speed, maximal speed
 Maximal & Functional Strength training on land
 Specific strength training in the water
 Use of competitions as an important form of specific training (2-3 stage meets before
main event).
 Possibility of further increase of the annual training volume and intensity in young
females 16-18 and males 18-20 years of age for middle and long distance swimmers – is
an important factor of performance improvement.
 20

Supplementum 1.

ADAPTATION AND TRAINING ABILITY TO AEROBIC TRAINING IN PRE-PUBESCENT

SWIMMERS.

Children demonstrate early predisposition to aerobic training, which becomes even more evident
at pre-pubescent young athletes. In pre-pubescent children VO2 max related to 1 kg of weight
(body mass) measured during cycling or running is similar in age groupers and adults (Bar Or et
al., 1998). In swimming, which is not a natural motor activity for human being, technical factor
affects the value of VO2 max. Table 1 shows that although 11 year old boys cannot achieve such
values of VO2 max, ml•kg‾¹• min‾¹ during swimming in swimming flume as young adults, their
VO2 max/ Muscle Mass, ml•kg‾¹• min‾¹ is 21.8% higher than that in 18 year old. Age-related
differences in aerobic performance, from childhood to adulthood,
may be attributed to the enzyme activities involved in aerobic pathways in skeletal muscle. Thus
activity of aerobic enzyme SDH (succinate dehydrogenise) in children is 20% greater than in
adults.

Table 1. VO2 max* in male swimmers 11 and 18 years of age in respect to body
Weight and muscle mass (Vorontsov, Solomatin, Sidorov, 1988).

Age VO2 max, Body Mass Muscle Mass, VO2 max/ VO2 max/
l•min‾¹ (Weight), kg kg Weight, Muscle Mass,
ml•kg‾¹• min‾¹ ml•kg‾¹• min‾¹
11 1.83 38.7 10.45 47.20 174.97
18 4.28 73.0 30.66 58.63 139.56
* - VO2 max as measured during step-test in swimming flume

It means that oxygen supply per unit of muscle mass in pre-pubescent young swimmers is more
than adequate and significantly higher than in adults. It may be one of the reasons why before
puberty children demonstrate higher anaerobic threshold (70-90% of VO2 max) than adults (55-
60% of VO2 max). This means that children can exercise at intensities close to their peak oxygen
uptake without accumulating high levels of blood lactate (Armstrong, Kirby, McManus,1990).
Before growth acceleration children are predisposed towards extensive aerobic training.
They are capable to perform relatively big volumes of low intensity swimming required aerobic
capacity and efficiency. At the same time before growth spurt the size of heart and major blood
vessels is small, and pre-pubescent organism responds to increase of intensity almost
exceptionally by increasing HR. In boys aged 10-13 and girls aged 9-11 years exercises of
submaximal and even moderate intensity may be accompanied by extremely high values of HR. -
Lengthy exposure to intensities causing high HR without adequate rest is a factor of risk, leading
to over-reaching and over-training in young athletes. Therefore, in pre-pubescent swimmers
extensive aerobic training should be the main form of endurance training.
 21

Aerobic training of moderate intensity proved itself as the most efficient stimulator of
growth and functional development of internal organs. It results in larger size of heart, lungs,
diameters of major blood vessels, etc. It harmonizes the work of muscular system and cardio-
vascular and respiratory system.
After the onset of puberty, heart responses to increase exercise intensity by increasing
both HR and systolic volume. Vascular resistance also decreases. Maximal growth rate of heart,
blood vessels, lungs à at the age of 13-15 years in boys and 11-13 in girls. It’s the best time for
development of intensive aerobic endurance (VO2 max).

Endurance training in swimming before and during early puberty produces a greater
increase in size of the organs of cardio-vascular & respiratory system than training later in life.
SWIMMING TRAINING AT EARLY STAGES OF LTAD – SHOULD BE A SKILL-
FOCUSED PREDOMINANTLY EXTENSIVE AEROBIC TRAINING


DEVELOPMENT OF ANAEROBIC ABILITIES IN YOUNG SWIMMERS.

CREATINE-PHOSPHATE MECHANISM – MAXIMAL POWER AND SPRINTING

ABILITIES

During growth and development occurs a qualitative and quantitative development of maximal
power associated with sprint performance (25-50 m):

 Absolute values for power double between 8 and 13 years in girls 8 and 15 years in boys
 Power relative to bodyweight increases over 50% for the same period

Maximal strength and power is closely linked to variation in muscle mass than to any other
factors (Bar-Or, 1996)

 The more muscle, the more force

 Bigger muscles increase Force and Velocity and therefore Power
 Peak power and muscle mass highly correlated
 All muscle mass gradually increases with increase in body size and age

It is not possible to achieve peak anaerobic power until peak muscle mass development

Recommendations for Training:

 Power training should utilize the “window of opportunity” offered by puberty

 During pre-puberty focus on skills – improvement occurs mainly due to improved co-
ordination (motor learning). 2 sessions per week suitable at this age
 22

 3-4 sessions per week during and after puberty when power training is a priority
 Maximal effort important, to recruit FT fibres – speed over 90-95% of maximal
 Training exercises should be specific in movement, speed, and contraction type
 Do develop power in dry-land training load should be 20-60% of 1 RM
 Swimming training may include force resisted training: sprints using stretch-cords,
paddles and force assisted swimming
 Duration should be 5-10 s for pure power development (8-16 repetitions x 10-15 m, 5-10
repetitions x 20-25 m)

ANAEROBIC GLYCOLYTIC ABILITIES

Sport studies on growth and development of young athletes report reduced anaerobic glycolytic
abilities in pre-pubescent children. As possible reasons of low anaerobic endurance in pre-
pubescent children suggested:
 lower glycogen stores in muscle and lower rate of their mobilization - adrenaline/ nor-
adrenaline / testosterone) in children compared to adults
 low lactate tolerance (rapid influx of local fatigue*)
 protecting activity of the CNS (early switch-on of central fatigue*)
 lack of training experience and specific adaptations
(* - Age groupers of 9-12 years usually stop intensive exercise long before exhaustion)

Recent studies on physiology and biochemistry of development report 2- to 3-fold lower blood
lactate concentration after both sub-maximal and maximal exercise and lower anaerobic enzyme
activity in trained children compared with untrained and trained adults (Eriksson et al., 1973;
Williams, Armstrong, Kirby, 1990, Matos, Winsley, 2007). Lower activity of enzymes of
glycolysis in children compared with adults is partially accounted for reduced lactate generation
capacity.
Age-related particularities of hormonal regulation of metabolism also may make
contribution into reduced response to anaerobic training in pre-pubescent and early pubescent
athletes. Prado (1997) studied response of sympatho-adrenal and gonadial system to 6 week
anaerobic sprint training in pre-pubescent boy-swimmers (aged 10-11 years) and adult
swimmers. He concluded that significantly lower secretion of adrenaline; nor-adrenaline and
testosterone in boys compared to adults indicate a reduced sensitivity to anaerobic training
before puberty. He also suggested that maturation acts as a trigger for development of anaerobic
capacity up to adult levels.
Vorontsov et al. (1998; 2005) reported more than double increase in blood lactate
concentration (anaerobic capacity) after maximal test 4x50 m freestyle with rest intervals 45, 30
and 15 seconds in male swimmers from 11 to 18 years. For the same period lactate production
per 1 sec of the test (anaerobic power) increased almost three-fold. Blood lactate demonstrated a
slow increase of from 11 to 14 years and two peaks – 1st at the age of 14-15 and 2nd at the age
16-17. Findings suggest increased anaerobic contribution to exercise test after puberty.

CHANGES IN ANAEROBIC POWER WITH AEROBIC TRAINING

 23

Recent studies dealing with the effect of aerobic training on peak power and anaerobic
performance in pre-pubescent boys and girls show that children are able to improve their
anaerobic power by performing aerobic or a mixed-type training programme (Matos, Winsley,
2007). Thus, aerobic training has a profound effect upon overall fitness and working capability of
children and younger teens. At the same time the relative differences in gains of aerobic and
aerobic working capability may depend on the type of exercise, training method and volume.
Practical experience also suggests that aerobic training of age group swimmers
is accompanied by significant improvement of result across the entire range of swimming
distances (from 50-1500 m), while sprint focused training improves results mostly in sprint
events (50-100). It also supports the opinion on children as metabolic non-specialists “aerobic
animals” and give one more evidence in favour of aerobic training at early stages of LTAD
(Vorontsov, 2005).

Before puberty priority should be given to rapid increase of annual swimming volume (mileage).
After onset of puberty training emphasis shifts towards the quality of training. Improvement of
swimming performance will more and more depend on a share of anaerobic Glycolitic workloads
in total swimming volume.

TRAININGABILITY AND RECOVERY SKILLS IN YOUNG SWIMMERS

At every stage of LTAD training should be optimized in respect to swimmers’ age, maturity,
talent, skill and projected performance in the future. Key questions for coach are:
- How often and how much age groupers should train?
- What would be optimal numbers of swimming volumes per: week, month, and year?
- For how long tome young athletes may be exposed given volume and intensity?
- Do training parameters match to adaptation abilities of young swimmers?

To find the answers to these and other questions coaches use scientific recommendations, own
practical experience. He/she also needs to trace physiological response to training, dynamics of
working capability, and growth patterns of their swimmers.
It is very important to set clear selection standards and optimal training progression for each
level of swimmers.
Selection standards should consider training commitment, level of performance, age, level of
maturation, etc.

Training Attendance (commitment) is the main criterion of selection: - good = > 85%, excellent
= 100%.
Training Performance and attitude is the second important criterion for selection to training
group and forming training squads.
For younger age groupers good training standards without respect to gender are regular training
performance of 400 free under 5.30, 1500 free under 22.30, 400 IM under - 6.00, 200 fly/200 IM
- under 3.00. This is a reliable indicator that now he or she is ready for endurance training.
 24

Competitive Performance due to interference of maturity and training experience should be

considered as last criterion for selection.

When potential swimmers identified and selected it is time to set short-term, medium-
term and long-term goals, plan progression and content of training.

Optimal Training Progression suggests:.

- Maximal use of training time in every single session
- Gradual increase of the number of sessions per week: 3-4/5-6
- Gradual transition toward 2-session a day training: during 3-4 days camps, during school
holidays [5-10 days], alternation of 1 session a day weeks with 2 sessions per day weeks
for a few weeks or month period
- Introduction of a regular 2-session per day (8-9-10 sessions a week) schedule Recovery
days/recovery weeks when required

The most precious quality in majority of younger Age Group swimmers – fearlessness in respect
to training volume and intensities. They completely trust to coach since they do not know their
own limits, what they can or “cannot” do. It allows a coach to develop programme matching
his/her vision or dream, ambitions. But it also imposes a great responsibility on a coach, who
must exploit that quality with great caution and patience. Push slowly!
Remember: training is a movement toward the limits, not beyond. Rational training expands the
boundaries of individual abilities, while excessive training destroys all positive achievements.

Optimal rest is the necessary element of adaptation to training.

The fact that children recover faster than adults after both aerobic and anaerobic exercise does
not mean that their adaptation abilities are as high as in adults.
In order to avoid over-reaching and over-training and maintain optimal growth rate:
- an optimal rate of training volume’s increase
- an optimal ratio of aerobic and anaerobic workloads
- an optimal rest at the level of training session, week cycle, meso-/ and macro-cycles is
important (allow adaptation Weeks ON DEMAND).

That’s not a swimming volume itself but intensive swimming volume and the lack of rest
represent a potential danger for AG swimmers’ health.

There is a reverse side of the coin: “too little and too late!”
 Artificial restrain of rational training may prevent young athletes from achieving their full
physical potential
 Optimal hardship and duration of training stimuli provides optimal development of motor
abilities

PARTICULARITIES OF ENDURANCE TRAINING IN AGE GROUP SWIMMERS.

 25

Longer rest intervals between repeats (from 30-60 sec) are recommended.
They facilitate better recovery and, thus, swimmers are able to concentrate on stroke technique
(smooth movements, correct skill elements, stroke rate/stroke distance).
Longer pauses also allow do more coaching – give feedback, correct technique.
As the ages of swimmers increase rest intervals should be shortened and total swimming distance
increased in order to provide overload and stimulation

Since the focus in preparation of younger swimmers (girls aged 12 and under, boys 13 and
under) should be on swimming skills and aerobic capacity, it is sufficient to grade training
intensities into for categories:

1) BASIC ENDURANCE-1 (BE-1 - “slow” aerobic endurance – capacity,

efficiency, recovery).
2) BASIC ENDURANCE-2 (BE-2 - “fast” aerobic endurance - anaerobic threshold
and VO2 max pace)
3) RACE PACE (SPECIAL ENDURANCE)
4) BASIC SPEED.

After onset of puberty when young athletes better predisposed to anaerobic training coaches may
use for planning and monitoring of training intensities classification of training intensities
recommended by British Swimming for advanced swimmers.

DEVELOPMENT OF BASIC ENDURANCE-1 (training zones =A1, A2)

([HR max – 50] BBM]< HR< [HR max – 35 BBM/min]).

This is a major form of training for young swimmers 8-12(13) years of age
It includes:
performance of all variety of swimming skills and drills as well as
continuous cyclical activities such as running, skiing, rowing, walking, and cycling
gradual increase from practice to practice of the number of exercises, number of repeats,
frequency of movements
gradual increase of the number of training sessions within week cycles, meso- and macro
cycles
sport games and general fitness exercise

General fitness exercises and cyclical locomotion are efficient for development of BE-1 in girls
younger than 11-12 years and boys younger 12-13 years. Up to those ages occurs positive
transfer of endurance between different types of continuous activities and swimming. The
transfer of endurance from non-specific activities into swimming decreases with the age and
maturity.
Swimming training of BE-1 includes:
 26

distance swimming with constant or variable speed from 800-1000 m up to 2000-3000 m

extensive interval training using middle (300, 400, 500, 600 m) as well as short (25, 50, 100,
150, 200 m) distances
In all AG development of BE-1 may be accomplished by using front and back crawl, drills
pulling and kicking
A high level of BE-1 is a very important precondition for efficient development of BE-2, - ability
to perform physical work demanding maximal aerobic power.

DEVELOPMENT OF BASIC ENDURANCE-2 (“fast” aerobic endurance - HR=15-30 BBM).

In pre-pubescent and early pubescent children (ages 8-12 years in girls; 10-14 years in boys) BE-
2 may be developed through: cross-country running, skiing, rowing, circuit training with
moderate resistance, swimming training.
In swimming training of children 8-11 years of age it is normal practice to use for aerobic
training the repetitions of a short and middle length (25, 50, 100, 150, 200 m)because age
grouper of those ages in general cannot maintain an efficient swimming techniques over longer
distances. The longer distances (400, 800, 1000, 1500 m) may be used time to time as a
challenge.
Starting with the age 11-12 – more frequent use of longer laps/distances: 300, 400, 500,
800, 1000, even 1500. By the age of 12 years both in boys and girls the “adult” patterns of
swimming technique are established. As young swimmers become capable to control the quality
of technique over longer training sets and distances more demanding training exercises may be
recommended for development of BE-2 such as:
repeated distance training (1-4 x 500-800-1000 m rest 1-4 min)
 maximum effort repetition training over middle and long distances (5-8 x 200-400 m i=30’’-
2’)
 interval training with shorter distances (e.g., 25, 50, 100, 150 m) and more repetitions per set
and shorter rest intervals (e.g., 60-80 x 25 m rest = 7-10 sec; 30-40 x 50 m rest = 10-15 sec; 16-
20 x 150m, etc.)

 stage-like increase of intensity: 7x200 or 7x(2x100) step-test,

12-15x200 [des. in blocks x 3], 10x400 [des. in blocks x 4 or 3],
40-60x50 [des. in blocks x 5 or 10] ...

For maximal training effect coaches should plan not only required HR intensity (15-30 BBM),
but also an optimal exposure time at given intensity =10-20 min.

RACE PACE TRAINING (DEVELOPMENT OF SPECIFIC ENDURANCE - SPE).

[5-10 BBM].
For young swimmers 8-12 years of age the major form of development of Race Pace endurance
(SPE) are competitions over 50, 100, 200 and 400 m.
With the age introduced specific training sets consisting of ½, ¼ or ⅛ parts of the race distance,
swam at race speed. Rest intervals are usually short, but long enough to allow a swimmer to
 27

maintain target speed (broken swims). Technique and Stroke rate control are paramount for this
type of training.
As a target pace the present as well as desired race pace may be used.
Performing 1-2 race pace set a week for 2-3 weeks for swimmers aged 13-14 and 2-3 sets x 4-6
weeks for swimmers aged 15-17 (2 –3 weeks prior to main event) should be sufficient. Focus on
target speed and stroke rate while maintaining perfect technique and doing perfect turns and
finishes.

Contribution of aerobic and anaerobic metabolism depends on the race length a swimmer is
training for, individual’s age and maturity

This training develops sense of pace and optimal combination of the SR and SL at particular
speed
Technique and SR/SL ratio is very important and should be stressed particularly in fatigue
Swimmers are taught to understand relationship between training times and competitive race
time. It improves confidence of swimmers in their ability to demonstrate target time.

BROKEN SWIMS:
n x (2 x ½ race i=5-15”) rest 1-4 min,
n x (3-4 x ¼ race i=5-10”) rest 2-4 min
n x (8 x ⅛ race i=10-20”) rest = 4-6 min
n x (4 x ⅛ + ½ race) rest = 3-6 min

Return speed sets (holding last ½, ¼ or ⅛ length pace)

Starting speed sets (holding 1st ½, ¼ or ⅛ length pace)
n x (½ race pace/ ½ moderate) rest 2-3 min

For middle and short distance training examples are:

1-5 x (4 x 100 or 8 x 50 with RI= 5-10 sec) rest between sets = 5 min
3-8 x (4 x 25 RI= 5-10 sec) rest = 3-5 min
3-6 x (4x50 RI=10-15 sec) rest 3-5 min
4-6 x (100+50+50 or 50+100+50 RI=10-15 sec) rest 4-6 min between sets

“FRONT END PACE” SETS

5-8 x 50 from dive #1stroke on 50’’/150 recovery]

“BACK END PACE” SETS

n x [50+50+50 № 1stroke on 50”/150 recovery] as ##1, 2 – controlled, #3 race pace.
1-4x [8x25 on 60/55/50/45/40/35/30”]
 28

DEVELOPMENT OF BASIC SPEED/RACE SPEED.

Basic speed training in age group swimmers targets the development of ability to swim fast at
nearly maximal speed with perfect quality of swimming movement. It requires constantly
correspond feeling of speed to effort, stroke rate and distance per stroke and reproduce that
feeling during swimming at target speed.
Stroke count should be the compulsory attribute of speed training from very early ages.

Supplementum 2.
EXERCISES FREQUENTLY USED FOR DEVELOPING ENDURANCE IN AGE-
GROUP SWIMMERS
During maturation, notable and uneven changes in physical abilities, motor skills, and
adaptive reserves occur in young swimmers. Therefore, training methods, volume, and intensity
used for developing distinct types of endurance also should be changed in accordance with
growth rate and maturity factors and trends.
Below are suggestions for basic swimming exercises that could be used for the development
of the four different types of endurance in young swimmers of different ages.
In the examples, abbreviations are used. They are listed below.*
CRD - swimming with full coordination
K - swimming using leg kick only
P - swimming using arm pull only
TR-1, TR-2, TR-3, TR-4 - training categories based upon
heart rates (see Table 4): TR-1 relates to both TR-1a
and TR-1b.
i - rest intervals between swims in interval sets
rest - rest duration between sets in repeated-interval sets
FR - free style (front crawl)
BK - backstroke
BR - breaststroke
BF - butterfly
IM - individual medley
“ - indicates seconds
‘ - indicates minutes
 29

* If a swimming stroke is not designated, the exercise can be executed using free style or a
swimmer’s specialized stroke (other than butterfly).
AGE 8-9 YEARS*
*The age applies to the beginning of a swimming year.
Development of BE-1 (TR-1 and TR-2)
16-40 x 25 i= 5-10 “ - FR, BK, BR (CRD, P or K) with conscious control of swimming
technique (TR-1, TR-2);
16-20 x 50 CRD, P, K i=10”-15”; 8-12 x 100 CRD, P, K i=20-30”;
6-8 x 150-200 CRD, P, K i=20-40”; 1-3 x 400 (TR-1); 1 x 800-1000.
Development of BE-2 (TR-3)
16-20 x 25 i=15-30”; 10-20 x 50 CRD, P, K i=30-40”;
8-20 x 50 (50 CRD + 50 K) i=20-40”; 8-10 x 50 K i=30-40”;
5-10 x 100 (75 CRD + 25 K) i=40-60”; 5-10 x 100 K i=30-60”;
8-12 x 100 IM i=20-40”; 3-5 x 200 K i=40-60”.
Development of SPE (TR-4)
4-16 x 25 CRD, K i=30-60”; 4-6 x 50 FR, K i=60-90”;
1-3 x 100 CRD i=2’-3’.
Development of SPDE (TR-5)
-20 x 10-15 CRD, P, K i=30-40”; 4-8 x 25 CRD, P, K i=40-60”.
AGE 10 YEARS
Development of BE-1
16-30 x 50 (TR-1, 2), i=20”-30”; 8-12 x 100 (TR-1, 2), i=30”-40”;
5-8 x 150-200 i=60”-90”; 3-5 x 300-400 (TR-1) i=2’-3’;
1-3 x 600-800 (TR-1) i=2’-4’; 1-2 x 1000 i=2’-4’;
8-16 x 50 K (TR-2) i=20”-30”; 8-12 x 100 K (TR-1, 2) i=30”-40”;
16-30 x 50 (50 CRD + 50 K TR-2) i=20”-40”; 4-6 x 200 K (TR-1, 2) i=30”-40”;
16-30 x 25 CRD, P, K (TR-2), with conscious control of technique, i=15”-30”;
1-3 x 400 IM (change stroke every 25 or 50 m) i=60”-90”;
1-2 x 400 K i=40”-60”.
Development of BE-2
20-30 x 25 CRD, K i=15”-20”; 16-30 x 50 i=15”-30”;
6-10 x 100 i=30”-40”; 2-4 x 200 i=40”-90”;
2-4 x 400 i=40”-1’20”; 10-16 x 50 K i=20”-30”;
8-16 x 50 BF i=20”-40”; 4-8 x 100 BF i=30”-40”;
3-6 x 200 (50 BF + 50 FR) i=40”-90”; 6-12 x 100 (75 CRD + 25 K) i=30”-40”.
Development of SPE
2-6 x 50 i=1’-2’; 10-12 x 25 CRD, K i=30”-40”;
1-5 x (4 x 25 i=15”-30”) rest=3’-5’; 1-4 x 100 i=2’-4’;
1-3 x 200 i=4’-6’.
Development of SPDE
10-30 x 10-15 CRD, K i=30”-60”; 6-10 x 25 CRD, K i=40”-90”.
AGE 11 YEARS
Development of BE-1
 30

20-40 x 25 all strokes CRD, P, K i=10”-20”; 16-30 x 50 i=15”-30” (TR-2);

10-16 x 100 i=20”-40” (TR-1, 2); 4-8 x 150-200 i=20”-40” (TR-1, 2);
3-5 x 300-400 i=40”-90” (TR-1, 2); 1-3 x 800-1000 i=3’-5’ (TR-1);
3-8 x 200 IM i=30”-60” (TR-1); 6-10 x 100 IM i=20”-30” (TR-1);
3-6 x 200 (25 BF + 25 FR) i=20”-40”; 1-2 x 400 (25 BF + 25 FR) i=2’-3’;
800 K (TR-1); 1-2 x 400 K i=2’-4’ (TR-1, 2);
1 x 1500-2000 (TR-1);
800+400+200+100 specialized stroke i=60”-90”;
800+400+200+100 IM (change stroke every 25 m) i=60”-90”;
1-3 x 800 IM (change stroke every 25 or 50 m) i=90”-3’;
1-4 x 400 IM (change stroke every 25-50 m) i=30”-60”.
Development of BE-2
10-20 x 50 i=20”-40”; 16-30 x 25 CRD, K, P i=30”-60”;
2-5 x (4-5 x 100 i=20”-30”) rest=2’-3’; 4-8 x 200 i=20”-30”;
6-12 x 100 i=30”-60”; 1-4 x 300-400 i=1’-2’;
1 x 800-1000 (FR or IM); 10-16 x 50 BF i=20”-40”;
4-8 x 100 BF i=40”-90”; 2-5 x 200 BF i=40”-90”;
1 x 400 BF (or 400 : 50 BF + 50 FR); 10-16 x 100 K i=20”-40”;
3-6 x 200 K i=30”-60”.
Development of SPE
12-20 x 25 CRD, K i=30”-40”; 4-12 x 50 i=1’-2’;
3-6 x (4 x 25 i=15”-30”) rest=2’-4’; 2-4 x (50+50 i=15”-30”) rest=3-4’;
1-3 x (4-6 x 50 i=15”-30”); 3-8 x 100 i=2’-3’;
4-10 x 50 K i=30-60”; 3-6 x 100 K i=60-90”;
1-4 x 200 K i=2’-4’; 4-6 x 100 BF i=1’30”-2’;
3-4 x 200 BF i = 2’-3’; 3-4 x (4 x 50 IM i=20-30”) rest=2’-4’;
6-10 x 100 IM rest=1’30”-3’; 5 x 200 BF, BK, BR, FR, IM i=4’-5’;
2-4 x 150-200 i=2’-4’;
400+200+200+100+100+50+50 i=3’-3’-3’-2’-2’-1’;
50+100+150+200+150+100+50 i=1’-2’-2’-2’-2’-1’;
Development of SPDE
8-16 x 25 CRD, K i=40”-90”; 20-30 x 15-20 CRD, K i=20”-40”;
2-6 x 30-40 CRD, K i=1’-3’;
tethered swimming using elastic stretch-cords: 15-20 x 12-20 swimming cycles i=30”-40”.
Beginning with the age of 11-12 years, swimmers may be introduced to “hypoxic training” or
“hypoxic breathing patterns” - breathing every 3rd-9th stroke or cycle. It is expected that the
exercises with “hypoxic breathing patterns” performed with relatively slow swimming speed
should cause a deeper physiological response from the cardiorespiratory system than the same
exercises performed with “normal” breathing pattern.
It is recommended that “hypoxic training” be used in training young swimmers for categories
BE-1 and BE-2.
AGE 12 YEARS
(For girls with accelerated biological development start with the age of 11 years)
Development of BE-1
30-40 x 25 any stroke, CRD, P, K i=10’-20”; 20-40 x 50 i=15”-20” (TR-1, 2);
15-20 x 100 i=20”-30” (TR-1, 2); 8-12 x 150-200 i=20”-40” (TR-1, 2);
4-8x 300-400 i=30”-60” (TR-1, 2); 2-4 x 800-1000 i=1’-2’ (TR-1, 2);
 31

1-2 x 1500-2000 i=3’-4’; 1 x 3000;

20-30 x 50 K i=10”-20”; 10-20 x 100 K, P i=15”-30”;
4-8 x 200 K, P i=20”-30”; 1-2 x 400 K i=1’-2’;
6-12 x 200 IM i=20”-30” (TR-2); 10-20 x 100 IM i=20”-30” (TR-2);
3-8 x 200 K-IM i=20”-30” (TR-2); 1-3 x 400 K-IM i=40”-60” (TR-1,2);
1 x 800-1500 K, P;
2-3 x 800 IM (change stroke every 25, 50, or 100 m) i=2’-3’ (TR-1, 2);
3-6 x 400 IM (change stroke every 25, 50, or 100 m) i=1’-3’ (TR-1, 2).
Development of BE-2
40-60 x 25 i=10”-15”; 16-30 x 50 i=20”-30”;
10-16 x 100 i=20”-40”; 4-10 x 150-200 i=40”-90”;
2-4 x 300-400 i=40”-120”; 1-2 x 800-1000 i=1’30”-2’;
1 x 800 IM (change stroke every 25, 50 m) 1 x 1500-2000;
4-8 x 200 IM i=40”-2’; 8-12 x 100 IM i=30”-60”;
20 x 50 IM i=15”-20”; 20 x 50 BF i=20”;
1 x 800 (25-50 BF/ 25-50 FR); 1-3 x 400 (50 BF/50 FR);
2-3 x 400 BF i=50”-90”; 6-10 x 150 BF i=40”-90”;
2-6 x 200 BF i=40”-90”; 8-15 x 100 BF i=30”-60”;
16-20 x 50 K i=20”-30”; 8-12 x 100 K i=30”-40”;
4-6 x 200 K i=40”-60”; 1-2 x 400 K i=2’-3’;
2-4 x 400 IM (change stroke every 25, 50 m) i=3’-4’.
Development of SPE
20-30 x 25 CRD, K, P i=30”-40”; 2-3 x (4 x 25 i=10”-20”) rest=3’-4’;
8-16 x 50 CRD, K i=40”-90”; 4-8 x 100 i=1’30”-3’;
3-5 x 200 i=2’-4’; 4-6 x (50+50 i=7”-10”) rest=3’-5’;
4-6 x (4-6 x 50 i=10”-15”) rest=3’-5’; 2 x (4 x 100 i=15”-20”) rest=3’-5’;
4-8 x 75 i=2’-3’; 2-3 x 400 i=3’-5’;
400+2 x 200+4 x 100+8 x 50 i=3’-2’-2’-2’-1’; 2-3 x (4 x 50+2 x 100+200) i=30”-90”;
6-16 x 50 BF i=40”-60”; 4-8 x 100 BF i=1’-3’;
1-3 x 200 BF i=2’-3’; 1 x 400 BF;
1-2 x 400 IM (change stroke every 50) i=3’-5’; 3-5 x 200 IM i=1’30”-4’;
8-12 x 100 IM i=1’-3’; 16-20 x 50 IM i=40”-90”;
3-5 x (4 x 50 IM i=10”-15”) rest=3’-5’; 4-6 x (4 x 25 IM i=5”-15”) rest=2’-4’;
8-16 x 50 K i=40”-60”; 5-10 x 100 K i=1’-2’;
3-5 x 200 K i=1’30”-3’; 1 x 400 K;
400+200+200+100+100+50+50 i=3’-3’-3’-2’-2’-1’;
Development of SPDE
10-16 x 25 CRD, K i=45”-90”; 15-30 x 15-20 i=30”-60”;
3-8 x 30-40 i=1’30”-2’.
AGE 13 YEARS
(For girls with accelerated biological development start with the age of 12 years)
Development of BE-1
30-60 x 25 any stroke, CRD, P, K i=10”-15”; 20-40 x 50 CRD, P, K i=15”-20” (TR-1, 2);
20-30 x 100 i=15”-30” (TR-1, 2); 15-20 x 150-200 i=20”-40” (TR-1, 2);
6-10 x 300-400 i=30”-60” (TR-1, 2); 3-4 x 800-1000 i=1’-2’;
1-3 x 1500 i=2’-3’; 1 x 2000-3000 (TR-1)
20-30 x 50 K i=15”-20” (TR-2); 16-20 x 100 K i=20”-30” (TR-1, 2);
5-8 x 150-200 K i=20”-30” (TR-1, 2); 1-3 x 300-400 K i=30”-60” (TR-1, 2);
 32

1 x 800-1500 K (TR-1); 4-8 x 200 BF i=30”-40” (TR-2);

20-30 x 50 BF i=20”-30”(TR-2); 10-16 x 100 BF i=30”-40”(TR-2);
10-15 x 200 IM i=15”-30”; 10-20 x 100 IM i=15”-30”;
2-4 x 800 IM (change stroke every 25-50-100 m) i=1’-2’;
4-6 x 400 IM (change stroke every 25-50-100 m) i=30”-60”.
Development of BE-2
20-30 x 50 i=20-40”; 16-20 x 100 i=30”-40”;
8-12 x 150-200 i=30”-90”; 4-8 x 300-400 i=60”-90”;
2-3 x 800-1000 i=2’-3’; 1 x 1500-2000;
20-30 x 50 K i=30”-40”; 10-16 x 100 K i=30”-60”;
3-6 x 150-200 K i=30”-40”; 1-2 x 300-400 K i=2’-3’;
12-20 x 50 BF i=30”-40”; 8-15 x 100 BF i=30”-60”;
3-6 x 200 BF i=40”-90”; 1-3 x 400 BF i=40”-60”;
1 x 800 (50 BF/50 FR); 2-4 x 400 (50 BF/50 FR) i=1’30”-2’;
5-8 x 200 (50 BF/50 FR) i=40:-90”; 12-16 x 100 (25 BF/25 FR) i=40”-60”
6-10 x 200 IM i=40”-90”; 10-16 x 100 IM i=30”-60”;
20 x 50 IM i=30”;
800 + 2 x 400 + 4 x 200 + 8 x 100 + 16 x 50 i=30”;
100+200+400+800+400+200+100 i=40”-90”; 1 x 800 K;
2-3 x (400+300+200+100 i=30”-60”) rest=2’-3’;
1-2 x 800 IM (change stroke every 25, 50, or 100) i=2’-3;’
2-5 x 400 IM (change stroke every 25, 50 or 100) i=1’-2’.
Development of SPE
16-40 x 25 CRD, K, P i=30”-60”; 8-16 x 50 CRD, P, K i=40”-90”;
4-10 x 75-100 i=1’-3’; 3-5 x 200 i=2’-5’;
6-8 x (4 x 25 i=5”-15”) rest=3’-5’; 4-8 x (4-6 x 50 i=7”-15”) rest=4’-5’;
4-8 x (50+50 i=5”-10”) rest=3’-5’; 2-3 x (4 x 100 i=15”-20”) rest=3’-5’;
2-4 x 400 i=3’-5’; 1-2 x (8 x 100 i=10”-15”) rest=4’-5’;
8-16 x 50 BF i=40”-90”; 4-8 x 100 BF i=1’-3’;
2-5 x 200 BF i=2’-3’; 1 x 400 BF;
2-3 x (4-6 x 50 BF i=10”-15”) rest=3’-4’; 1-2 x (200 + 2 x 100 + 4 x 50 BF i=1’);
3-8 x 200 IM i=2’-3’; 5-8 x (4 x 25 IM i=5”-10”) rest=3’-4’;
8-15 x 100 IM i=1’30”-3’; 4-6 x (4 x 50 IM i=5”-10”) rest=3’-5’;
5-8 x (4 x 25 IM i=5”-10”) rest=3’-4’; 3-6 x (8 x 25 K i=10”-15”) rest=3’-4’;
8-20 x 50 K i=40”-60”; 6-12 x 100 K i=1’-2’;
4-6 x 200 K i=1’30”-3’; 1 x 400 K;
K (400+200+100+100+50+50 i=1’30”-2’); 2-4 x (4 x 50 K i=15”-20”) rest=3’-4’;
400 + 200 + 200 + 100 + 100 + 50 + 50 i=3’-1’;
2 x 400 + 4 x 200 + 8 x 100 + 16 x 50 i=2’-1’30”;
400 + 2 x 200 + 4 x 100 + 8 x 50 i=3’-3’-3’-2’-2’-1’;
50 + 50 + 100 + 150 + 200 + 150 + 100 + 50 + 50 i=1’-3’;
2-4 x (200 + 2 x 100 + 4 x 50 or 4 x 50+ 2 x 100 + 200 i=1’-2’) rest=3’-5’;
2-4 x (4 x 25 + 2 x 50 + 100 BF i=10”-15”) rest=2’-3’;
1-3 x 400 IM (change stroke every 50 or 100) i=3’-5’.
Development of SPDE
10-20 x 25 CRD, K i=40”-90” 20-30 x 15-20 CRD, K i=30”-60”;
4-10 x 30-40 i=1’30”-3’;
tethered swimming using stretch-cords: 10-20 x 15”-20” i=40”-90”;
10-20 x 10-15 strokes or cycles i=1’.
 33

AGE 14 YEARS
Development of BE-1
40-80 x 25 i=5”-15” (TR-2); 30-60 x 50 i=5”-20” (TR-1, 2);
15-30 x 100 i=10”-30”; 10-20 x 150-200 i=10”-30” (TR-1, 2);
8-12 x 300-400 i=15”-40” (TR-1, 2); 4-8 x 500-600 i=20”-40” (TR-1, 2);
3-5 x 800-1000 i=30”-90” (TR-1,2); 1-3 x 1500-2000 i=1’-3’ (TR-1, 2);
1 x 3000-5000 (TR-1) 1 x 800-1500 K
20-30 x 50 K i=10”-15”; 10-20 x 100 K i=15”-20”;
6-10 x 150-200 K i=15”-30”; 2-3 x 300-400 K i=30”-40”;
10-20 x 200 IM i=15”-30”; 10-30 x 100 IM i=10”-20”;
3-5 x 800 IM (change stroke every 50, 100 m) i=20”-60”;
4-8 x 400 IM (change stroke every 50, 100 m) i=15”-30”;
Development of BE-2
30-60 x 25 i=15”-20”; 20-40 x 50 i=20”-30”;
15-30 x 100 i=20”-40”; 10-20 x 150-200 i=30”-60”;
5-10 x 300-400 i=30”-90”; 2-4 x 800-1000 i=1’30”-3’;
1 x 1500-3000 3-5 x (6-8 x 100 i=10”-15”) rest=1’30”-2’;
20-30 x 50 K i=20”-30”; 10-16 x 100 K i=20”-40”;
4-8 x 150-200 K i=30”-40”; 3-4 x 300-400 K i=1’-2’;
20-30 x 50 BF i=15”-30”; 15 x 20 x 100 BF i=20”-40”;
8-12 x 150 BF i=20”-40”; 6-8 x 200 BF i=30”-60”;
3-5 x 400 (50 BF/50 FR) i=40”-90”; 8-15 x 200 (50 BF/50 FR) i=30”-60”;
10-15 x 200 IM i=20”-40”; 15 x 20 x 100 IM i=20”-30”;
3-5 x (5 x 200 i=15”-20”) rest=1’30”-2’;
3-4 x (400+300+200+100 i=30”-40”) rest=2’-3’;
800 + 2 x 400 + 4 x 200 + 8 x 100 + 16 x 100 rest=1’-4’;
2-3 x 800 IM (change stroke every 25, 50, 100) i=40”-90”;
3-6 x 400 IM (change stroke every 50, 100) i=30”-60”;
K (400 + 200 + 200 + 100 + 100 + 50 + 50) i=30”-40”.
The exercises belonging to training category BE-2 also include exercises performed within
speeds more appropriate to category BE-1 but with “hypoxic” breathing patterns (breathing
every 3rd-9th stroke or cycle).
Girls 13-14 years and boys 14-15 years of age have to execute significant volumes of BE-1
and BE-2 training while using paddles and other resistance devices (e.g., belts, pails, pockets,
small weights). This is intended to provide simultaneous development of general functional
abilities and strength of the pulling muscles.
Development of SPE
16-30 x 25 CRD, K i=30”-45”; 10-20 x 50 i=40”-90”;
3-6 x (4-8 x 50 i=10”-30”) rest=3’-4’; 6-12 x 75-100 i=2’4’;
3-8 x 100 i=4’-5’; 3-6 x 150-200 i=3’-5’;
1-3 x 400 i=3’-5’; 2-4 x (4 x 100 i=10”-20”) rest=4’-7’;
6-10 x (50+50 i=5”-7”) rest=4’-6’; 4-6 x (100 + 50 i=5”-10”) rest=4’-6’;
400 + 2 x 200 + 4 x 100 + 8 x 50 i=3’-2’; 3-5 x (4x50 K i=10”-15”) rest=3’-4’;
8-16 x 50 K i=40”-90”; 5-8 x 100 K i=40”-120”;
3-5 x 200 K i=1’30”-3’; 1-2 x 400 K i=3’-4’;
8-20 x 50 BF i=40”-90”; 5-10 x 100 BF i=1’-3’;
3-6 x 150-200 BF i=1’-3’; 1-2 x 400 BF i=4’-5’;
2-4 x (4-6 x 50 BF i=5”-10”) rest=4’-5’;
BF (50 + 100 + 150 + 200 + 150 + 100 + 50 i=1’-2’-2’-3’-2’-2’);
 34

1-3 x (200 + 2 x 100 + 4 x 50 BF i=1’-2’) rest=3’-5’;

BF (400 + 200 + 200 + 100 + 100 + 50 + 50 i=3’-3’-3’-2’-2’-1’);
K (400+200+200+100+100+50+50 i=2’-2’-2’-1’-1’-1’);
400 + 200 + 200 + 100 + 100 + 50 + 50 i=3’-2’;
2-4 x (200 + 2 x 100 + 4 x 50 i=1’-1’30”) rest=3’-6’;
50 + 50 + 100 + 200 + 400 + 200 + 100 + 50 + 50 i=1’-1’-2’-3’-3’-3’-2’-1’.
Development of SPDE
8-20 x 25 i=45”-2’; 20-40 x 15-20 i=30”-2’;
8-15 start efforts x 15-20 i=1’-2’; 5-10 x 30-40 i=1’30”-2’;
8-10 x 25 K i=40”-60”; 20-30 x 15-20 K i=40”-60”;
tethered swimming with the usage of stretch-cords:
16-30 x 15”-20” CRD, K, P i=30”-60”; 16-20 x 15-20 strokes or cycles i=40”-60”

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