POL1005S Study Notes:

Section B (John Akokpari)

Q1: What is a state and why is knowledge of the state important in International
Relations?
(Each paragraph represents a paragraph in the essay)

Definition of a state: States, and a systems of states, which are basic features of
political life, are territory-based social organisations which exist primarily to establish,
maintain, and defend basic social conditions and values - which include security,
welfare, justice, and order.

Definition of state in IR: IR understands the state in two different ways. Firstly, as a
government - that which has executive authority over a particular territory and is
equipped with coercive force. Secondly, as a territorial entity - a geographical location
with established boundaries.

The Natural/Social Theory: Humans are social beings and have the natural tendency to
live with other people.

The Patrilineal/Matrilineal Theory: The origin of the state can be traced back to the
family (which is governed by parents). The Patrilineal Theory states that the head of the
family is the father, as the father sired all children in the family - therefore lineage should
be traced through the father. The Matrilineal Theory, in opposition to the Patrilineal,
points out that while the identity of a father is never more than opinion (before the
advent of DNA tests, obviously), the identity of the mother is indisputable - and therefore
lineage should be traced through the mother.

Force Theory: Linked to Darwinism and the “survival of the fittest” ideology, the Force
Theory claims that the origin of the state is conquest and war. Stronger communities
defeated weaker communities and placed them under their control.

Divine Theory: The State was instituted by God, and therefore all rulers and
governments have divine authority and mandate to rule.
Social Contract Theory: Based on the work of Rousseau, Hobbes, and Locke; the
Social Contract Theory states that the state originated with a contract that society
entered into with government - people will obey government and, in return, government
will protect citizens and provide them with security.
Origin of Modern State: Modern State as we know it came into existence with the Treaty
of Westphalia (1648 - the treaty ended the 30 Years War in Europe). Although the first
clear manifestation of the State was Ancient Greece, the Modern State itself was only
truly established and defined at the signing of the treaty. The treaty defined the state
with the following attributes: Sovereignty, Territory, Population, and Government.

Why state is important in IR: The International System (IS) is composed of states,
meaning that a proper understanding of IR requires understanding of the modern state
system. Realism contends that the state is the primary actor in IR, and is therefore the
most important actor. IR only came into existence with the establishment of the state - it
is impossible for either IR or the state to exist without the other. Furthermore, non-state
actors usually view states as their target or object that they wish to influence.

Q2: What is International Relations?

What is IR: IR is the study of the International System (IS), which is comprised of
territorial states that do not acknowledge any superior authority in matters which they
consider to be of vital interest. It also deals with the nature of changing relations
between state and non-state actors.

Origins of IR: According to Hedley Bull, the starting point of all IR is the establishment of
states or independent political communities - each of which possesses a government
and has sovereignty over a particular area. IR is fundamentally a branch of Political
Science that analyses relationships and interactions between actors in the IS. It is also
the study of all the factors and processes that shape International Relations, and
attempts to explain why actors establish or break relations with each other. It became at
autonomous discipline in the 1940s after WW2; its predecessor had been called
Diplomatic History, and analysed relations between royalty.

Q3: Why do we study IR?

International Relations gives us the knowledge to understand and explain key issues in
the International System.
It allows us to understand the changing nature and character of the state as an actor in
International Relations.

It allows us to understand how states manage to survive in the International System.

It allows us to fully understand the behaviour of non-state actors.

It gives us skills like interdisciplinary and collaborative research.

Section A (Lwazi Lushaba)

Why is it impossible for there to be friendship between black people and white
people?

Based largely on the work on the Frantz Fanon - who developed the theory of the White
Self and Black Other (or the White Being and the Black Non-Being) - the idea that white
people and black people cannot be friends primarily comes from the fact that, to exist,
the white person requires that the black person does not exist. I will also argue that
friendship is based on equality, and because black is a structural position of
disadvantage, this friendship is impossible.

To understand the impossibility of this friendship, one has to understand race. Race is a
social construct that can be understood objectively and subjectively through the means
of identity. There are two forms of identity according to anthropologist, Clifford Geertz,
given identity and acquired identity. Given identities are based on particular identifiers or
markers (biological features, phenotypes, etc.) which are objective. Acquired identities
are based on socio-economic circumstances, likes and dislikes, characteristics (accent,
mannerisms), etc which is understood subjectively.

Race is also an identity, and all identities are relative - meaning that it needs something
to compare (i.e. be relative to) itself to. Race as an idea emerged from science, on the
back of Western Modernity, which tried to order the natural world - the study of Geology
revealed that rock formations showed different layers of sediment, from which they
inferred that time was unilinear (applied to everything - even humans).

At the same time, Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution was introduced hence scientist
aimed to find the missing link between people and animals and thus led to notions of
race emerging based on this scientific discourse of lineage, origin and evolution. Thus,
Khoisan people became specimens of the missing link between apes and humans,
people such as the Saartjie Baartman. Inequality based on race and gender was
justified through scientific method which led to the development of Scientific Racism. It
was due to this, people of colour were seen as inferior and thus science legitimised the
colonisation of the non-Western countries by Western countries because people of
colour were less entitled or able to manage the resources they held.

One must also understand that identity is relative meaning in that for one to exist, in
must be in opposition or relation to something else.
For a white person to see themselves as a conscious, self-determined human being,
when they meet a black person that person must immediately become a non-being -
that person must immediately cease to exist for the white identity to make sense of
itself. Therefore friendship, which is between two human beings (two “selves”) between
black and white people is entirely impossible, because any meeting between black and
white is merely that of non-being and being. It must also be noted that friendship is
based on equality, and black and white can never be equal because black is a structural
position of disadvantage and white is a structural position of advantage.

Plurality of Pasts:​​ Under the idea of progress, we all have only one future - we are all
slowly developing towards a Western ideal (democratic, capitalist, industrial). The
implication of a singular future is that we must have all come from a single past - which
is, obviously, ridiculous.

Reason: ​The idea of Reason can be traced back to Renè Descartes. Descartes, in his
meditations, attempted to banish all of his knowledge and use logic to find out whatever
fundamental truths he could. The result of this meditation was “cognito ergo sum” - I
think, therefore I am. This placed new importance on the idea of thinking and the
capability of the human mind to reason - because this was the basis for our entire
existence. This type of thinking led to the end of the era of Theocracy in Europe, and led
to a new age (Medieval Era) where reason was held in even higher esteem than God.

Definition of reason is “the capability of the human mind to comprehend everything”.

The spread of colonialism

David Easton’s Systems Analysis:​​ David Easton’s Systems Analysis addresses the
question of “how do political systems maintain equilibrium/persist”. He defines a Political
System as that which is concerned with the allocation of values in society and has a
monopoly over legitimate use of coercion. The system is
1. Exclusion of Race
a. Race is considered to be one of many factors that influences the
political factors (outside the boundary) – not an important to Easton
b. But in the Colonial world, race is not just a factor, it determines
everything, race effects everything! The whole system is racial

2. Discussion of Change
a. Interested in a particular type of change (Evolutionary piecemeal
change – change that maintains the system)
b. Easton is not interested in destroying or destructing the system – but
the colonial world requires radical and revolutionary change (the only way
to destroy the colonial system)

3. Lack of agency
a. David Easton bases his model on a biological organism – biological
organisms lack agency – but humans beings have agency unlike their
physical bodies (they can pull into different directions aka make choices
for the benefit or the destruction of the system) – your body will work
together
b. Agency means individuals can pull in different directions

Progress: