Engineering Geology Module

Soil Mechanics and Geology Module HWRE-M2101
ODA BULTUM UNIVERSITY

INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF HYDRAULICS AND WATER RESOURCES ENGINEERING
PART III
ENGINEERING GEOLOGY (Geol 2103) MODULE FOR HOLISTIC
EXAM FOR 4TH YEAR HWRE STUDENTS
Volume-I
Prepared by:
1. Shikuri Mahmud (M.Sc)
June, 2020
Chiro, Ethiopia
Oda Bultum University IoT HWRE Page I

PART III ........................................................................................................................ I
ENGINEERING GEOLOGY (Geol 2103) MODULE FOR HOLISTIC EXAM FOR
4TH YEAR STUDENTS .................................................................................................I
List of Figure ............................................................................................................... V
List of Table ............................................................................................................. VIII
Rationale and objective of the module ......................................................................... IX
1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................. 1
1.1 Definition of Geology and Engineering Geology ............................................. 1
1.2 Scope and Application of engineering geology ................................................ 2
1.3 The earth's interior structure and its composition ............................................. 4
2 GEOLOGICAL MATERIALS (MINERAL AND ROCK) .................................... 11
2.1 Mineral.......................................................................................................... 11
2.1.1 Rock Forming Minerals ............................................................................. 15
2.1.2 Application of minerals ............................................................................. 19
2.2 Rock .............................................................................................................. 20
2.2.1 Rock Cycle ................................................................................................ 20
2.2.2 Igneous Rock Formation ........................................................................... 21
2.2.2.1 Classification of igneous rocks ........................................................... 21
2.2.2.2 Structures of Igneous rocks ................................................................ 24
2.2.2.3 Engineering considerations of igneous rocks ...................................... 27
2.2.3 Sedimentary rock formation ................................................................... 28
2.2.3.1 Types of sedimentary Rocks ............................................................... 31
Clastic Rocks ....................................................................................................... 31
2.2.4 Engineering consideration of Sedimentary rocks ....................................... 36
2.2.5 Metamorphic rock formation ..................................................................... 37

Oda Bultum University IoT HWRE Page II
2.2.5.1 Types of metamorphism ..................................................................... 38
2.2.5.2 Engineering consideration of metamorphic rocks ............................... 40
2.2.6 Geological structures of rocks ................................................................... 41
2.2.6.1 Deformation of rocks.......................................................................... 41
2.2.6.2 Fold, Fault and Joints ......................................................................... 43
3 IN SITU TESTING METHODS........................................................................... 57
3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 57
3.2 In-situ Tests for Rock Mass ........................................................................... 58
3.2.1 Measurement of Deformability .................................................................. 58
3.2.2 Measurement of In-situ Shear stress .......................................................... 62
3.2.3 The Assessment of the Rock Permeability ................................................. 63
4 ENGINEERING GEOLOGY AND EARTH PROCESSES .................................. 71
4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 71
4.2 Types of Earth Processes ............................................................................... 71
4.2.1 Safety, Risk and Geological Forecasting .................................................... 72
4.2.2 Risk Assessment for Natural Earth Processes ............................................. 72
4.2.3 Earthquake Induced Processes ................................................................... 73
4.2.3.1 A Basic Landslides/ Rockslides Classification System ........................ 75
4.2.3.2 Causative classification ...................................................................... 76
4.2.4 Geological work of rivers (streams) ....................................................... 84
Erosional features of stream ................................................................................. 85
4.2.5 Geological work of sea (ocean) ................................................................. 89
4.2.6 Geological work of wind ........................................................................ 92
Features of wind erosion ...................................................................................... 93
Types of sand dunes ............................................................................................. 95

Oda Bultum University IoT HWRE Page III
4.2.7 Geological work of glaciers ................................................................... 97
5 ENGINEERING GEOLOGICAL SITE INVESTIGATION ................................ 102
5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 102
5.2 Phase of Site investigation ........................................................................... 103
5.3 Geological considerations in Engineering Structures.................................... 109
5.3.1 Investigation of Dam site ......................................................................... 109
5.3.2 Investigation of Reservoirs Sites .............................................................. 119
5.3.3 Investigation of tunnel site....................................................................... 121
5.3.4 Investigation of bridge sites ..................................................................... 126
6 QUARRIES AND THEIR PRODUCTS ............................................................. 130
6.1 Definition of Quarry .................................................................................... 130
6.2 Types of quarries ......................................................................................... 130
6.3 The controlling factor for selection of quarry site......................................... 130
6.4 Quarrying methods ...................................................................................... 131
16.5 Quarry hazards ............................................................................................... 133
6.5 Rocks as building materials ......................................................................... 133
6.6 Properties of Building Stones ...................................................................... 134
6.7 Rocks used as building and industrial materials ........................................... 136
References ................................................................................................................ 139
Oda Bultum University IoT HWRE Page IV

List of Figure
Figure 1. 1 The internal division of the earth (source: Samuel Abraham lecture notes) .. 5
Figure 1.2 Composition of interior of earth layers (source:John Wiley and sons,1999) .. 8
Figure 1.3 locations of lithosphere and Asthenosphere (source: Plummer, McGe,2003,
McGraw-Hill) ............................................................................................................... 9
Figure 2. 1 Cleavages of Minerals 13
Figure 2.2 the rock cycle (source: Krynine, 2001) ....................................................... 21
Figure 2. 3 Flow structure ........................................................................................... 25
Figure 2. 4(a) Vesicular structure (b) Amygdaloidal structure .................................. 26
Figure 2.5 Columnar structure ..................................................................................... 26
Figure 2.6 sheet structure ............................................................................................ 26
Figure 2.7 Cross bedding structure .............................................................................. 37
Figure 2.8 rigid body deformations ............................................................................. 42
Figure 2.9 Non- rigid body deformations..................................................................... 42
Figure 2. 10 Anticline (A) Syncline (B) and Monocline(C) with respect to the relation
between the fold limbs (Bell F.G. (2007)..................................................................... 45
Figure 2. 11 Fault classification. Dip slip movement: displacement along normal fault
(A) cause layers to be absent over specific horizontal trajectories; in reversed faulting
(B) the layers overlap over some horizontal distance. Strike slip faulting (C) does not
show overlap or gaps in specific layers. (Bell F.G.,2007) ............................................ 51
Figure 2.12 Types of fault (a)normal fault, (b) reverse fault (c)strike slipe
fault,(d)oblique slip fault,FW= footwall, HW=hanging wall, AB=throw, BC
=heave,arrow show the dirction of the relative displecament (Bell F.G., 2007) ............ 53
Figure 3. 1 Dilatometer or Gallery test 59
Figure 3. 2 Radial Jacking Test (Goodman,1993) ........................................................ 61
Figure 3.3Flat jack test ................................................................................................ 62
Figure 3.4 Equipment for in situ direct shear test (Goodman, 1993) ............................ 63
Figure 3.5 Water Pressure test with double packer ...................................................... 65
Figure 3. 6 Lugeon patterns for various occurrences during testing: their interpretation
and percentage occurrences (After Houlsby, 1976)...................................................... 66
Figure 3.7 Lugeon Test ............................................................................................... 68
Figure 4. 1Relationship between intensity and ground acceleration 75
Oda Bultum University IoT HWRE Page V

Figure 4. 2 Seismic risk map of Ethiopia 100 years return period, 0.99 probability,
(After LaikeMariam Asfaw, 1986) .............................................................................. 76
Figure 4. 3 plane failure .............................................................................................. 78
Figure 4. 4 Circular failure .......................................................................................... 79
Figure 4. 5 Toppling failure ........................................................................................ 79
Figure 4. 6 Raveling Slopes ........................................................................................ 80
Figure 4. 7 shows ox-bow lakes and meandering rivers(Richard John Huggett,2011) .. 85
Figure 4. 8 Alluvial fan(Richard John Huggett,2011) .................................................. 87
Figure 4. 9 Flood plain and natural levees ................................................................... 87
Figure 4.10 Point bars. (Richard John Huggett, 2011) ................................................. 88
Figure 4. 11 Deltas deposition structure ...................................................................... 89
Figure 4. 12 Head lands and bays ................................................................................ 90
Figure 4. 13 Sea cliff ................................................................................................... 91
Figure 4. 14 sea cliff and wave-cut terrace H.T.L = Higher tide level and L.T.L =
lower tide level. P = Plat form or wave cut terrace ...................................................... 91
Figure 4. 15 Oasis ....................................................................................................... 93
Figure 4. 16 Ventifacts or driekenters .......................................................................... 93
Figure 4. 17 Mushroom rock ....................................................................................... 94
Figure 4. 18 Normal dunes, W= wind direction, WW= wind ward, LW= Lee ward and
C=crest 95
Figure 4. 19 Longitudinal dunes, W=wind direction .................................................... 96
Figure 4. 20 Barchans dune ......................................................................................... 96
Figure 4. 21 valley glacier ........................................................................................... 98
Figure 4. 22 Piedmont glaciers .................................................................................... 98
Figure 4. 23 Sheet ice .................................................................................................. 99
Figure 5. 1 A gravity dam and its parts 110
Figure 5.2 Earth dam................................................................................................. 110
Figure 5.3 Gravity dam ............................................................................................. 111
Figure 5.4(a). Side view of an arch dam and (b) Top view of an arch dam ................. 112
Figure 5.5(a) Side view and (b) Top view of Buttress dam ........................................ 112
Figure 5.6 Dam on the strata gently dipping upstream ............................................... 116
Oda Bultum University IoT HWRE Page VI

Figure 5.7 Dam on strata dipping downstream .......................................................... 117

Figure 5.8(a) Influent and (b) Effluent river condition at reservoir site ...................... 120
Figure 5.9 Tunnels .................................................................................................... 121
Figure 5.10 Tunnel along the strike line .................................................................... 122
Figure 5.11 Tunnel across the strike line of the rocks ................................................ 123
Figure 5.12 A= Tunnel along crest and, B= Tunnel along trough............................... 124
Figure 5.13 Tunnel aligned parallel to fold axis through limbs .................................. 124
Figure 5.14 Tunnel aligned perpendicular to fold axis through limbs a) in anticline b)
syncline .................................................................................................................... 125
Oda Bultum University IoT HWRE Page VII

List of Table
Table 2. 1 Mohs scale of mineral hardness (Source: Roberts & Foster, Geology for
Engineers,5th edition) ................................................................................................. 13
Table 3. 1 Examples of Typical Lugeons values 67
Table 3. 2 Range of Lu values for a grout curtain below embankment dam ................. 69
Table 4. 1 Description of the 12 levels of Earthquake intensity on the Modified
Mercalli Scale (Hays,1980) 74
Table 4.2 the basic landslide classification system (Source: Indian Standard Code) ..... 77
Table 5- 1 the electrical resistivity value of subsurface material 107
Oda Bultum University IoT HWRE Page VIII

Rationale and objective of the module

 Students will learn the fundamentals of Engineering Geology and importance of
geology in planning and design of engineering works infrastructures.
 To provide an introduction to the geotechnical significance of earth material, rock
defects, structural geology, geomorphology and geological hazards in different civil
engineering practice.
At the end of this module, students will be able:
 At the end of the course, students will be introduced to the relevant terminology,
classification and concepts with the aim of ensuring effective communication
between engineers and engineering geologists/geologists
 Introduce the various rock types, their formation, mineralogical composition,
physical properties of rock units and their implication to Civil Engineering
practices
 Acquire a basic understanding of the principles of site investigation and able to
conduct geotechnical and engineering geological site investigation
Oda Bultum University IoT HWRE Page IX

CHAPTER ONE
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Definition of Geology and Engineering Geology
What is Geology?
Geology (from Greek, Geo = Earth, Logos =science) is the science that deals with the
study of earth as a whole. Thus, it is the science, which deals with the origin, age, and
structure of the earth. Furthermore, it studies the evolution, modification and extinction
of surface and subsurface features. Similarly Geology also includes the study of
various natural dynamic (earthquake (seismic force), volcanic eruption etc.) and
physiochemical processes (weathering, erosional and deposional) operating on and in
the earth, and the agents, forces involved and evolved in such processes.
What is Engineering Geology?
Engineering geology is part of geology that deals with the interrelationship between
geology and civil engineering. The international association of Engineering geologists
(IAEG) defined Engineering geology as the science devoted to the investigation, study
and solution of the engineering and environmental problems which may arise as the
result of interaction between geology and the works and activities of man as well as to
the prediction and the development of measures for prevention or remediation of
geological hazards.
It solely exists to serve the art and science of engineering through the description and
attributes of the rocks connected with engineering. It is concerned with mapping and
characterizing all the materials proximate to the project. To identify and evaluate
natural hazards that affect engineering works
Oda Bultum University IoT HWRE Page 1

Engineering geology is the application of geological data, techniques and principles to
the study of rock and soil surfacing materials, and ground water. This is essential for the
proper location, planning, design, construction, operation and maintenance of
engineering structures.
1.2 Scope and Application of engineering geology
Engineering geology deals with the geotechnical study of the construction sites and
construction materials. It has a great importance in safe, economic and stable designs
of engineering projects. The followings are some of engineering fields where
knowledge of geology is involved.
(a) In construction jobs
In all types of heavy construction jobs which include buildings, towers, dams,
reservoirs, high ways and bridges, traffic and hydropower tunnels, embankments and
retaining structure, geological information about the site of construction and
construction material is important.
In the matter of planning of an engineering project, geology serves the engineer in the
following ways:
(i) It provides the engineer with a general guidance about the suitability of site for a
proposed project. Some of the geological characters that have a direct or indirect
impact on the design of a proposed project are:
 The existence of hard bed rocks and their depth and inclination from the
ground surface
 Mechanical properties of rocks along the proposed site, especially their
bearing strength, shear strength, modulus of elasticity, permeability and
resistance to decay and disintegration.

 Presence of structurally weak planes (joints, faults, and fractures), peat
deposit, glacial deposit and sheared beds especially at critical regions of the
site selected for the project.
(ii) It enables him to appreciate the limiting factors imposed upon his
planning by topography, geomorphology, and ground water conditions
of the area.
(iii) It gives him a general idea about the availability of different types of
construction materials.
(iv) It guides him in limiting the exploratory operations (drilling etc) for
selecting the final site.
The engineer, who is responsible for the quality control of the construction materials,
will be greatly benefited by his geological background of the natural materials such as
sands, gravels, crushed rocks etc.
Similarly for construction in geologically sensitive areas like in coastal belts and
seismic regions geological information is important. In coastal regions the behavior of
rocks towards the sea should be studied before planning and designing of the project in
these areas. In the seismic zones, which are frequently visited by earth quakes; the past
seismic history of the area will enable the engineer to assess nature and magnitude of
danger to a proposed civil structure from seismic shocks.
(b) In town and regional planning:
Engineering geology contributes significantly towards better town and regional
planning by providing the planning engineer a broad perspective of nature and
properties of the materials that make the landscape of the area or region and
delineating the hazard prone areas.
(c) In water resources development:

In exploitation of water for human use from both surface and subsurface sources, the
engineer has to depend to a great extent on the geological information. Study of the
water cycle is an essential prerequisite for planning and execution of major water
development programs. This obviously involves understanding of the water bearing
properties of the rocks as well as the factors that influence the movement of water
through them.
(d) In Miscellaneous fields:
Geology is becoming important in many other engineering fields of activity of the
modern times. These include land evaluation, oceanography, space exploration and
nuclear explosion for industrial and engineering purposes.
1.3 The earth's interior structure and its composition
Earth has a three-fold shell like internal structure namely crust, mantle, and core. Fig
12.1 shows the internal division of the earth.
The boundary between each internal shell is demarcated based on a major change in the
nature of the medium at particular depth. Such particular depth where there is a major
change in nature of the medium is called seismic discontinuity.

Figure 1. 1 The internal division of the earth (source: Samuel Abraham lecture notes)
The two most important seismic discontinuities are: (i) The Mohorovicic and (ii)
Gutenberg discontinuity:
(i) The Mohorovicic discontinuity: is crust-mantle discontinuity. It occurs at depths
corresponding to 33-35km below the continental crust and 5-6 km below the oceanic
crust.
(ii) The Gutenberg discontinuity: is the mantle-core discontinuity. It occurs at the
depth of 2898 km below the surface of the earth.
The earth internal structure can be characterized based on composition and
mechanical/ physical properties
Based on Composition the earth has three layers, crust, mantle and core
(a) Crust:

Crust is the upper most shell of earth, which extends to an average depth of 35 km
below continents and 5km below oceans. Thus it could be divided in to two divisions
as Continental crust (30-40 km) and Oceanic crust (~6 km).
The Mohorovicic discontinuity marks its lower boundary. The continental crust has
two layers or regions separated by minor discontinuity called Conrad discontinuity.
These are A-layer and B- layer.
A-layer is the upper zone, which has granitic composition. The granitic layer of the
crust is discontinuous below oceans. It is made up of mostly light density, light colored
silicates of Al (aluminum) and K (Potassium). There for this layer is referred SIAL
(aluminum-silicate) in composition.
B-layer is the lower zone, which has basaltic composition. The basaltic layer of crust
is continuous forming the base of the ocean. It is also continuous where the granitic
layer rests upon it. It is made up predominantly of basic minerals, which are rich in Mg
(magnesium silicates). They are also referred as SlMA. These silicates are dark
coloured and have high density.
Oceanic Crust is the lower limit of crust with 5km average thickness, Basaltic in
composition, rocks which are heavy in density (when compared to the crustal
materials), black (dark) in color and young in age (< 180 Million years). They are
continuous below continents.
Generally the crust is much thinner than any of the other layers, and is composed of the
least dense calcium (Ca) and sodium (Na) aluminum-silicate minerals. Being relatively
cold, the crust is rocky and brittle, so it can fracture easily in earthquakes.
(b) Mantle:

This is the zone, which constitutes the largest internal subdivision of earth by mass and
volume. It lies below the crust everywhere. This zone continues up to a depth of
2898km. The most appropriate rocks that make up the mantle would be similar to
peridotite, dunite, and eclogite. It is generally agreed that at least 90% of the mantle by
mass can be presented in terms of oxides Feo, MgO and SiO 2 and 5-10% oxides CaO,
Al2O3 and Na2O.
There are two main divisions:
 Upper mantle (upper 660km): It is presumed that if the entire mantle had been as
stiff, the outer shell of the earth would stay put. This stiff layer of the mantle and
the overlying crust are referred to as the lithosphere. The lithosphere is
approximately 80-km thick.
 Lower mantle (660-2863km = also called Mesosphere): Considering the
vagueness in defining the lower boundary of the asthenosphere it would be
expected that the thickness and material properties of the mesosphere are not well
known.
It is expected to have stiffness somewhere between those of the lithosphere and the
asthenosphere.
(c) Core:
It is the inner subdivision of earth that begins at 2898km below the surface and extends
up to 6370km that is the center of the earth. Core has two zones. These are the outer
and inner zones.
The outer part of core is fluid like in its nature. The inner core is believed to start at
5121 km and extends up to the center. This part is believed to be more near to solid
substances in its nature. The composition of interior of earth is shown as fig.12.2

Figure 1.2 Composition of interior of earth layers (source:John Wiley and sons,1999)
Outer (660km) zone of earth divided into layers based on mechanical properties. These
are:
Lithosphere
Asthenosphere
 Lithosphere
 Rigid and brittle outer layer of earth including crust and part of upper mantle.
 Average 100km thick; thicker under continents
 Asthenosphere
 Weak, ductile layer under lithosphere
 Lower boundary about 660km

 entirely in lower to upper mantle
Figure 1.3 locations of lithosphere and Asthenosphere (source: Plummer, McGe,2003,

McGraw-Hill)
Studying Earth internal structure
How do we know the interior of the earth? By studying:-
 Average density of earth (5.5 g/cm3), which is denser than crust and mantle
materials.
 Composition of meteorites:
o Stony meteorites same with crustal materials
o Stony-iron meteorites same with mantle
o Iron meteorites same with core.
o Seismic wave velocities: depend on the material properties such as composition,
packing structure, temperature, and pressure of the media through which seismic
waves pass.

 Laboratory experiments of materials from both extra-terrestrial and terrestrial
materials.
 Earth’s magnetic field
Questions
1. Explain the importance of engineering geology for civil or hydraulic engineering
practice?
2. What are the techniques that Earth scientists use to determine the internal
structures of earth?
3. Compare and contrast the oceanic and continental crust?
4. Why Asthenosphere Layer became weak and behaves like plastic?

CHAPTER TWO
2 GEOLOGICAL MATERIALS (MINERAL AND ROCK)
2.1 Mineral
A mineral is defined to be a naturally occurring element or chemical compound
possessing a definite crystalline structure based on regular arrangement of constituent
atoms and ions. A mineral is said to be a mineral if:
 It is natural
 It is inorganic
 It is structurally homogeneous solid with definite crystalline structure
 It has a well-defined regular internal arrangement of its constituent atoms and
ions
 It has a definite chemical composition which can be expressed by chemical
formula.
 It has a definite set of physical properties that are fixed within certain limits.
Example hardness, density, color, etc.
Based on the above definition, Hg is mineral but not solid, water in the form of ice is a
mineral but not in liquid state. Coal and petroleum is not minerals but mineral fuels.
In order to understand how rocks vary in composition and properties, it is necessary to
know the variety of minerals that commonly occur in them, and to identify a rock it is
necessary to know which minerals are present in it. There two techniques to identify
minerals:
 The study of hand specimen of minerals
 The examination of thin section of a mineral with a help of a microscope.

While most minerals can be identified by chemical analysis, it much more convenient
to identify minerals by examining their physical characteristics for engineers. Most
minerals grow as a crystal from cooling chemical solutions, and under suitable
conditions, will develop a distinctive crystal form. Important properties that are used to
identify minerals by hand specimens are as follow:
1. Colour: color is not good diagnostic tool to use in identifying minerals. Most
minerals are found in various colors depending on such factors as subtle variation in
composition and the presence of impurities. Quartz for example ranges through the
spectrum through clear colorless crystals to purple, red, white, yellow, gray and black.
But a few minerals possess distinctive colors which are characteristics of them and can
be easily identified by their colors. Example: Sulfur-yellow, Azurite blue,
malachite-green, Chromite-black, cinnabar-red.
2. Streak: streak is the color of the mineral in powdered form and is usually a better
diagnostic tool than the color of a large specimen. Example, the mineral pyrite has a
gold color but a black streak whereas gold has a gold streak- the same color as that of
the large grain. The streak of some minerals is completely different from their color.
Example hematite (black) has red streak.
3. Cleavage: Most minerals can be cleaved along certain specific crystallographic
directions which are related to planes of weakness. The tendency of a crystalline
substance to split or break along smooth planes, parallel to zone of weak bonding in
crystal structure, If the bonds are especially weak in a given direction as in mica or
halite perfect cleavage occurs with ease and breaking the mineral in any other direction
other than the cleavage plane is difficult.

Figure 2. 1 Cleavages of Minerals
4. Hardness
Hardness is the measure of the ease with which the surface of a mineral can be
scratched. This property is easily determined and used widely for field identification of
minerals. In 1822 Fredric Mohs, an Australian Mineralogist, devised a scale, now
Mohs scale of hardness based on the ability of one mineral to scratch the other
minerals. This scale is relative and goes from 1 to 10 (Table13.1). Minerals with a
given Mohs hardness can scratch the surface of any mineral that has a lower hardness
than itself. The hardness of the mineral depends on the strength of its chemical bond.
Table 2. 1 Mohs scale of mineral hardness (Source: Roberts & Foster, Geology for
Engineers,5th edition)
Minerals Scale #
Talc:Mg3Si4O10(OH)2 1
Gypsum:CaSO4.2H2O 2
Calcite:CaCO3 3
Fluorite:CaF2 4
Apatite:Ca5(PO4)3(OH,ClF) 5
Orthoclase: KAlSi3O8 6
Quartize:SiO2 7
Topaz:Al2SiO4(OH,F)2 8
Corundum:Al2O3 9
Diamond: C(pure carbon 10

5. Luster
Luster is the way the surface of the mineral reflects light. Luster quality is controlled
by the kind of atoms present and their bonding, both of which affect the way light
passes through or is reflected by the mineral. Ionically bonded crystals tend to be
glassy or vitreous but covalently bonded materials are more variable.
Examples of mineral luster are listed below:
 Metallic: Strong reflection produced by opaque substances
 Vitreous: bright as in glass
 Resinous: the characteristics of resin such as amber
 Pearly: the whitish iridescence of such materials as in pearl
 Silky: the shine of fibrous substance such as silk (such as its smoothness and
transparency).
6. Crystal Habit
It refers to the geometric form of a crystal which develops, if the crystal is allowed to
grow in unrestricted environment. The shape of a crystal is the reflection of internal
arrangement of atoms. If atoms are arranged in a long chain, the crystal may be long
cylinder, like .needle. If atoms are arranged in a box like network, the crystal will be in
the form of a cube. Quartz for example forms long hexagonal crystals.
7. Specific gravity
Specific gravity relates the mineral mass to the mass of an equal volume of water,
namely the density of the material. While most minerals, including all the common
rock-forming minerals, have a specific gravity of 2.5-3.5, a few are noticeably more or
less dense, e.g. several sulfide minerals have high specific gravity compared to the
common rock-forming minerals. It depends on the kind of atom making up the mineral

and how closely they are packed in a crystal structure clearly; the more numerous and
compact the atoms the higher the specific gravity.
8. Transparency
Transparency is a measure of how clearly an object can be seen through a crystal
2.1.1 Rock Forming Minerals
Minerals probably originated as crystals precipitated from a solution to form a
crystalline rock; they are then released as individual mineral grains when weathering
and erosion of the parent rock disintegrated it into pieces the size of mineral crystals.
Finally, the mineral grains were transported and deposited as a sand to form sandstone
were again and again eroded, contributing their constituent grains to sediments that
were redeposited and again lithified as a new sandstone. The rock forming minerals
are, in large part, silicates, and the remains are, for the most part, carbonates, oxides,
hydroxides, and Sulphate.
Mineral Groups: Minerals are grouped based on their chemical compositions. The most
important groups of minerals include:
 Native elements: gold, silver, cooper, platinum Sulphur etc.
 Sulphate: Gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O), barite (BaSO4)
 Oxides: Chromite, Magnetite (Fe3O4), hematite (Fe2O3 )
 Carbonates: Calcite (CaCO3), Dolomite (Ca, Mg) CO3 , Magnesite (MgCO3)
 Halides: Halite (Nacl), Fluorite (CaF2), Silvite (KCl)
 Sulphides: Pyrite (FeS2), Galena (PbS), sphalerite (Zns)
 Phosphates: apatite (Ca5 (PO4)3(F,OH,Cl)
 Arsenide: Realgar (AsS), Orpiment (As2S3)
 Silicates: Olivine ((Mg,Fe)2SiO4,Amphibole (Mg7Si8O22(OH)2,quartz (SiO2)

The silicates, the strongest and the hardest of these, are constructed of silica
tetrahedral, SiO4, with shared corners. The common rock forming minerals are formed
mainly of combinations of these important elements, and most of them are silicates.
Silicate minerals can be distinguished as:
 Light-colored minerals( feldspar and feldspathoidal)
 Dark coloured minerals (amphiboles, pyroxene etc.)
 Platy mineral that cleave easily in to very thin flakes( mica and clay minerals)
 Feldspar and feldspathoidal-light Colour minerals
The feldspar minerals are very frequently occurring, especially in the intrusive and
metamorphic rocks.
They are light colored, anhydrous, alumino silicate containing variable proportion of
K, Na and Ca. There are three end members of the feldspar series: the calcium
feldspar, anorthite, and the two alkali feldspar Albite (Na-Al silicate) and potassium
feldspar (K-Al silicates). The K-feldspar (or orthoclase feldspar) occurs in igneous
rocks which are relatively rich in silica.
The feldspars are relatively quickly altered at the earth’s surface notably by hydrolysis,
which brings about more soluble ions and a certain amount of silica. In this way
feldspar give rise to different clay minerals according to the environmental condition
due to weathering. Feldspatoid are alkali rich alumino silicates, which are poorer in
silica than true feldspar.
Quartz: Quartz (SiO2) has an atomic structure built of interlocked tetrahedral. It is
colorless when pure, but small amount of impurities may produce one of the ranges of
Colour varieties.
Muscovite: Muscovite is a light colored member of mica group, which has a similar
structure and crystal form to biotite. It occurs in silica-rich igneous rock together with
quartz. It is particularly common in veins of coarse granite-like rock (pegmatite) and
may be mined from them to be used as sheets having good thermal or electrical
insulation. It also present in many sedimentary and metamorphic rocks. Like other
micas, muscovite alters to clay minerals, particularly illite and montmorillonite.
Dark-coloured silicate minerals
Dark coloured silicate minerals range from vitreous to dull in luster. The important
minerals in this group are: olivine, pyroxene, hornblende, biotite and garnet.
Olivine: - is a mineral formed at high temperature which crystallizes early from a basic
magma to from well-shaped Mg and Fe-silicates varying from yellow to green. The
general formula is (Mg,Fe)2 SiO4. Example, Mg2SiO4-Foreterite, Fe2SiO4-Fayalite This
group is usually found in igneous rock and constitutes 3% by volume.
Pyroxene: They are single chain silicates. They are Mg, Fe, Ca silicates showing black
to green Colour. The general formula is X2Y2O6 where X= Ca, Fe, Mg and Y=Si, Al
Example; Wollastonite, Ferrosilite and Enstatite. They usually occur basic igneous
rocks and constitute 11% by volume of minerals in the earth’s crust.
Hornblende: is a common mineral in igneous rocks with average of silica. It
crystallizes from magma containing appreciable amount of water and can be said to be
wet. Mineral, since it contains hydroxyl group in its structure. It is not very stable
when weathered at the earth’s surface and it is rarely found in sediments.
It is, however, a common constituent of metamorphic rocks. These are double chain
silicates consisting of Mg, Fe, Ca, K, Mn, Ti, and Na. The general formula for this
group is X2-3Y5Z8O22(OH)2 where X=Ca, K, Na Y=Mg, Fe, Al, Ti and Z=Si, Al. The
hornblende is usually found in basic to intermediate igneous rock and constitutes 5%
by volume of earth’s crust.

Biotite: is the dark-coloured member of mica group of minerals. Biotite usually
crystallizes from magma containing water at a late stage in solidification. It is common
in igneous rocks which are relatively rich in silica, and also in sediments and in
metamorphic rocks.
Garnet: garnets are independent tetrahedron silicates and are formed most commonly
in metamorphic rocks, although small fractions crystallize in igneous rocks as well.
Red garnet is the most common, but pink, brown, yellow and bright green also known.
Non silicate minerals
Carbonates: The carbonate minerals consist of those minerals containing the anion
(CO3)2-and include calcite and aragonite (both calcium carbonate), dolomite
(magnesium/calcium carbonate) and siderite (iron carbonate). Carbonates are
commonly deposited in marine settings when the shells of dead planktonic life settle
and accumulate on the sea floor. Carbonates are also found in evaporitic settings and
also in karst regions, where the dissolution and reprecipitation of carbonates leads to
the formation of caves, stalactites and stalagmites.
2. Oxides: Oxide minerals are extremely important in mining as they form many of the
ores from which valuable metals can be extracted. They also carry the best record of
changes in the Earth's magnetic field.
They commonly occur as precipitates close to the Earth's surface, oxidation products of
other minerals in the near surface weathering zone, and as accessory minerals in
igneous rocks of the crust and mantle. Common oxides include hematite (iron oxide),
magnetite (iron oxide), chromite (iron chromium oxide), spinel (magnesium
aluminum oxide. a common component of the mantle), ilmenite (iron titanium oxide),
rutile (titanium dioxide), and ice (hydrogen oxide). The oxide class includes the oxide
and the hydroxide minerals.

3. Sulphides: Many sulfide minerals are economically important as metal ores.
Common sulfides include pyrite (iron sulfide (FeS 2) commonly known as fools' gold),
chalcopyrite (copper iron sulfide), pentlandite (nickel iron sulfide), and galena (lead
sulfide). The sulfide class also includes the selenides, the tellurides, the arsenide, the
antimonides, the bismuthinides, and the sulfosalts (sulfur and a second anion such as
arsenic).
4. Sulphate: Sulfate minerals all contain the sulfate anion SO42- Sulfates commonly
form in evaporitic settings where highly saline waters slowly evaporate, allowing the
formation of both sulfates and halides at the water-sediment interface. Sulfates also
occur in hydrothermal vein systems as gangue minerals along with sulfide ore
minerals. Another occurrence is as secondary oxidation products of original sulfide
minerals. Common sulfates include anhydrite (calcium sulfate), celestine (strontium
sulfate), barite (barium sulfate), and gypsum (hydrated calcium sulfate). The sulfate
class also includes the chromate, molybdate, selenite, sulfite, tellurite, and tungstate
minerals.
2.1.2 Application of minerals
Minerals are used for many purposes. Some of them are-
 Agriculture - fertilizers (superphosphate, limestone, dolomite)
 Automotive industries - steel, high temperature ceramics (spark plugs, cylinder
heads), Sulphur (used in vulcanizing of rubber), lead and antimony (batteries) etc.
 Building materials - cement (from calcite,), bricks (from clay and shale), glass
(from quartz sand), plaster (from gypsum)
 Chemical industries - manufacture of paints, paper, ceramics, glass ,

 Rocks Cooking (salt, baking powder)
 Currency - coinage (copper, bronze, nickel, silver, gold)
 Electronics, copper electrical wiring, computers, space industry - gold, silver,
copper, silicon, uncommon metals (gallium, tantalum, tungsten), special glasses
and ceramics
 Jewellery and decorative items (gemstones, gold, silver, platinum)
 Metallurgy and metal smelting - iron, steel, copper, bronze, brass, lead, zinc, gold,
silver, aluminum, special metal alloys etc.
 Plumbing - copper, lead
 Surgery, medicines, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics (titanium, tantalum and stainless
steel implants), dietary supplements (zinc and iron tablets), talcum powder (from
talc) and many others.
2.2 Rock
A Rock is a naturally formed, consolidated material usually composed of grains of one
or more minerals.
Rocks found in the earth's crust are subdivided into three based on their mode of
formation and occurrence:
• Igneous rocks
• Sedimentary rocks
• Metamorphic rocks
2.2.1 Rock Cycle
The rock cycle shows how one type of rocky material gets transformed into another.
This Representation of is how rocks are formed, broken down, and processed in

response to changing conditions. The Arrows indicate possible process paths within the
cycle
Figure 2.2 the rock cycle (source: Krynine, 2001)
2.2.2 Igneous Rock Formation
Igneous rock- is formed from melted rock that has cooled and solidified in and on earth
surface. Magma poured from volcanic vents, which are termed as lava. Magma
contains suspended crystals and bubbles of gases. Magma is a molten rock, igneous
rocks form when magma solidifies
2.2.2.1 Classification of igneous rocks
Igneous rocks are classified based on:
* Mode of occurrence
* Texture

* Composition
Mode of Occurrence
1. Intrusive rocks: those rocks which are formed beneath the surface of the earth by
slow cooling magma. The magma cools so slowly that there is enough time for the
formation of coarse-grained crystals and correspondingly coarse grained rocks. E.g.
Gabbro, Granite, etc
2. Extrusive rocks: rocks which are formed by rapid cooling of lava on the surface of
the earth. The lava cools so instantly that there is no enough time for the formation of
crystals of large size & corresponding fine-grained rocks are formed. E.g.Basalt,
Rhyolite, etc.,
There are two modes of occurrence of extrusive igneous bodies which differ in the
type of rocks resulted and in the nature of the forms.
1. Lava flows: a coherent solid mass which pours to the surface through long extended
fissures non- violently (quietly) covering very wide areas. E.g. Basalt, trachytic, lava
flow, etc.,
2. Pyroclastic: that ejected (explosive eruptions) from the volcanoes and settle out in
the form of volcanic ash deposits & coarser sized rock units. These pyroclastic are
usually found inter-bedded with lava flows. E.g. Ash, Tuff, Ignimbrite
II. Texture: - refers to the size, shape, and distribution of the crystals or grains that
make up a rock
The texture of igneous rocks refers to:
– the size of the minerals with in the rock
– the nature of the minerals(whether they are crystalline or not)
– the way in which the mineral grains are arranged

The texture of the rock depends on:
The physical condition under which the rock is formed i.e. on the mode of occurrence
The rate of cooling of magma which in turn depends on:
• The depth of cooling mass below the surface :shallow depth fast cooling ,great
depth slow cooling
• Size of cooling magma: small body fast cooling, large body slow cooling
• Shape of the cooling magma: thin elongated body cools rapidly, spherical
body cools slowly
Textures of igneous rocks are described as:
1. Phaneritic: Course grained granular rocks which are formed by slow cooling of
magma beneath the surface of the earth. The crystals are so big that they can be seen
with naked eye. Example: granite, gabbro.
2. Aphanitic: Fine grained granular rocks which are formed by rapid cooling of lava at
the surface of the earth. The crystals are so small that they cannot be seen with naked
eye. Example, basalt, rhyolite, etc
3. Glassy: Massive non granular which are formed by (instant cooling of magma, a
condition which does not allow the formation of crystal, example obsidian
4. Porphyritic: Rock w/c is composed of large (coarse) crystals set in fine ground
mass. The coarse crystals are known as the PHENOCRYSTS and the fine grained mass
as GROUND MASS or MATRIX. Such a texture results due to multistage cooling of
magma at different physical locations. The phenocrysts are formed when the magma
solidifies beneath the surface of the earth while the ground mass is formed by rapid

cooling of the magma and which rises to the surface, containing the already formed
phenocrysts with it.
5. Vesicular: - rocks which have vesicles on their surfaces. Vesicles are formed when
the gases (volatiles) entrapped in the magma (lava) escaped rapidly in the form of
bubbles when the lava rises to the surface and exposed to the atmosphere. e.g.
vesicular basalt, scoria, pumice, etc.
III. Composition: Igneous rocks can be classified and identified based on their
chemical and/or mineralogical composition
Chemical composition:
The major components of magma are O, Si, Al, Ca, Na, K, Mn, Ti, water and others
being occurring in a very small proportion. Among the oxides silica (SiO2) is the most
important rock forming constituents and igneous rocks can be classified based on the
proportion of silica (in weight as %) constituted in them as follow.
Rocks Silica (Wt %) Examples

Acidic (Sialic) >66 Granite/Rhyolite
Intermediate 52-66 Diorite/Trachite
Basaltic/Mafic 44-52 Gabbro/Basalt
Ultra-basic (Ultramafic) <44 Peridotite/Dunite
Mineralogical Compositions: The silicate minerals themselves are classified as basic,
intermediate and acidic.
- Olivine, pyroxene, Amphibole are basic
- Biotite, plagioclase is intermediate
- K-feldspar, muscovite, quartz are acidic
2.2.2.2 Structures of Igneous rocks

Although igneous rocks are exhibiting different types of structures, the followings are

common:
o Flow structure
o Pillow structure
o Vesicular structure and amygdaloidal structure
o Columnar structure
o Sheet structure
Flow structure: Sometimes an igneous rock shows parallel bands or streaks, which
are caused by the flow of lava or magma during cooling and crystallization. Such
structure is called Flow structure.
Figure 2. 3 Flow structure
Pillow structure: These are structures in which volcanic igneous body appears as a
pile of numerous overlying pillows or sacks. The pillows are generally interconnected
and have vesicular and glassy tops. It is typical structure of basaltic lavas that are
comparatively mobile.
Vesicular and Amygdaloidal structure: The gas cavities or vesicles in volcanic
rock are called vesicular structures. It is common in Pumice, Scoria and Basalt. But
sometimes the vesicles of volcanic rocks may subsequently be filled by secondary
minerals and such filled vesicles are called amygdaloidal structure.

Figure 2. 4(a) Vesicular structure (b) Amygdaloidal structure
Columnar structure: In this structure the volcanic igneous rock appear to be made up
numerous parallel polygonal prismatic columns bundled together. This is the result of
the contraction of lava during cooling. Example: columnar jointing in basalts.
Figure 2.5 Columnar structure
Sheet structure: In this structure the rocks appear to be made of a number of sheets.
This is because of the development of nearly horizontal cracks or joints as a result of
release of pressure upon erosion overlying rocks. Example: sheet jointing in granite.
Figure 2.6 sheet structure
Generally structures and textures are generally primary in nature that is they occur
along with the formation of rocks and are important because:

a. Serves they contribute to the strength or weakness of rocks
b. They are distinguishing features of the rock groups
c. They reveal the mode of origin of rocks
The term structure used in this context is different from the secondary geological
structures like fold, faults formed due to tectonic activity
2.2.2.3 Engineering considerations of igneous rocks

Some of the Engineering problems associated with igneous rocks are summarized as
follows:
The use of igneous rocks as aggregates in Portland cement concrete can cause problem.
For instances:
Fine grained siliceous materials have caused volume expansion.
 The alkali-reaction can be alleviated by using low alkali cements or
non-reactive aggregates etc.
 The reactive igneous rocks include those that contain volcanic glass with
composition ranging from rhyolite through andesite.
 Basalt-glass contains too low silica to be reactive.
 Pyroclastic rocks containing glass with high silica composition can also be
reactive.
 The includes most tuff, pumice, obsidian, volcanic breccia's
Very coarse grained igneous rocks are undesirable for use as aggregates for
construction
 With increasing grain sizes, abrasion resistance is reduced and the rock is
less suitable for use as a base (road base),concrete aggregates, course

aggregate, or source of riprap (large stone used for slope protection along river
sides/dam body)
 The presence of certain minerals in igneous rocks makes the rock undesirable
for some Engineering uses.
E.g zeolite minerals, which are relatively soluble and are undesirable in aggregates that
will be exposed to the weathering processes
In Foundation for Engineering Structures such as dams, bridges piers, and underground
installations, weathered igneous rocks or any other weathered rock should be avoided.
Dimension stone includes rock used for tombstones, monuments and facing stone for
buildings .Strong, fresh unaltered igneous rocks yield the most suitable materials.
2.2.3 Sedimentary rock formation
Sedimentary rocks are bodies of solid material accumulated (deposited) at or near the
surface of the earth under low temperature & pressure environment. The characteristic
of these environments, are either the results of weathering of pre‐existing rocks or the
results of in‐situ chemical or biochemical precipitation from solutions
Sedimentary rocks are formed from the solid debris and the dissolved mineral matter
produced by the mechanical and chemical breakdown of pre-existing rocks, or in some
cases from skeletal material of dead plants and animals. The processes involved in the
disintegration of rocks by weathering and erosion, and the transport of these products
to the place where they are deposited. The sedimentary rocks can be divided in to two
principal groups:
 Clastic or exogenetic types; and
 Non-clastic or endogenetic types.

However, one factor which all sedimentary rocks have in common is that they are
deposited and this gives rise to their most noteworthy characteristic, i.e. they are
bedded or stratified.
The particles of which most sedimentary rocks are composed have undergone varying
amount of transportation. This, together with the agent like water, wind, or ice, plays
an important role in determining the character of sediment: transport over short
distances usually means that the sediment is unsorted. With lengthier transport by
water or wind, not only a material becomes well sorted but it is further reduced in size.
The characters of sedimentary rocks also influenced by the type of environment in
which, it has been deposited.
The composition of a sedimentary rock depends:
 On the composition of the parent material and the stability of its component
minerals;
 On the type of action to which the parent rock was subjected;
 On the length of time it had suffer such action
The least stable minerals tend to be those which are developed in environments very
different from those experienced at the earth’s surface. In fact quartz, and to much
lesser extent, mica, are the only common constituents of igneous and metamorphic
rocks which are found in abundance in sediments. The more mature a sedimentary rock
is the more it approaches a stable end product and the very mature sediments are likely
to have experienced more than one cycle of sedimentation.
In order to turn unconsolidated sediments in to a solid rock it must be lithified.
Lithification involves two processes, consolidation and cementation. The amount of
consolidation which takes place within sediment depends upon its composition and
texture and the pressure acting on it, notably that due to the overburden. Consolidation
of sediments deposited in water also involves dewatering, that is, the expulsion of
connate water from the sediments. The porosity of sediment is reduced as
consolidation takes place and as the individual particles become closely packed they
may even be deformed. Pressure developed during consolidation may lead to
differential solution of minerals. Cementation involves the bonding together of
sedimentary particles by the precipitation of material in the pore spaces. This reduces
the porosity. The cementing material may be derived by partial intratarsal solution of
grains or may introduced in to the pores spaces from an extraneous source by
circulating waters. Conversely cement can be removed from sedimentary rock by
leaching. The type of cement, and more importantly, the amount, affects the strength of
a sedimentary rock.
The type also influences its colour, sandstone with siliceous or calcium carbonate
cement are whitish grey; a red color is an indicative of hematite cement and a brown
Colour indicates limonite. The texture of sedimentary rock refers to the size, shape,
arrangement of its constituent particles. Size is a property which is not easy to assess
accurately, for the grains and pebbles of which clastic sediments are composed are
irregular shaped, three dimensional objects. The size of particles of a clastic
sedimentary rock allows it to be in one of the three groups:
rudaceous (>2mm)
arenaceous (0.06 to 2mm)
argillaceous (<0.06mm)

2.2.3.1 Types of sedimentary Rocks
Sedimentary rock is that has formed from (1) lithification of sediment, (2) precipitation
from solution, or (3) consolidation of the remains of plants or animals. These different
types of rocks are called, respectively, clastic, chemical, and organic rocks.
Most sedimentary rocks are clastic sedimentary rocks, formed from cemented sediment
grains that are fragments of pre-existing rocks. The rock fragments can be either
identifiable pieces of rock, such as pebbles of granite or shale, or individual mineral
grains, such as sand sized quartz and feldspar crystals loosened from rocks by
weathering and erosion. Clay minerals formed by chemical weathering are also
considered fragments of pre-existing rocks. In most cases the sediment has been
eroded and transported before being deposited. During transportation the grains may
have been rounded and sorted.
Chemical sedimentary rocks are deposited by precipitation of minerals from solution.
An example of inorganic precipitation is the formation of rock salt as sea water
evaporates. Chemical precipitation can also be induced by organisms. The sedimentary
rock limestone, for instance, can form by the precipitation of calcite within a coral reef
by corals and algae. Such a rock may be classified as a biochemical limestone.
Organic sedimentary rocks are rocks that accumulate from the remains of organisms.
Coal is an organic that forms from the compression of plant remains, such as leave,
roots, and tree trunks.
Clastic Rocks
Gravel: Gravel is unconsolidated accumulation of rounded fragments, the lower the
size limit of which is 2mm. the term rubble has been used to describe those deposits
with angular fragments. The composition of a gravel deposit reflects not only the
source rocks of the area from which it was derived but is also influenced by the

agent(s) responsible for its formation and the climatic regime in which it was, or is,
being deposited.
The latter two factors have a varying tendency to reduce the proportion of unstable
material. Relief also influences the nature of the gravel deposit, for example, gravel
production under low relief is small and the pebbles tend to be inert residues such as
vein quartz, quartzite, and chert. Conversely, high relief and accompanying rapid
erosion yield, coarse, immature gravels. When gravel becomes indurated it forms a
conglomerate, when rubble is indurated it is termed a breccia.
Sedimentary breccia: It is a coarse-grained sedimentary rock formed by the
cementation of course, angular fragments of rubble. Because grains are rounded so
rapidly during transport, it is unlikely that the angular fragments within breccia have
moved very far from their source. Sedimentary breccia might form, for example, from
fragments that have accumulated at the base of a steep slope of rock that is being
mechanically weathered. Land slide deposits also might lithify in to sedimentary
breccia. This rock type is not common.
Conglomerate: Conglomerate is a coarse-grained sedimentary rock formed by the
cementation of rounded gravels. It can be distinguished from breccia by the definite
roundness of particles. Because conglomerates are coarse-grained, the particles may
not have travelled far; some transport, however, was necessary to round the particles.
Sandstone: Sandstone is a medium-grained sedimentary rock formed by the
cementation of sand grains.
Any deposit of sand can lithify to sandstone. River deposit sand in their channels and
wind piles up sand in to dunes wave deposit sand on the beaches and in shallow water,
Deep-sea currents spread sand over the sea floor. Sand stone show a great variation in
mineral composition.
• Quartz sandstone- contains more 90% of quartz grains.
• Arkoses- contains more than 25% feldspar grains
• Greywacke- contains 15% fine-grained matrix
Sandstone may contain substantial amount of matrix, fine-grained silt and clay found
in between larger grains.
Shale: Shale is the fine-gained sedimentary rock notable for its splitting capability
(called fissility). Splitting takes place along surfaces of very thin layers (called
lamination) within the shale. Most shale contains both silt and clay and are so
fine-grained that the surface of the rock feels very smooth. The silt and clay deposits
that lithify as shale accumulate on Lake Bottom, at the end of rivers in deltas, beside
river in flood, and on quiet parts of the deep ocean floor. Fine-grained rocks such as
shale typically undergo pronounced compaction as they lithify.
A rock consisting mostly of silt grains is called siltstone. Somewhat coarser grained
than most shales, siltstone lack the fissility and lamination of shale. Claystone is a rock
composed of predominantly clay-sized particles, but lacking the fissility of shale.
Mudstone contains both silt and clay, having the same grain size and smooth feel of
shale but lacking shale’s laminations and fissility. Mudstone is massive and blocky,
while shale is visibly layered and fissile.
Chemical Sedimentary Rocks
Chemical sedimentary rocks have been precipitated from an aqueous environment.
Chemical sedimentary rocks are either precipitated directly by inorganic processes or
by the action of organisms.
Chemical rocks include carbonates, chert, evaporates.
Carbonates Rocks: The carbonate rocks contain CO -3 is as part of their chemical
composition. The two main types of carbonates are limestone and dolomite.
Limestone is the sedimentary rock composed mainly of calcite (CaCO 3). Limestones
are either precipitated by the action of organisms or are precipitated directly as the
result of inorganic processes. The two major types of limestone can classified as either
biochemical or inorganic limestone. Biochemical limestones are precipitated through
the action of organisms. Most biochemical limestone is formed on continental shelves
in warm, shallow water.
The great majority of limestones are biochemical limestone formed of wave-broken
fragments of algae, corals and shells. The fragments may be of any size (gravel, sand,
and clay) and are often sorted and rounded as they are transported by waves and
currents across the sea floor. The action of these waves and the currents and
subsequent cementation of these fragments in to rock give these limestones a clastic
texture. The bio clastic (or skeletal) limestones take a great variety of appearances.
They may be relatively coarse-grained with recognizable fossils.
Inorganic limestones are precipitated directly as the result of inorganic processes.
Oolitic limestone a is a distinctive variety of inorganic limestone formed by the
cementation of sand-sized oolites, small spheres of calcite inorganically precipitated in
warm, shallow seawater.
Dolomite: The term dolomite is used to refer to both a sedimentary rock and the
mineral that composes of it, Ca Mg (CO3). Dolomite often forms from limestone as the
calcium in calcite is partially replaced by magnesium, usually as water solution move
through the limestone.
Sedimentary Structures
Sedimentary structures are features found within sedimentary rock. They usually form
from during or shortly after deposition of the sediment, but before lithification.
Structures found in sedimentary rocks are important because they provide clues about
the means they transported, and environment of deposition. One of the most prominent
structures, seen in most large bodies of sedimentary, is bedding, a series of visible
layers within rock. Most bedding is horizontal because the sediments from which the
sedimentary rocks formed were originally deposited as horizontal layers. The principle
original horizontality states that most water laid sediment is deposited in horizontal or
near-horizontal layers that are essentially parallel to the earth’s surface. If each new
layer of sediment buries previous layers, a stack of horizontal layers will develop with
the oldest layer on the bottom and the layers becoming younger upward.
A specialized type of bedding that is not horizontal is cross-bedding a series of thin,
inclined layers within a larger bed of rock. The cross-beds form a distinct angle to the
horizontal bedding plane of the larger rock unit.
Bedding (Stratification): The primary feature of sedimentary rocks is horizontal
layering called bedding, but they may be tilted or disturbed by their subsequent
movement of earth’s crust. This feature results from the way sediment settles out of
water or wind. Individual beds can range in thickness from a few millimeters to several
meters. The rocks tend to break along bedding plane. Each bed reflects variation in the
condition during the time of deposition.
Graded bed: graded is a layer with a vertical change in particle size, usually from
coarse grains at the bottom of the bed to progressively finer grains toward the top.
Mud cracks are a polygonal pattern of cracks formed in very fine-grained sediment as
it dries.
Ripple marks: these are small ridges formed on the surface of sediment layer by
moving wind or water. The ridges form perpendicular to the motion.

2.2.4 Engineering consideration of Sedimentary rocks
The use of siliceous rich sedimentary rocks like opal, chert, etc. as aggregates in the
Portland cement concrete can cause alkali silica reaction problem (cracking problem)
Limestone and dolomite provides the best sedimentary aggregates for construction
materials whereas siltstone, shale, sandstone are generally not acceptable. (Why?)
Friable shale and weathered sedimentary rocks are suitable for Earth dam foundation
but not for Concrete dam foundation. (Why?)
Any Civil Engineering structures to be constructed on carbonate rocks needs a very
careful study as they can have sinkholes, karstic features and different solution
structures
When conglomerates are found in dam abutments & foundation, they need special
treatment to increase their strength and reduce permeability
Sedimentary rocks containing anhydrite/ gypsum are troublesome to Engineering
Structures such as dams, high ways, tunnels etc.
Stratification characterizes all sedimentary rocks.
Primary sedimentary structures such as bedding surfaces and cross bedding create
discontinuities in addition to those formed by secondary structures such as joints and
faults.
Primary & secondary structures reduce rock-mass strength and may contribute to slope
instability.

Figure 2.7 Cross bedding structure
2.2.5 Metamorphic rock formation
Metamorphic rocks – are the result from the transformation of other rocks by
metamorphism processes that usually occur beneath the earth's surface.
Metamorphism is the solid-state transformation of mineral assemblages into other
mineral composition without changing their chemical elements. Metamorphism causes
textural, structural, and often mineralogical changes in the original rock, modifying its
physical properties. The modifications may improve some engineering properties,
whereas other changes may result in reductions in strength, slope stability, and
abrasion resistance Form when the pre-existing materials are buried deeply and are
subsequently brought in to an environment of high pressure and temperature
During metamorphism, rocks are subjected to sufficient heat, pressure, and fluid
activity to change their mineral compositions, and/or texture thus forming new rocks.
The type of metamorphic rock formed depends on;
the original composition and texture of the parent rock
the agents of metamorphism

The amount of time the parent rock was subjected to the effects of
metamorphism.
The pressure & heat that drive metamorphism are consequences of three forces:
1. The internal heat of the Earth,
2. The weight of overlying rock, and
3. The horizontal pressures developed as rocks become deformed.
2.2.5.1 Types of metamorphism
Three major kinds of metamorphism differentiated on the basis of dominant factors:
roles of temperature, pressure, and the conditions under which they formed
* thermal or contact metamorphism
* dynamic metamorphism
* regional metamorphism
Thermal or contact metamorphism: occurs around igneous intrusions so that the
principal factor controlling these reactions is temperature.
The intrusion of magma in two host rock provides a source of heat for metamorphism
without altering the pressure significantly. Heat given off by cooling magma is
conducted to the host rock, where it causes changed in texture and mineralogy. It is
called thermal metamorphism because heat is the dominant agent, or contact
metamorphism because its effects are most intense at the contact between and host
rock. Contact metamorphism intensity decreases with distance from the pluton until
distance are reached at which the effects of heat from the pluton are not felt at all.
Dynamic metamorphism is produced on the comparatively small scale and is usually
highly localized, example, its effects may be found in association with large faults or
thrusts. It is also called clastic metamorphism, mechanical metamorphism or

dislocation metamorphism and is brought about by pressure (or stresses) acting along
zones of dislocation in the crust of the earth. Stress is the most important factor in
dynamic metamorphism
Regional metamorphism: Heat, pressure and chemically active fluids combine to
produce regional metamorphism. The intensity of regional metamorphism is greatest in
the deepest and most highly deformed parts of the affected area.
This type of metamorphism is called regional metamorphism to indicate the broad
scale on which it operates.
Metamorphic rocks are classified into two textural groups:
Á Foliated
Á Non-foliated.
Foliated rocks Layers and bands of minerals characterize foliated metamorphic rocks.
 High pressure during metamorphism causes minerals with flat or needle like
crystals to form with their long axes perpendicular to the pressure.
 The parallel alignment of minerals creates the layers observed in foliated
metamorphic rocks. E.g. slate, phyllite, schist and gneiss
Non-foliated Metamorphic Rocks: Non foliated rocks are composed of mainly
crystals that grow in equidimensional shapes such as cubes and sphere rather than in
platy or elongated shapes. E.g. Hornfels, quartzite, marble, argillite, greenstone,
amphibolite and granulates
Metamorphic Grades

The approximate extent or degree to which an original rock has been changed due to
metamorphism is expressed by the term metamorphic grade.
Three grades of metamorphism as recognized in the rocks are named simply as: low
grade, medium grade and high grade.
Low grade-it prevails between a temperature range of 200-400°C and a large pressure
range. E.g. Slate, Phyllite
Medium grade- the degree prevails up to a temperature range of 650 °C. E.g. Schist
High grade- it is believed to begin at temperatures around 580°C under pressure of
3.5kb and continues up to a temperature of 800°C. E.g. Gneiss rock
2.2.5.2 Engineering consideration of metamorphic rocks
* Foliated rocks possess prominent directional properties.
* Strength, permeability, thermal conductivity, and seismic velocity are affected
by the direction of foliation
* Coarse grained gneisses, like granites of similar size, already severely when
used as aggregates for construction.
* These rocks lose gradation by abrasion, resulting in reduction of particle size.
* The stability of rock slopes is affected by the attitude of foliation with respect
to rock slope direction.
* When the foliation dips steeply in to an opening, rock slides will commonly
occur.
* Rock bolts may be required to prevent sliding in such cases.

* Phyllite and argillite can cause alkali reactive aggregates mixed with Portland
cement concrete.
* Marble is subjected to the same problems like limestone.
* Solution cavities and channels may develop, resulting in similar problems of
leakage or reservoir and collapse of newly formed sink holes.
2.2.6 Geological structures of rocks
Structural Geology is the study of the origin, occurrence, classification and effects of
various secondary structures like folds, faults, and joints
Primary structures are those structures, which are developed during its formation.
E.g. bedding for sedimentary rocks, flow structure for lava.
Secondary structures- are the modification of the original shape, arrangement and
development of new form.
Structural Geology - is the study of the architecture of rocks and regions that have
developed from deformation.
2.2.6.1 Deformation of rocks
Deformation refers to the structural changes that take place in the rocks. The response
of a rock body to a force involves any one or a combination of components divided
into rigid and non-rigid body deformation.
1. Rigid body deformation is when the position and orientation of points in a rock
body relative to an internal reference frame are not changed.
a) Rotation is a rigid body operation that changes the configuration of points relative
to some external reference frame in a way best described by rotation about some axis.

b) Translation is another variety of rigid body deformation, which involves a change
in position.
Figure 2.8 rigid body deformations
2. Non-rigid body deformation when the position and orientation of points within a
rock body are changed relative to both an internal and external reference frame.
a) Distortion is a non-rigid body operation that involves the change in the spacing of
points within a body of rock in such a way that the overall shape of the body is altered
with or without a change in volume.
b) Dilation is a non-rigid body operation involving a change in volume
Figure 2.9 Non- rigid body deformations
{Observed Deformation = [kind of rocks] X [Deformative forces in crustal rocks]}
The various structures noticed in the different rocks are the results of the interaction
taking place between the different kinds of rocks & different types of Deformative
forces.
1. Role of kind of rocks

Do all rocks deform in the same way? No, all rocks do not have the same style of
deformation. For instance; the differences in mechanical properties of rocks have
significant impact on the type of geologic structures to be formed. Even the same
sedimentary rocks do not give the same geologic structure. Example: Shale flows and
produces folds while sandstone produces rupture structures like fault or shear.
2. Role of Deformative Forces
They are the main causes for the formation of different geologic structures. Therefore
depending up on the kind and intensity of Deformative forces, the resultant structures
will differ. Other important factors which are not directly included in the above
equation are like temperature & time. Example: At depth Temperature is high and
favors ductile deformation and small force acting over greater length of time can bring
about the same type of structures like that produced by a large forces acting over a
lesser length of time.
2.2.6.2 Fold, Fault and Joints
Folds
Folds are bends or wave-like features in a layered rock. Folded rock can be compared to
several layers of rugs or blankets that have been pushed in to series of arches and
troughs. Often-times folds in rocks can be seen in road cuts or other exposures.
The fact that the rock is folded shows that it was strained in a ductile way rather than by
elastic or brittle strain. Folding took place when the rock was buried at a moderate depth
where high confining pressure favour plastic behavior. Alternately, folding could have
taken place close to the surface under a very low rate of strain.
Geometry of folds: Determining the geometry or shape of folds may have important
economic implications because many oil and gas deposits and also some metallic

mineral deposits are localized in folded rocks. The geometry of folds is also important
in unravelling how the rock was strained and how it might be related to the movement
of tectonic forces. Folds are usually associated with compressive stresses along
convergent plate boundaries, but are also commonly formed where rock has been
sheared along a fault. Because folds are wave-like forms that usually form by the
shortening of rock layers, two basic fold geometries are common- anticlines and
synclines An anticline is upward arching fold. Usually the rock layers dip away from
the hinge line (fold axis) of the fold. The downward arching counter part of an anticline
is a syncline, a trough like fold. The layered rock usually dips toward the syncline hinge
line. In the Series of folds two anticlines are separated by syncline. Each syncline and
anticline shares a limb. Axial plane is a plane containing all the hinge line of a fold. It is
important to remember that anticlines are not necessarily related to ridges or synclines
to valleys, because valleys and ridges are nearly emotional features.
In area that has been eroded to a plain, the presence of underlying anticlines and
synclines is determined by the direction of dipping beds in exposed bed rocks.

Figure 2. 10 Anticline (A) Syncline (B) and Monocline(C) with respect to the relation
between the fold limbs (Bell F.G. (2007)
Engineering considerations
Folds in the rocks are important for engineers-in that this makes their work more
complicated. If these structures are not thoroughly investigated and properly interpreted
any civil engineering project on driven through folded rocks may prove unsafe and
uneconomical in the ultimate analysis. Due consideration is, therefore, always given to
be given to the presence of folds in such projects as driving tunnels, selection of sites
for dams and reservoirs and in fixing the alignments of roads and bridges. Their
influence on the stability and economy of such structures is crucial. The general effects
of folds on the engineering structures are given below.
(a) Change in the attitude
Folding of any type would cause a change in the attitude (dip and strike) of the same
strata in its extent and also in depth. Hence, same layers may be repeated along an

alignment or different layers may be encountered. If it happens unexpectedly, and the
encountered layers are of undesirable nature, the project cost may be affected adversely
besides the uncertainty induced in its safety.
(b) Shattering of rocks
It is remembered that folding is the response of the rocks to the induced stresses. These
stresses are often strong enough to break or shatter or develop cracks in the rocks,
essentially at the points of maximum concentration. Hence, in folded rocks, axial
regions are likely to be areas of fractured zones. This effect is of utmost importance
because shattered rocks become
 Weaker in strength
 Porous and pervious in character
Such rocks can to be trusted as roof and floors in tunnels or as foundation in dams.
Axial regions in folded rocks should be, therefore, thoroughly studied and if possible
should be avoided for other better alignments or sites. If it is impossible to avoid them,
these must be subjected to suitable processes of rock treatment for developing desired
qualities of strength and impervious.
(c) Strained nature
All the stresses that have acted on the rocks during their folding, as generally absorbed,
by these rocks by undergoing strain. In essence, the folded rocks are considerably
strained, the magnitude of strain varying from point to point in the folded sequence.
Now, as and when there is an effort by nature or by the engineer to disturb this
adjustment of the rock to the stresses, the rock may respond by release of some strain
energy.
This is what often happens when tunnels are excavated through the folded regions.
Enough stored strain energy is released as soon as (or soon after) the excavations are
made and huge blocks start caving in of falling with great force called the rock bursts.
This often involves fatal accidents besides causing considerable delay in the progress of
the work. A proper planning of the work in folded areas is therefore, of utmost
importance to avoid these possible hazards in construction work in folded regions.
Fractures in rock
If a rock is brittle, or if the strain rate is too great for deformation to be accommodated
by plastic behaviour, the rock fractures. Commonly there is some movement or
displacement. If essentially no displacement occurs, a fracture or a crack in bed rock is
called joints. If the rock in either side of the fracture moves, the fracture is a fault.
Joints
During volcanism there is a development of columnar jointing, in which hexagonal
columns form as the result of tension and contraction of cooling, solidified lava flow.
Sheet jointing, a type of jointing due to the expansion is caused by tension. The pressure
release due to the removal of overlying rock has the effect of creating tensional stress
perpendicular to the land surface.
Columnar and sheet joints are examples of fractures that form from nontectonic stresses
and are therefore referred as primary joints. Joints are one of the most commonly
observed structures in rocks. Joint set can be defined as a group of joints which run
parallel to each other whilst two or more joint sets which intersect at a more or less
constant angle are referred to as joint system. Joints are important because they often
indicate the direction of compressive stress operative during their formation.
Geologists sometimes find valuable ore deposits by studying a joint system. For
example, gold-bearing hydrothermal solutions may migrate upward through a set of
joints and deposit quartz and gold in crakes. Accurate information about joints also is
important in the planning and construction of large engineering projects, particularly

dams in reservoirs. If the bed rock at a proposed location is intensely jointed, the
possibility of dam failure or reservoir leakage may make that site too hazardous.
Engineering Considerations
Joints influence many engineering operations. The selection of sites for dams and
reservoir and alignment for highways and tunnels through rocks will require very
thorough investigations joints and for arriving at safe and economic designs. Joints are
considered as a source of weakness of the rock and as the pathways for the leakage of
water through the rock. Both these properties of joints destroy the inherent soundness of
the rock to a great extent.
If a rock forming the foundation for a dam or reservoir happens to be heavily jointed
and the region is one of low water table, the risk of leakage of water from under the dam
or from the reservoir may be of substantial magnitude demanding very heavy cost for
treatment of the rocks. Similarly, if the roof or side rocks in the case of tunnel are much
fractured, slippage of rocks along these fractures and leakage of water may become real
troubles, often insurmountable by ordinary methods of treatment. Joints are a major
cause of instability of the rock masses in the hilly regions. Jointed rocks get easily
lubricated in the presence of moisture and starting sliding or falling from their original
paces of occurrence.
Many landslides and slope failures are directly related to the jointed nature of the
materials. Treatments of joints will differ in different projects. The first requirement in
all cases is, however, detailed investigations to establish full characteristics of the joints
in terms of their type, frequency, intensity, pattern of distribution and the extent to
which they have influenced the rock. This may form the single most important work of
site investigation in some cases. Great care has to be exercised in locating the presence,

distribution pattern and magnitude of micro joints that are typical of many rocks. Such
joints, if left unnoticed and untreated, may widen after the construction of the project
and endanger its stability.
Treatment of joints may involve grouting with the suitable grout material for increasing
the strength of the rocks or for reducing their permeability or for achieving both these
objectives.
Faults
Faults are defined as fractures in bedrock along which movement has taken place. The
amount of displacement may vary from only a few tens of millimeters’ to several
hundred km. Faults is a clean break but in others the displacement is not restricted to a
simple fracture but is developed throughout the fault zone. Dislocated beds or other
features of the rock might show how much displacement has occurred and the relative
direction of movement. In some faults the contact between the displaced sides is a
crack.
The dip and strike of the fault plane can be described in the same way as are those of
bedding plane. The hanging wall of a fault refer to the upper rock surface along which
displacement occurred, whilst the footwall is the term given that below. The vertical
shift along fault plane is called the throw, whilst the term heave refers horizontal
displacement. Where the displacement along fault has been vertical, then the terms
down throw and up throw refers to relative movement.
Classification of Faults
A classification of faults can be made on a geometrical and a genetic basis; such can be
based on the direction in which the movement has taken place along the fault zone, on
the relative movement of the hanging wall and footwalls, on the attitude of the fault in

relation to the strata involved, and if the direction of slippage along the fault plane is
used to distinguish between faults. There are three types may be recognized:
(1) Dip-slip faults;
(2) strike-slip faults;
(3) oblique-slip faults.
In a dip-slip fault the slippage occurred along the dip, in a strike slip fault it occurred
along the strike and in an oblique-slip fault movement occurred diagonally across the
fault plane or has both the strike-slip and dip slip components. When the relative
movement of the hanging and footwall is used as the basis of classification, then
normal, reverse and wrench or tear fault can be recognized. The normal fault is
characterized by the occurrence of the hanging wall on the downthrown. Whilst in the
reverse fault the footwall occupies the downthrown side, reverse faulting involves a
vertical duplication of strata

Figure 2. 11 Fault classification. Dip slip movement: displacement along normal fault
(A) cause layers to be absent over specific horizontal trajectories; in reversed faulting
(B) the layers overlap over some horizontal distance. Strike slip faulting (C) does not
show overlap or gaps in specific layers. (Bell F.G.,2007)
Dip-slip faults
Normal and reverse faults, the most common type of the dip-slip faults, are
distinguished from each other on the basis of the relative movement of the footwall
block and the hanging wall block. The footwall is the underlying surface of an inclined
fault plane, whereas the overlying surface is the hanging wall. In the normal, the
hanging wall block has moved downward relative to the footwall block. The relative
movement is represented on the geological cross-section by a pair of arrows. Normal
fault results in extension or lengthening of the crust. When there is an extension of the
crust, the hanging wall block moves downward along the fault to compensate for the
pulling apart of the rocks. Sometimes a block bounded by normal fault will drop down,
creating a graben (graben is a Germen word for.. ditch... Rifts are grabens associated
with diverging plate boundaries, along mid oceanic ridge or on continents. If blocks
bounded by the normal faults are uplifted sufficiently; it becomes a fault-block
mountain range. This is also called horst, the opposite to graben.
In reverse fault, the hanging wall block has moved upward relative to the foot wall
block. Horizontal reverse compressive stresses causes reverse fault. A thrust fault is a
reverse fault in which the dip of the fault plane is at low angle to the horizontal. Thrust
faults commonly form at convergent plate boundaries to accommodate shortening.
Strike-slip fault
A fault where the movement (or slip) is predominantly horizontal and parallel to the
strike of the fault is called strike slip fault. The displacement along a strike slip fault is
either left lateral or right lateral and can be determined by looking across the fault.
Strike slip fault accommodate shearing stress along transform plate boundaries where
plates side past one another.

Figure 2.12 Types of fault (a)normal fault, (b) reverse fault (c)strike slipe
fault,(d)oblique slip fault,FW= footwall, HW=hanging wall, AB=throw, BC
=heave,arrow show the dirction of the relative displecament (Bell F.G., 2007)
Engineering considerations
Faults are important for civil engineering works in that these mark sites where
dislocation of the strata has occurred in the past and where such dislocations in future
cannot ruled out. It is the dislocation aspect which introduces complications in the site
and may compel the engineer to even abandon the same for a particular engineering
project.
There are three possibilities that an engineer to consider the fault and faulting: What has
been the effect of faulting on the rocks of the region under investigation and how far
such rocks will be suitable, from strength point of view, as foundations or abutments or
roofs for an engineering project as the case may be? If the effect of the past faulting is
such that the rocks have not been rendered practically useless, or in other words,

structures still can be designed on them with or without some treatment, then will these
structures safe in the future? Is there no probability of faulting again at the same site
(because, as a rule, movement of blocks is much easy along existing plane of weakness)
what safety factor is important to be adopted in the design and construction of the
proposed structure if the site is faulted and there is no alternative to it.
As regards the first consideration, that is, the influence of the faults on rocks, it has
already been said that the faults cause very much shearing and crushing in the rocks
involved in faulting. They make the rocks weak and unstable on the one hand and
permeable on the other hand. Thus,
The faulted rocks as such will form very weak foundations and abutment for dams and
reservoirs, their original character not withstanding; the shear zone and fault zones serve
as easy pathway for water; these can cause leakage when left untreated in dams and
reservoir and may become source of great trouble when encountered along or across
highway and tunnel alignment.
Once the fault planes, shear zones or fault zones become lubricated with water, further
slippage of the rocks is highly facilitated, especially if these have to withstand some
loads as below the dams or under some highways or beneath the tunnel; Faulting
product like gouge and breccia create additional problems always adding to the
conditions that cause instability and future.
A civil engineer/ Water resource engineer has ascertain for the presence of faults and
also investigate thoroughly their effects on the rocks of the site the number, size and
inclination of the shear zones should be given first consideration. Sometimes the
faulting leaves the rocks only partially effected. In such cases, the site can be improved
by treatment on the faulted rocks. Thus, the sheared zones can be excavated and
backfilled with cement grout or concrete plugs

The safety of the structure built on or near a faulted rock can be ascertained only in
general way. The tectonic history of the area under consideration must be studied
thoroughly. Faults are associated with earthquakes. So, such a study will virtually mean
investigation of the frequency of the earthquake in the region in the past, magnitude of
those earthquakes, maximum displacement caused by faulting and also the location of
the region with respect to seismic zones of the country. This will provide an engineer
with general guidelines about the safety of the proposed project in the faulted area.
Even if the evidence collected from the study of the tectonic history of the area leads to
the conclusion that no movement should be expected in the life span of the structure,
especially in the big projects in faulted areas, so that if the unexpected happens, the loss
to the project may be only the minimum.
Questions
1. Discuss and Briefly explain the following
A) What are minerals B) How mineral are formed? C) How do we identify
minerals?
2. What are rocks? What are the three types of rock found in the earth crust and
give example for each?
3. What are the difference between mineral and rock?
4. Do all rocks deform in the same way? Explain briefly
5. Gabbro, Granite, Basalt and Rhyolite are examples of igneous rocks formed
from solidification of either magma or lava. Try to classify them and explain
why you classify based on;
 Textural similarity
 Compositional similarity

6. What is the reason of siliceous rich sedimentary rocks is not advisable to use as
aggregates in the Portland cement?
7. Limestone and dolomite provides the best sedimentary aggregates for
construction materials whereas siltstone, shale, sandstone are generally not
acceptable. (Why?)
8. Why an understanding and knowledge of geological structures are important
for engineers?

CHAPTER THREE
3 IN SITU TESTING METHODS
3.1 Introduction
The rock or the soil mass, which is likely to be involved for the engineering purpose, in
most of the cases will be a heterogeneous mass. The rock, in particular, contains
discontinuities in the form of bedding plane, joints, faults and folding. These
discontinuities are responsible to control the strength and deformation characteristics of
the rock mass. The representative samples, cores or the rock lumps, collected for
laboratory testing do not account for structural features. Thus any test conducted in
laboratory on these samples will give results which may not represent the actual field
conditions. Similarly, the soil mass is the disintegrated loose material which is
composed of solid particles with voids I between. These voids may be filled with air, or
water, or both. The water entrapped with in the voids is responsible for controlling the
engineering properties of the soil.
The laboratory test conducted on the soil samples may not represent the actual field
conditions. In fact most of the soil samples collected from the field for laboratory tests,
particularly for the determination of shear strength parameters, permeability etc., are
undisturbed. However, in spite of all care taken while collecting an undisturbed sample
the sample will be disturbed to some degree. The sample may be disturbed on account
of structure disturbance, moisture loss or the mixing of different soil types. Thus, the
results obtained from these samples may not represent the actual field conditions.
Moreover, some field conditions are stimulated while conducting the laboratory tests,
such as generation of pore water pressure, particularly while determining the shear
strength parameters through triaxial test. The judgment or assessment of actual pore
water conditions may not, actually represent the field condition. Thus, it is advisable to
conduct field tests or the in-situ tests, so that the realistic conditions to some degree of
accuracy are obtained.
3.2 In-situ Tests for Rock Mass
3.2.1 Measurement of Deformability
Stress strain relationships can be observed in static and dynamic tests conducted in the
field. Deformability properties can then be obtained from the data, assuming that some
idealized model describes the rock behavior in the test configuration.
Deformability properties can also be back calculated from instrumental data on the
movement of a structure or excavation, if the initial and final states of stress are known.
The most widely used testing procedures for deformability measurements are field
loading tests using flat jacks or plate bearing apparatus and borehole expansion test.
Plate Bearing Test (Surficial loading)
The deformability of rock may be measured in field by loading a rock surface and
monitoring the resulting deformation. This test may be conducted in underground
gallery or in an exploratory drift. For this test a fresh rock face should be located and the
loose highly weathered rock face should be avoided. For the plate bearing test, load is
applied by hydraulic cylinders. Displacement is measured at several places on the
plates, so that there are no errors because of rotation and bending of the plate. The mean
displacement of the plate is measured by using plate is measured by using Timoshenko
and Goodier equation
𝐂𝐩(𝟏−𝐯 𝟐 ) ……………………………………………………………………………………3.1
̅=
𝛚
𝐄

A Plate Test down A Borehole and Gallery Test
This test is used to determine the insitu deformability characteristics of a rock mass.
Successively higher bearing pressures, in loading and unloading cycles are applied to
the flattened end of a borehole and the resulting rock displacements are recorded.
Elastic and deformation module may be derived from graphs of bearing pressure versus
displacement. Time dependent creep properties may be determined from graphs of
displacement versus time. The method allows the testing of several horizons at various
depths, with a minimum of expense to gain access to each test horizon. This method is
usually employed to provide information for the design of foundations, as an alternative
to plate test where access to the proposed foundation level cannot readily be obtained by
an exploratory trench or drift. Rock deformation of a rock mass can be measured
statistically in a borehole. The dilatometer test is a borehole expansion experiment
conducted with a rubber Sleeve or packers. The expansion of the borehole is measured
by the oil or gas flow into the sleeve as the pressure is raised, or by the potentiometers
or linear variable differential transformers built inside the sleeve. The Gallery test is a
similar experiment conducted inside a bulk headed section of a tunnel. Borehole jack is
a different type of test to measure the deformation of the rock mass. The borehole jack
test is similar to the dilatometer test, in Borehole
Figure 3. 1 Dilatometer or Gallery test

Jack method pressure is applied unidirectional. The modulus of elasticity is measured
by the following equation;

𝑎
𝐸 = (1 + 𝑉 )∆𝑃 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . .3.2
∆𝑢
Where, ‘E’ is modulus of elasticity, ‘v’ is Poisson’s ratio, ‘a’ is radius of borehole or
gallery, ∆𝑃 is the pressure difference and ∆𝑢 is the deformation of radius
Disadvantages of borehole test is that it represents a very small sample. However, the
unique advantage is that it may provide information for a remote site.
Radial Jacking Test
Among the largest insitu tests used to measure deformability of rock are radial jacking
tests or ‘TIWAG’ test (term used in Europe). This test measures the deformability of a
rock mass by subjecting a test chamber of circular cross section to uniformly distributed
radial loading, the consequent rock displacements are measured from which elastic or
deformation module may be calculated. The test loads a large volume of rock so that the
results may be taken to closely represent the true properties of the rock mass, taking into
account the influence of joints and fissures. The anisotropic deformability of the rock
can also be measured.
The test chamber location is selected taking into account the rock conditions,
particularly the orientation of the rock fabric elements such as joints, bedding and
foliation in relation to the orientation of the proposed tunnel or opening for which
results are required.
The test is carried out in at least three loading and unloading cycles, a higher maximum
pressure is being applied at each cycle.

Figure 3. 2 Radial Jacking Test (Goodman,1993)
Flat Jack Tests
The flat jack test yields deformability of the rock mass. The advantage of this test is that
,a large volume of rock can be loaded to pressure up to 70 MPa or higher using stainless
steel flat jacks with special welding details. The area of typical flat jacks is of the order
of 600 cm2 and much larger jacks have been used.
Thus, very large loads can be applied to the rock. If load cycles are programmed, the
reloading relation-ships will permit calculation of ‘E’ using a relationship desired by
Jaeger and Cook (1976).
The relation is;

𝑃(2𝐶) 𝑦2 𝑦 1+𝑣
𝐸= ⌊(1 − 𝑣) [√1 + − 𝐶] + 𝑦2
⌋…………………………………3.3
2∆𝑦 𝐶2 √1+𝐶2
Where y is the distance from the jack center to each of a pair of measuring pins, and 2c
is the length of the jack
Figure 3.3Flat jack test
3.2.2 Measurement of In-situ Shear stress
Insitu Testing For Shear Strength
The shear strength of the foundation rocks is determined by direct shear strength test.
This test measures peak and residual direct shear strength as a function of stress normal
to the sheared plane. The inclination of the test block and system of applied loads is
usually selected so that the sheared plane coincides with a plane of weakness in the
rock, for example a joint, plane of bedding, schistose or cleavage or with the interface of
soil and rock or concrete and rock. A shear strength determination should preferably
comprise at least five tests to the same test horizon with each specimen tested at a
different but constant normal stress. In applying the results of the test, the pore water
pressure conditions and the possibility of progressive failure must be assessed for the
design case as they may differ from the test condition.
Shear and normal stress are computed as follows;

Shear and normal stress are computed as follows;
𝐏𝐬 𝑷𝒔 .𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒂
Shear stress, 𝛕 = = … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … 3.4
𝐀 𝑨
𝑷𝒏 𝑷𝒏+𝑷𝒏𝒂 .𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒂
Normal stress, 𝝈𝒏 = = … … … … … … … … … … … … . .3.5
𝑨 𝑨
Where, 𝑃𝑠. is the total shear force, Pn is the total normal force, Pna is the applied shear
force to the shear plane (if 𝑎 = 0, cos 𝑎 = 1, sin 𝑎 = 0 and A is the area of shear
surface overlap(corrected to account for shear displacement)
Figure 3.4 Equipment for in situ direct shear test (Goodman, 1993)
3.2.3 The Assessment of the Rock Permeability
The permeability of rocks mass is due to water percolation along bedding planes and
other surfaces of separation such as joints. In examining the permeability of rocks the
engineering geologist should determine; i) Principal systems of planes of separation, ii)

Strike and dip of separation planes, iii) Mutual relationship between separation planes
and iv) Opening or filling of individual joints and fishers.
In order to obtain test results as reliable as possible, drill holes and water pressure tests
must be distributed so as to determine the permeability of all rocks type that occur in the
bottom and flanks of the proposed engineering site. The sites selected for testing the
permeability should be representative of the rocks tested. The permeability of rocks is
assessed on the basis of criteria established by various authors like Lugeon, Jahde,
Terzaghi’s, Holsby etc. Lugeons criterion is most commonly used as it gives reliable
values for the first orientation. According to Lugeon, in dams higher than 30 m the
water loss in water pressure tests should not exceed 1 litre in 1 min. per 1 meter of the
hole at 10 atm. pressure, which should act at least 10 min. For dams below 30 m height,
the water loss may rise to 3 liters under the same conditions.
Water Pressure Tests
Water pressure tests are usually carried out using the core boring. The procedure
consists of injecting water into the borehole and measuring the amount of water that can
be forced into the tested section of the hole within a given time (e.g. 10 min) and at a
given pressure (e.g. 2-10 at m). Water pressure tests and test grouting are carried out
either simultaneously with boring by the “descending” method, or by an “ascending”
method after the hole has been drilled to its full length. In the descending method, one
stage (i.e. 3-5 m) of the hole is drilled and closed by a packer at the upper end.
Water is injected under pressure into tested section, which is grouted up after the end of
the test. The grouted section is then bored through, the permeability is re-examined by
pressure water and the hole is deepened to a further stage. This procedure is continued
to the necessary depth. In the ascending method, the hole is drilled to the full depth and
the tests are performed in successive stages upwards. The stages must be sealed by a
double packer above and below the tested zone or else the hole is grouted successively
from the bottom to up wards. A simple packer consist of a rubber ring 20-30 cm long,
which expands by being compressed by one third and is thus sealed against the wall.
The progress of water pressure tests should be observed accurately on a pressure gauge
and carefully recorded. The results of tests should be plotted on the borehole section.
Figure 3.5 Water Pressure test with double packer
The Lugeon Test
The permeability results are normally described in terms of lugeon units, one lugeon is
equal to a flow of 1 lit/m/min at a pressure of 1 MN/m2. A lugeon unit is approximately
equal to a coefficient of permeability of 10-7m/s. According to lugeon (1933) a rock
absorbing less than one lugeon unit can be considered watertight.
Lugeon (1933) also suggested that grouting beneath concrete gravity dams is necessary
when the permeability exceeded 1 lugeon unit. Holsby, 1977 proposed an approach of
assessment of the permeability of the foundation rocks. According to this approach, five
consecutive tests are performed, for 10 min, each at pressures A, B, C, B, A. The

interpretation upon these five lugeon values is summarized in Fig. 14.6. Some examples
of Lugeon values for rocks are given in Table 3.1.
There are two systems in the Lugion Test method; a single packer and a double packer
system. A diagram of the apparatus and the differences between the two systems are
shown in Fig. 3.6.
Figure 3. 6 Lugeon patterns for various occurrences during testing: their interpretation
and percentage occurrences (After Houlsby, 1976)

Table 3. 1 Examples of Typical Lugeons values
Lugeon value Strong massive rock, continuous Weak heavily jointed rock
jointing
0 Completely tight Completely tight
1 Occasionally open to about1mm Occasionally open to hair crack
size(0.3mm
3-5 Occasionally open to 2.5 mm Occasionally open to 1mm
20 Frequently open to 1mm -
50 Frequently open to 2.5mm
100 Frequently open to 6mm
Source:Holsby,1977
In the single packer system, water is injected into the strata between the bottom of the
borehole and the packer, while in the double packer system, into the strata between the
upper and lower packers. In both cases a length of water injection section of 5 m is
usually adopted and the Lugeon value is determined from the measurement of the rate
of loss of water into the strata under a pressure of 10 kg/cm2 after stabilization of the
injection volume.
The following equation may be used to determine permeability;
2𝑙
𝑄. ln { ∅ }
𝐾= … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … .3.6
∆ℎ. 2𝜋𝑙

Figure 3.7 Lugeon Test
From the above equation it follows that a permeability of 1 Lugeon will approximate to
a coefficient of permeability of 1.3x10 -5 cm/s in boreholes of between 40 and 80 mm
diameter.
In a Lugeon test the volume of injected water Q will be proportional to the injection
pressure P until a certain critical value of Pucker is reached. When the injection pressure
is raised further, Q will often increase rapidly. The test has to be conducted at a pressure
lower than this pressure Pucker. When an injection pressure of 10 kg/cm2 cannot be
used, the Lugeon value is derived from the ratio of the actual injection pressure P to 10
kg/cm2. The converted Lugeon value may be obtained from the following equation;
10𝑄
𝐿𝑢 = … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … 3.7
𝑃
Where, Lu is the lugeon value, Q is the injection volume, l/min/meter length and P is
the injection pressure, kg/cm2.

The Lugeon Unit (Lu) is a key unit grouting practice and is extensively used. The unit is
a measure of rock permeability or hydraulic conductivity. Lugeon tests are usually
carried out in the area of the grout curtain to decide the need for grouting the foundation
and later to determine the adequacy of grouting.
One Lu is roughly equivalent to a coefficient of permeability of 1.3x10 -5 cm/s; this
degree of permeability is encountered in nearly tight foundations which require almost
no grouting. To give a physical idea, 10 Lugeon warrant grouting for most types of dam,
and a permeability of 100 Lu is encountered in heavily jointed sites with relatively open
joints. The lower limit of Lu values at which grouting of the dam foundation is usually
done is 3-5. Initially Lugeons postulated that foundations with a permeability of more
than 1 Lu should be grouted below dams of more than 30 m in height, and a
permeability of more than 3 Lu was considered critical for smaller dams. Table 3.2
gives the range of Lu values for a grout curtain below embankment dam.
Table 3. 2 Range of Lu values for a grout curtain below embankment dam
Embankment Dams Suggested curtain

standard(Lu)
Narrow core earth/rock fills
Single row curtain 3-7
Multiple row curtain 5-10
Wide core,earth/rockfills and membrane faced
Single row curtain 5-10
Multiple row curtain 7-15
Exceptions
If foundations contain materials able to be removed by seepage
Single row curtain 3
Multiple row curtain 4
If water lost by seepage is sufficiently valuable to warrant considerable
expenditure to stop it or is environmentally hazardous
Single and multiple row curtain 1-3

(Source: Bharat sigh and R.S,Varshney,1995)
Questions
1. Discuss about in situe stress?
2. List and expain the various techniques that used measures insitue stresses
3. What is Lugion test? What are the two systems in the Lugion Test method?
Explain briefly
4. What is the use of packer test?
5. How the insitue shear strenght of rock are measuers?
6. Compare and contrast Radial jacking and flat jack tests?

CHAPTER FOUR
4 ENGINEERING GEOLOGY AND EARTH PROCESSES
4.1 Introduction
Engineering works and earth processes interact in two distinct and important ways.
First, the development and construction of the engineering project is carried out by
considering the possible influence of the earth processes. The suitability of site for
development, their design and cost are related to the effect of the earth processes.
Secondly, the engineering structures may alter or may be responsible for the
development of the earth processes after construction. Development of a dam project
may be responsible for landslides in the reservoir rim area. A large Reservoir may be
responsible for triggering of a seismic activity, process known as ‘Reservoir Induced
Seismicity’. Development of an underground structure may change the insitu regime of
the area, which may be associated with subsidence. Every earth process may affect the
engineering structure however; the degree of its impact may depend on its intensity and
type of structure. An earthquake of small or medium intensity may not damage the
engineering structure whereas; the earthquake of greater intensity may damage the
structure partly or fully. However, the design of the structure may dictate broadly the
degree of the damage, which it has.
4.2 Types of Earth Processes
Broadly the various types of earth processes may be classified as; (i) Earthquake
Induced Processes, (ii) Volcanic Processes, (iii) Landslide Processes, (iv) Subsidence,
(v) Expensive soils, (vi) Shoreline Processes and (vii) Floods.

Each of the above mentioned earth processes have an impact over the engineering
structure. These processes will affect the site selection, design, and cost of the project
and the functioning of the engineering structure.
4.2.1 Safety, Risk and Geological Forecasting
Forecasting, or predicting, the interaction of engineering works with earth processes is
necessary for safety and reliability of the structure. As an engineering geological
investigation an engineering geologist has to carry out a Risk assessment for various
earth processes to which the proposed engineering structure will be subjected. This
assessment of the risk of the various earth processes is based on the probability of
occurrence of an event. This prediction of future events of a given magnitude usually
depends on basic geological studies. These techniques of predictions are based on the
past history of the occurrence of the event and the geological conditions existing at the
time of investigation.
4.2.2 Risk Assessment for Natural Earth Processes
In order to perform a risk assessment for various earth processes the probability of
occurrence and degree of loss can be defined by the following terms;
Natural Hazard (H) – Natural hazard means the probability of occurrence within a
specified period of time and within a given area of a potentially damaging phenomenon.
Vulnerability (V) - Vulnerability means the degree of loss to a given element or set of
elements at risk resulting from the occurrence of a natural phenomenon of a given
magnitude. It is expressed on a scale from 0 (no damage) to 1 (total loss).
Elements at Risk (E) – Elements at risk means the population, properties, economic
activities including public services etc., at risk in given area.

Specific Risk (R) - Specific risk means the expected degree of loss due to a particular
natural phenomenon. It may be expressed by the product of H x V.
4.2.3 Earthquake Induced Processes
Among the entire earth processes earthquake induced processes are most important for
the engineering design and performance of the structure. Earthquakes are measured by
two different factors. One is magnitude a measure of energy released.
This measurement is made from records of earthquake shock waves at various
seismograph stations. The most common used scale for magnitude is the Richter scale.
The other measure is of the intensity of the earthquake. This is based on the effect of the
earthquake on people and structures. Table 15.1 shows the Modified Mercalli Scale,
which is typically used for measuring intensity.
There are four types of earthquake induced processes; (i) surface rupture, (ii) ground
shaking, (iii) ground failure and (iv) tsunamis and seiches occurrence.
Surface rupture is the actual displacement and cracking of the ground surface along a
fault trace. Surface rupture is confined to a narrow zone along an active fault.
Rupture may happen rapidly during an earthquake. These ruptures may have an adverse
effect over the engineering structures. The possible areas of occurrence are the close
vicinity of the active faults; therefore such areas must be avoided while locating a site
for proposed structure.
Ground shaking is the actual trembling or jerking motion produced by an earthquake.
It causes widespread damage and is one of the more difficult seismic effects to quantify
and predict.

Table 4. 1 Description of the 12 levels of Earthquake intensity on the Modified

Mercalli Scale (Hays,1980)
The ground acceleration can be related to intensity of the seismic activity.
Hays (1980) developed a relationship in intensity of earthquake, based on Modified
Mercalli intensity scale, and the ground acceleration in g. Fig.4.1 shows the proposed
relationship between intensity to ground acceleration. Ground acceleration is important
design parameter and is required to design a safe structure for possible adverse
conditions for which the structure will be subjected during an earthquake activity. The
intensity of earthquakes can be determined from the seismic maps of the area.
Landslides
Movement of soil or rock mass down the slope under the influence of gravity is known
as landslide. Landslide is an important earth process, which may damage the
engineering structures to any degree. Landslides may damage the engineering structures
in two ways one the structure constructed over a land mass which moves down with the

structure and other the landmass slides over the structures which fall into its way.
Therefore it is very important that when the structures are to be constructed on the hills
or at the foot hills a thorough investigation must be made to study the stability
conditions of the hill slopes for the existing and possible adverse conditions.
4.2.3.1 A Basic Landslides/ Rockslides Classification System
The landslide or rockslide is defined as follows;
Debris Slide – Sliding of debris or talus on rock slopes due to a temporary ground water
table just after long rains.
Figure 4. 1Relationship between intensity and ground acceleration

Figure 4. 2 Seismic risk map of Ethiopia 100 years return period, 0.99 probability,
(After LaikeMariam Asfaw, 1986)
Debris Flow - Liquid flow of mixture of boulders, debris, clay and water along gully
during rains or cloud burst.
Earth Flow – Liquid flow of mixture of soil, clay and water along a gully
4.2.3.2 Causative classification
Landslides may also be classified according to their causes. Rainfall induced landslides
– most of landslides and rock slides
1. Earthquake induced landslides – generally rock falls and boulder jumping to
long distances in hilly areas.
2. Cloudburst induced landslides – mostly mud flows, debris flows and flash
floods.
3. Landslide dam break – resulting in flash floods and large number of landslides
due to the toe erosion along the river banks.
4. Glacial lake outburst flood – it is common in glaciated ridges due to melting of
nearby glaciers. Such a flood causes bank under cutting, landslide and debris
flows.

5. Freeze and thaw induced rock falls during sunny days in the snow bound steep
rocky mountains.
Table 4.2 the basic landslide classification system (Source: Indian Standard Code)
Types of movement Types of material soils Bed rock Recommended

control measures
Predominantly Predominantly
fine coarse
Falls Earth falls Debris falls Rock fall Geotextiles nailed on
slope/spot bolting
Topples Earth topple Debris topple Rock Breast walls/soil
topple nailing
Slides Rotational Earth slump Debris slump Rock Alteration of slope
slump profile, earth and
rock fill buttress
Earth block Debris block Rock Reinforced earth or
slide slide block slide rock reinforcement in
rock slope
Transitional Earth slide Debris slide Rock slide Bio technical
measures
Lateral spreads Earth spread Debris spread Rock Check dams along
spread gully
Flows Earth flows Debris flows Rock Series of check dams
flows or silt dams
Soil creep Deep Rows of deep piles
creep
Complex’s Combination of two or more principles types Combined systems
of movement
Rock failures are mainly governed by the discontinuity orientation, geometry of the
slope and the shearing strength parameters, cohesion and angle of friction of the
discontinuity planes.

The possible mode of failures in rock slopes can be classified into four types;
i). Plane mode of failure
ii). Wedge mode of failure
iii). Circular or Rotational mode of failure
iv). Toppling mode of failure
v) Raveling slopes or falls
Plane Failure
Plane failure in rock slopes occurs when a geological discontinuity, such as bedding
plane, strikes parallel to the slope face and dips into the excavation at an angle greater
than the angle of friction and less than the inclination of the slope.
The base area ‘A’ and the weight ‘w’ of the sliding mass are calculated from the
geometry of the slope and the failure plane. A tension crack running parallel to the crest
of the slope can also be included in the calculation. Generally, a planar failure depends
on joint continuity.
Figure 4. 3 plane failure
Wedge Failure
When two discontinuities strike obliquely across the slope face their line of intersection
daylights in the slope face, the wedge of rock resting on these discontinuities will slide
down the line of intersection, provided the plunge of line of intersection of the two
wedge forming planes is greater than the angle of friction and is less than the inclination
of the slope. The wedge failure depends on joints attitude and conditions and is

more frequent than planar failures (Hoek and Bray, 1981).
Circular Failure
When the material is very weak, as in a soil slope, or when the rock mass is heavily
jointed or broken, the failure will be along a circular path. Such types of failures are
common in highly weathered shales. This failure occurs along a surface which develops
only partially along joints, but mainly crosses them. These failures can only happen in
heavily jointed rock masses and very weak or heavily weathered rock mass. It is
essential that all the joints are oriented favorably so that planar and wedge failure are
not possible
Figure 4. 4 Circular failure
Toppling Failure
Figure 4. 5 Toppling failure
Raveling Slopes (Falls)
Accumulation of screes or small pieces of rock detached from the rock mass at the base
of steep slopes and cyclic expansion and contraction associated with freezing and

thawing of water in cracks and fissures in rock mass are the principal reason of slope
raveling.
A gradual deterioration of material, which cements the individual rock blocks together,
may also play a part in this type of slope failure. Weathering or the deterioration of
certain types of rock exposure will also give rise to the loosening of a rock mass and the
gradual accumulation of materials on the surface, which falls at the base of the slope. It
is important that the slope designer should recognize the influence of weathering on the
nature of the material.
Figure 4. 6 Raveling Slopes
Factors affecting stability of slope
The important factors which influence the stability of the slope are; 1) slope angle 2) dip
of the failure plane or plunge of the line of intersection, 3) shear strength parameters and
4) water saturation condition. The required stability conditions for a given slope can be
achieved by adopting several methods, these are listed as below:
Designing the Slope
A considerable stability can be achieved by making concave slope face. The stability of
the slope can further be improved by providing benches of equal height and maintaining
the overall slope angles as derived from the above method.

Slope De-Pressurization
Water pressure decreases the stability of a slope, it follows that reduction of this water
pressure will increase the stability of the slope. The following points are important for
slope de-pressurization;
1. Prevent surface water from entering the slope through open tension cracks and
fissures.
2. Reduce water pressure in the vicinity of the potential failure surface by selective
surface and sub-surface drainage.
3. Position the drainage so that it reduces the water pressure in the immediate
vicinity of the slope.
The important de-pressurization methods are;
Surface Drains
Surface drains are designed to collect run off before it reaches the area immediately
behind the crest of the slope.
These drains are important because they are constructed in the area where tension crack
occur. Therefore, these drains must be cleaned from silt or clay or any blockage
material, so that there is no pondage of water, which may enter into the tension crack.
Upper Slope Surface
The upper slope surface, immediately behind the crest, is an area of considerable
potential danger since water which is allowed to pond in this area will certainly finds its
way into the slope through open tension cracks and fissures. Grading of this surface and
the removal of piles of waste rock or overburden which could cause damming will
enhance run-off of any collected water.
Open Tension Crack

Open tension cracks are very dangerous in areas liable to higher intensity rainfall since
the water forces generated by a water filled tension crack can be very high and can
induce very sudden slope failures. In addition to diverting surface water away from
open tension cracks, it is advisable to prevent water from entering the cracks, by sealing
them with a flexible impermeable material such as clay. When the crack is more than
few inches wide it should be filled with gravel or waste rock before the flexible seal is
placed. Under no circumstances the tension crack is filled with concrete or grout since
this would result in the creation of an impermeable dram with cause the buildup of high
water pressure in the slope.
Horizontal Drains
Horizontal drain holes drilled into the slope face can be very effective in reducing water
pressure near the base of the suspected tension crack or along a potential failure plane.
Water which is drained out of the rock mass should be lead away in collection drains
otherwise this water will simply find its way into the next bench and the problem will
transfer form one level to the lower level.
Vertical Drainage Wells
Vertical drainage wells drilled from the slope surface and fitted with down hole pump
can be effective in slope drainage and de-pressurization.
Drainage Galleries
Drainage galleries with or without fans of radial holes are the most effective means of
sub-surface drainage.
Surface Protection of Slopes
Slopes in soft rock or soil are prone to serious erosion during heavy rain and some rock
slopes suffer from deterioration due to weathering when exposed. The protection of the
surface of such slopes poses serious problems. Local conditions and the availability of
the material will generally determine the measures which are taken on any particulars
site.
Vegetation Cover
Vegetation cover is the best form of the slope protection, particularly against erosion of
soil slopes. A grass mat covering the slope will not only bind the surface material
together but it will also tend to inhibit the entry of water into the slope. Where it is felt
that vegetation will not provide sufficient surface protection, more positive mechanical
measures can be considered.
Hand Applied Mortar
When the slope rock mass is deeply weathered and the area is subjected to violent rain
storms, hand applied mortar is very effective. This slope protection system is very
effective except when the drainage of the layer has been forgotten or when the drains
become blocked.
Shotcrete
For the slopes having conditions prone to rapid weathering and break down upon
exposure, use of pneumatically applied mortar or shotcrete is very effective.
Precast Concrete Member
In the slope protection system interlocking precast concrete members form an open
framework into which a layer of porous no-fines mortar is placed. This supports a layer
of top soil which is then seeded with grass seed.
Gabions
The use of gabions can be considered for slope protection. Gabions are rock filled wire
baskets which are strong, heavy, flexible and permanent. The gabions are not only
provides a protection to slopes from sliding but are also useful to prevent erosion of
river banks.
4.2.4 Geological work of rivers (streams)

Surface water flowing in channels of their own are defined as streams. A large stream
flowing through extensive area and receiving water from smaller side streams is
distinguished as river. During its life from head to mouth regions the stream water
performs geological work, which can be studied under 3 phases. These are erosion,
transportation, and deposition.
Erosion by river
Erosion is the disintegration of the rock by a natural agent through mechanical,
chemical processes accompanied by removal of disintegrated product from its original
place. Streams or rivers cause erosion in 4 ways:
1. by abrasion
2. by attrition
3. by hydraulic action
4. by chemical action (corrosion)
(1) Abrasion - The flowing water uses rock fragments such as pebbles, gravels, and
sands as a tool for rubbing, grinding and bumping the sides and the floor of the river
valley. This type of erosion is called abrasion.
(2) Attrition- it is the breaking of the transported materials by themselves due to mutual
collision. Attrition causes the rock fragments to become more rounded and smaller in
size.
(3) Hydraulic action is erosion in which the inherent kinetic energy of running river
water only takes part in causing the physical break down of rocks. This process is
effective in uneven faces of the jointed rocks exposed along the river channel.
(4) Chemical action-The slow but steady chemical action of stream water on the rocks
with which it comes into contact. It depends much on the character of the rock and the

composition of the stream water.
The rate of stream erosion depends on a number of factors. These are (a) velocity of
stream (b) lithology (c) load carried by stream.
The velocity of stream depends upon channel size, channel shape, channel gradient,
discharge and load.
Erosional features of stream
(1) Pot holes (2) Gorges (3) Ox-bow lake (4) Water fall (5) Meanders
(6) Stream terraces.
(a)
b)
Figure 4. 7 shows ox-bow lakes and meandering rivers(Richard John Huggett,2011)
River transportation
Rivers are very powerful transporting geological agents.
The amount of solid material transported by a river is called load. Load is transported by
a river in 3 ways.
(a) As dissolved load: this comprises all soluble matter in the stream water in solution

form.
(b) As suspended load: this consists of silt, clay, fine sand etc. Such load is carried by
the river in suspension form.
(c) As bed load-The bed load comprises heavier particles of sand, pebbles, gravel, etc.
which are transported mainly by their rolling, skipping, gliding along the bottom of the
stream. This kind of movement of load is discontinuous and slow. The process of
intermittent jumping of stones is called saltation.
River deposition
Deposition takes place whenever geological agents lose energy. That is the loose rock
materials transported by stream to the lower course down and deposited whenever the
velocity of the flowing water is reduced.
The separation of materials takes place automatically as the larger and heavier particles
settle quickly while the smaller and the lighter ones continue their journey farther
ahead. The material that a stream deposits as sediment is called Alluvial or Alluvium
deposits. The term alluvium means sediment deposited by a stream. It contains fine
material such as silt, clay, coarse sand and gravel.
River deposition takes place in 4 ways. Deposits taking place
(1) In the river channel during periods of normal flow.
(2) By spreading over the plains on either side of the river during periods of flood.
(3) Across the Estuary and interbedded with the sediments carried into the Estuary by
the sea. Estuary is wide river mouth into which the tide flows.
(4) In deltas
There are 5 types of river deposits. These are:
(1) Alluvial fans (2) Flood plains (3) Natural levees (4) Point bar (5) Deltas

(1) Alluvial fans: The alluvial materials that flow down from mountains accumulate at
the foot of hills where the stream enters a plain. The deposition occurs due to the
abrupt change in the gradient of a river valley. Such deposits spread in the shape of
FLATE FANS in which the apex point’s uphill and such deposits are called Alluvial
fans. Usually the coarser material is dropped near the base of the slope while the
finer material is carried farther out on the plain.
Figure 4. 8 Alluvial fan (Richard John Huggett, 2011)
(2) Flood plains deposits: During flooding a river over flows its banks and submerges
the adjacent low-lying area where deposition of alluvial material takes place. A wide
belt of alluvial plain formed in this way on either side of the stream is called FLOOD
PLAIN. Flood plain gets submerged only when a river overflows its bank at flood
stage.
Figure 4. 9 Flood plain and natural levees
(3) Natural levees: These are low ridges that are formed on both sides of a river
channel by the accumulation of sediments along the banks. This is because river water

suffers first check in velocity on the banks while over flowing them. Development of
such levees by flooding causes raising of the banks, So that these sometimes become
helpful in preventing floods of previous intensity. As result, most of the coarse
sediment is deposited along the area bordering the river channel and the finer
sediments are deposited more widely over the flood plain.
(4) Point bars - In the meandering rivers, sediment deposits occur at the inside bends of
a river. They are crescent shaped and are called point bars. The shaded parts indicated
by D are point bars.
Figure 4.10 Point bars. (Richard John Huggett, 2011)
(5) Deltas: are alluvial deposits, which are roughly triangular in shape with their apex
pointing upstream, that are laid down by the streams at the points where they enter into
lake or seas i.e. mouth. When a stream enters an ocean or a lake, the currents of the
flowing water dissipate quickly. This results in the deposition of a series of sediment
layers, which make up the delta. A delta deposit is generally composed of a number of
layers or beds inclined at different angels towards the sea or lake.

Figure 4. 11 Deltas deposition structure
Engineering consideration of geological work of river
Generally any site for an engineering project is selected away from the path of a river
or running water. But in the case of dams and bridges, where the site has to be with in
the path of the running water, suitable measures are adopted to stop or minimize the
adverse effects of running water. In such cases, foundations of the dam or piers of the
bridge are made to rest on some firm strata and suitable measures are also adopted to
strengthen the sides and the bed of the river by stone-pitching both upstream and
downstream of the bridge or dam to stop erosion.
4.2.5 Geological work of sea (ocean)

Sea is extension of the oceans towards to the land areas. The apparent calm seawater is
affected by periodic disturbances (rise and fall) called tides and irregular disturbances
grouped as waves.
The land area adjoining the sea commonly referred as coast.
Seashore is a term given to that part of the land adjoining to the sea, which lies
between high water level and low water level.
Sea waves are described as undulated disturbances on the surface seawater caused by
strong rushing wind, earthquake where water particles are moving in a circular pattern
before coming to rest again.
Currents - These are layers or strips of seawater that are actually pushed forward in a
particular direction.
Tide - is the periodic rise and fall of sea due to the pull exerted by the sun and moon on
the earth. The bulge of water thus produced moves round the earth as the moon rotates.
Sea erosion
Erosion by seawater is accomplished in 3 ways
(1) Hydraulic action
(2) Abrasion
(3) Corrosion
Some common features of sea erosion are
(1) Head lands and bays (2) Sea cliff (3) Plate form or wave cut terrace
(1) Head lands and bays: If originally uniformly sloping shore line is composed
of material of unequal resistance, the stronger rocks stand out as head lands, whereas
the softer and fractured rocks are quickly eroded by the waves and the areas are
changed into bays.
Figure 4. 12 Head lands and bays
(2) Sea cliff is seaward facing steep front of a moderately high shoreline. It is the first
stage of the work of waves on the shore rocks.

Sea cliff
Figure 4. 13 Sea cliff
(3) A wave cut terrace is a shallow water shelf slopes gently seaward and carved out
of the shore rocks by advancing waves. These waves first cut a notch where they strike
against the cliff rocks. The notch is gradually deepened so much that a part of the
overhanging cliff becomes unsupported from below and falls. A plat form is thus
created and which is also called a wave-cut terrace.
Figure 4. 14 sea cliff and wave-cut terrace H.T.L = Higher tide level and L.T.L =
lower tide level. P = Plat form or wave cut terrace
Transportation by the sea

The eroded rock particles are carried by the sea in 2 ways. These are (1) In solution
form (2) In suspension form.
Sea deposition
Seas are generally regarded as the most important and extensive sedimentation basins.
Sea or ocean deposits are broadly classified into two. These are:
(1) Shallow water or Neritic deposits eg. Beach, Spit, and bar.
(2) Deep water or pelagic deposits. eg. Coral reef
Engineering consideration of the work of sea
Problems as a result of the wave action
(1) Erosion of seashore or harbor structures.
(2) Silting up of harbor.
4.2.6 Geological work of wind

Atmosphere is composed of gases and these gases collectively known as air. Air in
motion is called wind. Wind is one of the agents of erosion, transportation, and
deposition.
Wind erosion
Erosive works of wind are 3 types. These are deflation, abrasion, and attrition.
(1) Deflation is the lifting and removal of loose particles of sand and dust by fast wind.
In desert areas deflation may remove the sand from a particular location to such extent
that a depression of small or large size is created and the base eventually touching the
water table. Such depressions with shallow water table are called blowouts. But deeper
water filled depression is called oasis.

Figure 4. 15 Oasis
(2) Abrasion- during dust storms the wind carries minute grains of sand in suspension.
They scoured, abrade and collide against the exposed rock masses and cause erosion.
This process in which sand grains are used as tools for eroding rock is called abrasion.
(3) Attrition-The particles that travel with wind collide against one another. This
mutual collisions lead to their further break down and the process is called attrition.
Features of wind erosion
There are some features of wind erosion. These are (1) Ventifacts or Driekenters
(2) Pedestal or mushroom rocks.
(1) Ventifacts or Driekenters
Small rock fragments lying in the path of abrading winds may soon become faceted and
polished in one or more directions. Such wind-carved fragments of the deserts are called
Ventifacts or Driekenters. The latter one is used especially when the Ventifacts show
three polished faces on them.
Figure 4. 16 Ventifacts or driekenters

(2) Pedestal or mush room rocks are flat-topped rock bodies, which have very thin
supporting lower regions. They are generally a few meters high.
W=
Figure 4. 17 Mushroom rock
Wind transportation
Wind carries its load either in suspension or by the process called saltation. The finer
dust and silt particles may be lifted up high in the upper regions of the wind and moved
along with it. This type of transport by the wind is called transport in suspension form,
whereas sands and heavier particles are transported in a series of jumps and they
merely roll along the ground. This process by which sand travels by series of jumps is
called saltation. Each particle suffers a fall after reaching the maximum height and
transmits an impact on the particle on which it strikes while settling down. This impact
is commonly sufficient in magnitude to displace the next particle and make it available
for a lift by the wind.
Wind deposition
Sediments picked up by the wind from any source are carried forward to different
distances depending upon the carrying capacity of the wind. Whenever velocity of
wind is checked a part or whole of the load is laid down or deposited. Wind deposits
are commonly called Aeolian deposits. The rock particles in the Aeolian deposits are
generally well rounded and are sorted out according to their size and weight. There are
two main types of Aeolian deposits. These are: (1) sand dunes (2) Loess
(1) Dunes: These are wind deposits made up of sand grade particles. A dune is defined
as any mound or ridge of sand with a crest. A normal type of dune is generally
developed when velocity of sand-laden wind is checked partially by some obstruction.
A normal dune is characterized by a gentle windward side and a steeper leeward side.
Their outline and orientation are controlled by the wind velocity, duration, and
variation in the wind direction. The sand deposits may acquire a regular or irregular
shape.
Figure 4. 18 Normal dunes, W= wind direction, WW= wind ward, LW= Lee ward and
C=crest
Types of sand dunes
The common types of sand dunes are longitudinal, transverse, and barchans.
(a) Longitudinal dunes: They are also called Seifs because it appears like Arab sword
and are elongated ridges of sand with their longer axes broadly parallel to the direction
of the prevailing wind. Their formation favored by constant wind direction in regions
with dry climate and small supply of sand. They may have height up to 100mts and
length up to 90km.

Figure 4. 19 Longitudinal dunes, W=wind direction
(b) Transverse dunes: They have longer axis at right angles to the direction of the
prevailing wind. They are formed in the areas where strong winds prevail and more
sand is available. eg. Seashore areas
(c) The barchans- are crescent shaped dunes where the convex side faces the wind
direction. The horns and wings of the crescent point in the direction of the wind.
Barchans are formed where the wind is nearly unidirectional. They occur in groups
where sand is available in plenty. They have a gentle windward slope and much steeper
leeward slope.
Figure 4. 20 Barchans dune
(2) Loess

Fine particles such as silt and clay are carried high up in the wind in a state of
suspension for considerable distances. Their deposition normally takes place when the
wind becomes, moist due to precipitation. Thus, a rain intervening, the movement of a
dust-laden wind will cause these finer sediments to settle down in the ground below.
Such deposits are called Loess. It is characterized by absence of stratification or
layered structure. e.g. Loess in North China. (200-300mts thick)
Engineering consideration of the work of wind
In general no site is selected for any type of important work on the dunes because
dunes are always source of trouble. In sand dune areas or in towns situated in close
vicinity of deserts a major civil engineering problem is due to the migration of sand
dunes. Dunes may travel for considerable distances and bury forests, agricultural lands
and make life condition severe.
Methods commonly used at present for combating the advancing sand and thus
protecting the towns, agricultural lands and high ways passing through dune area
include:
(1) Establishing sand tolerant vegetation. E.g. grass, conifers
(2) Construction of the wind breaks or walls around the areas to be protected.
(3) Treating the sand with crude oil where transport by the wind is considerably
reduced.
In the case of loess it has been observed that upon construction loads are exerted and as
the result this makes the loess to settle down when the loess is wetted. This forms
dangerous foundation condition especially for dams.
4.2.7 Geological work of glaciers

A glacier is a thick mass of ice, which moves over the ground under the influence of

gravity. It originates on the land from the compaction and recrystallization of snow.
They are formed chiefly in high latitudes as in the Arctic regions or at higher
elevations as in the Himalayan mountains above the snow line.
Types of glaciers- There are 3 kinds of glaciers. These are:
(1) Valley glaciers
(2) Piedmont glaciers
(3) Ice sheet
Valley glaciers: The glaciers, which originate near the crests of high mountains and
move along the valleys just like rivers, are called valley glaciers
Figure 4. 21 valley glacier
Piedmont glaciers: At the end of hilly region, a number of valley glaciers may unit to
form a comparatively thick sheet of ice.
Figure 4. 22 Piedmont glaciers

Ice sheets: These are massive accumulation of ice covering extensive areas.
Figure 4. 23 Sheet ice
Glacier erosion
Glaciers cause erosion in 3 ways
-By plucking or Quarrying
-By abrasion
-By frost wedging
Some features of glacier erosion are:
1.Striations 2. U-shaped valley, 3. Hanging valley, 4. Cirques 5. Serrate ridges 6.
Roches moutonne 7. Fiords
Glacier transportation
Glaciers move depending on their thicknesses, the temperature of the surrounding
environment and the angle of the rock over which it moves.
Ice Thickness: glaciers will begin to move when their thickness exceeds 150 feet.
Deformation of internal ice due to pressure of overlying ice layers results. As the
material deforms, brittle surface ice may fracture producing crevasses at the surface
that open and close to depths of 50 meters.

Ice Temperature: If the base temperature of the glacier is below freezing, the ice will
remain frozen to the bedrock on which it rests. Most of the movement of polar glaciers
is internal deformation of the ice. If the base temperature is above freezing, the layer of
melt water will permit the ice to slide with the lubrication provided by the water. In
addition, pressure of the overlying ice will reduce the melting point if the ice and the
ice at the base will start to melt. Temperate glaciers move up to 90% due to this basal
sliding.
Slope of the Bedrock and Ice Surface: alpine glaciers move quickest of all with speeds
up to 500-600 feet per year.
Glacial deposits
There are mainly two types of glacial deposits. These are:
Till: These are deposited directly by the glacier, which are the mixture of sand, clay,
pebbles and boulders. They are also unsorted, unstratified and heterogeneous in
composition.
Fluvioglacial or out wash deposits: These are deposited by glacial melt water. They are
well sorted and stratified accumulation of silt, sand, and gravel.
There are various types of glacial depositional land features. These are:
1. Moraines 2.Kettle holes 3. Drumlins 4. Eskers 5.Kames
Engineering considerations of glacial deposits
The glacial deposits are among the most heterogeneous types of materials as far as
their engineering properties are concerned. Hence they are dangerous and must be
avoided.

Question
1) What are the various types of earth processes?
2) List and explain the types of earth quake induce process?
3) Landslides could be caused by external or inherent causes. Water and lithology
are among the inherent causes. Explain how they could be the reason for
landslide occurrence? And, what preventive measures do you recommend?
4) Discus and explain the following
a) Specific risk b) Natural hazard c) element at risk
5 Where do you expect earthquakes to be frequently occurred? Explain Why?
6 How could geological structures be the reason for land slide occurrence?
7 What are the possible modes of failures in rock slopes?

CHAPTER FIVE
5 ENGINEERING GEOLOGICAL SITE INVESTIGATION
5.1 Introduction
The site investigation is the surface and subsurface ground exploration for any
engineering structures and it is a prerequisite for the successful and economic deign of
engineering structures and earthworks. Depending on the detail information they have
and surface area coverage the geotechnical investigation can be classified as regional
investigation and site investigation
The main objective of site investigation is
 To assess the general suitability of a site for proposed engineering works.
 To enable preparation of an adequate and economic design.
 To foresee and provide against geotechnical problems during and after
construction.
 To investigate any subsequent changes in conditions, or any failures
during construction.
It has three distinct stages of site investigation such as preliminary investigation, detail
investigation and implementation study
1. Preliminary investigation
 It support the feasibility study of the project
 It is use to determine the relative suitability of the alternative sites or project
design
 It also use to determine the extent and type of information needed during the
detailed investigation for the project
 It estimate the general cost of the project

 The information we obtain during this study are: topographical and geological
setup of the site, slope angle, accessibility, ground water level, condition of the
past infrastructures in the site and etc.
2. Detail investigation (site exploration
 It is the extensive investigation of the proposed site
 Its result incorporate into the final design and construction of the project
 It investigate the detail surface and subsurface condition of the proposed site
 The quality and source of the construction material studied
 It provide information about adverse condition of the site and recommend the
remedial measure
5.2 Phase of Site investigation
A. Formulating an investigation
 It is the first stage of engineering geological investigation
 We formulate or framing the question to be answered
 Formulating the hypothesis to conduct different testing
 Define the type and amount of information needed and the scope of
investigation in terms of area covered, time allocated, finance and etc. because
they are depend on type and size of the structure
B. Data collection
This is the second stage of an investigation that conducted to collect the data that help
to test the hypothesis we formulate in the first stage.
Secondary data collection (office study)

 It is the type of data that generated previously for other purpose and also
utilized partly or fully as supporting data or information for the proposed
project.
 It can be from: published and unpublished literatures, aerial photographs,
satellite image, topographic and geological map, books, geologic logs,
information from different organizations and etc.
 The extent of data can be depend on the type and size of the project and
expected ground condition.
Primary data collection (field study) it is the type of data generated for the purpose of
current project.
This primary data can be collected through surface and subsurface exploration. The
Surface exploration are locating spring, mapping different exposed litho logic units,
measuring different geological structure, taking surface samples for laboratory test and
etc. Subsurface exploration it is use to extract information from the subsurface of the
site. This data extraction can be done by direct and indirect methods.
The main objectives of geotechnical subsurface exploration is to determine
1. Sub surface Soil strata
Depth, thickness, and variability
Relevant engineering properties, such as shear strength, compressibility, stiffness,
permeability, expansion or collapse potential, and frost susceptibility
2. Sub-surface Rock strata
 Depth and thickness
 Quality, such as soundness, hardness, jointing and presence of joint filling,
resistance to weathering (if exposed), and soluble nature of the rock.

3. Groundwater condition
Level of ground water table, flow direction of the ground water and chemistry of the
groundwater
In general the objective of the subsurface investigation is to obtain a detailed
understanding of the engineering and geologic properties of the soil and rock strata and
groundwater conditions that could affect the foundation.
Direct exploration methods
o It is the Examination of the proposed sites subsurface condition by the means
of pits, trenches, augers, adits, drifts and borehole.
o The selection of one of these direct methods is depend on the type and size of
the project.
E.g for the shallow foundation structures we can use augers, pits and trenches,
while for deep foundation such as dam structures we use drilling and drifting.
Disturbed and undisturbed Soil samples
 A disturbed sample: it is one in which the structure of the soil has been
changed sufficiently that tests of structural properties of the soil will not be
representative of in-situ conditions. Therefore this type of sample is only use to
evaluate the soil properties such as: grain size distribution (gradation test),
Atterberg limits, CBR test, Compaction test and water content of the soil.
 An undisturbed sample: it is one where the condition of the soil in the sample
is close enough to the conditions of the soil in-situ (the in-situ structures of the
soil are not highly disturbed). Therefore this sample can be used to do the

structural properties test in the laboratory that can represent the in-situ
condition of the soil.
Indirect exploration methods
 It is method that can support the surface and direct subsurface exploration by
providing important information in large area within short period of time and
with small cost.
• It can help to determine the location of bore hole and variety condition of
subsurface between bore holes.
• The best known Indirect exploration methods are Geophysical methods such as
seismic (refraction or reflection), electrical resistivity and magnetic surveys and
others.
Seismic Surveys:
Seismic refraction surveys are used to determine the compressional wave velocities of
subsurface materials. It can help us to determine the depth of bed rock, thickness of
overburden soil, fault, joint etc.
Therefore we can use this method for foundation study, tunnel alignment, slope
stability study and exploration activity

E.G to determine the depth of bed rock layer or the thickness of overburden layer we
can use the following formulae.
(V2 −V1
𝐻 = xd√ … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … ….5.1
V2 +V1
xd = is the crossover distance which is determine from distance –time graph which is
the intersection point of the direct wave and the refracted wave.
H= depth of bed rock or thickness of overburden layer
V1 = velocity of Direction wave
V2 = Velocity of refracted wave
Seismic reflection also used successfully in petroleum and geothermal exploration to
define the geometry of the different subsurface layers and structural features.
E.g to identify the locations and types of faults, as well as the location of buried
channels.
Electrical resistivity survey
This method can measure the electrical resistivity of subsurface material and estimate
the type of these material based on theirs resistivity values.

Table 5- 1 the electrical resistivity value of subsurface material
Material type Resistivity in Ohm-m
Clay and saturated silt 1-100
Clayey sand and saturated sand 100-250
Clayey sand and saturated sand 250-500
Sand 500-1,500
Gravel 1,500-5,000
Weathered rock 1,000-2,000

Sound rock 1,500-40,000
Electrical resistivity profiling survey
It is used to detect lateral changes in the electrical properties of subsurface material,
usually to a specified depth. Electrode spacing is held constant. Therefore it use to map
the horizontal variation of subsurface materials
Electrical resistivity sounding surveys
It measure vertical changes in the electrical properties of subsurface materials. The
electrode spacing used for resistivity sounding is variable, with the center point of the
electrode array remaining constant. The depth of investigation increases as the
electrode spacing increases. Commonly it is used for aquifer and Aquiclude delineation
and bedrock delineation studies along the depth
C. Interpretation: the data collected will not complete the investigation process;
hence the data should be interpreted in light of the questions posed for the
investigation. To make interpretation we must conduct different measurement, analysis
and testing of the collected data. When we do the data interpretation we must
keeping in mind the scope of the work and requirements
Based on the result of data interpretation it is possible to make the conclusion and
recommendations about the proposed project
D. Investigation Communication: it is the final element of an investigation processes
that use to transfer the findings to the user in the useable format. It is use to transfer the
investigation result to the user for the action
3, Implementation study
 It is the investigation that done during the construction stage

 This help to determine the geological condition encountered during the project
construction which may be differ from what was expected during the exploration
stage.
 It also help to change the project design to avoid major problem in the project
performance
5.3 Geological considerations in Engineering Structures
5.3.1 Investigation of Dam site
A Dam is a solid barrier, which is constructed across a river to store water. A dam is
built mainly:
 To store water for irrigation
 To generate hydroelectric power
 To supply water to industries
 To supply water for domestic use
 To Control flood
 To control Siltation
A dam that serves more than one purpose is called a multi-purpose Dam.
Parts of dams
Heel: the portion of the dam that touches the ground on the upstream side.
Toe: the portion of the dam that touches the ground on the downstream side.
Abutments: These are the sloping sides of the valley on which the dam structure rests.
Galleries: These are small rooms or openings with in the dam for draining water
seeping through the face or the foundation; act as openings to drill grout and drainage
holes. They provide access to equipment with in the dam. They are also used for
observing dam's performance.

Spillway: It is a structure constructed to discharge the surplus water from storage or
reservoir into the river on the downstream side of the dam.
Axis of the dam: An imaginary line that passes along the length of a crest of a dam
through its Center.
Figure 5. 1 A gravity dam and its parts
Types of dams
Depending on the materials used in the construction, dams are classified into 3 divisions.
1) Concrete or Masonry dams (2) Rock-fill dams (3) Earth- fill dams
The concrete or masonry dams are usually built to big heights. The earth dams are
however used for small projects with small heights.
Figure 5.2 Earth dam

Concrete or masonry dams are classified into 4 based on the method of their design.
These are: (1) Gravity dam (2) Arch dam (3) Buttress dam (4) Coffer dams
1. Gravity dam: This dam has heavy and massive wall like concrete or masonry
structure in which the whole weight acts vertically down ward and it stands by its
own weight. The entire force acting on the dam wall is transmitted to small area of
the foundation. Therefore a sound foundation rock is required for the construction
of gravity dam.
Figure 5.3 Gravity dam
2. Arch dam: This dam has an arch shape, which is always convex in the upstream
side. The shape or design of an arch dam transmits the water pressure to the
abutments by the arching action. Hence, very strong rocks are required in the
abutments for the construction of the arch dam

Figure 5.4(a). Side view of an arch dam and (b) Top view of an arch dam
3. Buttress dam: This is concrete structure in which there is a deck sloping upstream.
This deck, which takes the entire load, supported from behind by walls called buttresses,
extending perpendicular to the axis of the dam from downstream side.
: (a) Side view of Buttress dam
Figure 5.5(a) Side view and (b) Top view of Buttress dam
4. Coffer dam: these are small wall like structure made for diverting of the river water
before construction of the main dam.
Forces acting on dam
1. Vertical Static forces: These are forces, which act vertically down ward due to the
weight of the dam, the water in reservoir, and sediments settled from the water.
2. Horizontal forces: These are forces acting on the dam due to the lateral pressure of
water and silt deposited in the reservoir behind the dam in the upstream side.

3. Pore pressure: The water entering into the permeable rocks below the dam exerts
an upward pressure on the base of dam. This pressure, which is equivalent to the
hydrostatic pressure, is called the pore water pressure or the up lift pressure. Pore
pressure acts against the weight of the dam and thus tends to slide or over turn the
dam on its base.
4. Earthquake forces: These are dynamic forces, which may act away or towards the
dam.
Geological considerations in the selection of a dam site
The important geological requirements, which should be considered in the selection of a
dam site, are as follows:
1. Narrow river valley
2. Occurrence of the bedrock at a shallow depth
3. Competent rocks to offer a stable foundation
4. Proper geological structures
Narrow river valley
If the proposed site contains a narrow river valley, only a small dam is required, which
means the cost of the dam construction is also will be less. On the other hand if the
valley is wider, construction cost will be very high and maintenance of the dam will
also be high.
Occurrence of bed rock at shallow depths
If the dam rest on very strong and stable rocks, the stability and safety of the dam will
be very high. This also reduces the cost of the dam. On the other hand the dam cost

will be high and the work of excavation will be overburden. This also requires heavy
concrete refilling.
In the case of deposition along the river valley depends on the stage of river. If the
river is in young stage, the erosion might have exposed the strong bed rocks that may
occur at the surface this would be competent for the dam construction. Yet some of the
points are to be considered while selecting the dam site at such a location. This is
because; the hilly terrain which occurs in these stages may not provide a suitable
topography for the occurrence of a large reservoir basin and the flow of water itself
may not be high in such developing rivers for obvious reasons. In older stage, the
deposition will be resulting in overburden. This means that suitable bedrock may lie at
a considerable depth and hence proves uneconomical.
Problems Associated with dam sites
Most of the dam failures that have occurred in the past are not due to faulty design or
construction but mainly due to the negligence of the geological considerations. The main
geological problems that are usually met at the dam sites are as follows:
(1) Problems, which are related to incompetence of rocks. These include
(i) Dams on shale
(ii) Dams on soluble rocks
(2) Problems which are related to improper geological structures
(iii) Dam on strata dipping up stream.
(iv) Dam on strata dipping downstream.
(v) Dam built across strike of rocks.
(vi) Dam on jointed and permeable rocks.
(vii) Dam on faults

(3) Problems associated with abutments
(i) Dam on shale
Shale is soft rock and when saturated with water under pressure likely produces
lubricating material making a slippery base. Shale’s bearing capacity is low and it
becomes plastic when wetted. Hence shale has a tendency to flow away from the
loaded area and then the structure settles. Swelling and caving may result during
the excavation work, which may cause trouble. Therefore construction of dam on
shale is not recommended and it should be avoided. To improve this foundation
site excavation of shale should be done and then either concrete (hard rock) should
be placed immediately without delay or its surface should be coated with asphalt to
avoid swelling and caving.
(ii) Dam on soluble rocks. The soluble rocks include limestone, dolomite, and marble.
These rocks are generally strong to support the weight of the dam. But they may
contain underground openings.
(iii) Dam on strata dipping up stream:
If a dam is located on the beds dipping upstream, these beds are the most capable of
supporting the weight of the dam and water pressure of the reservoir, because the
resultant of these two forces acts nearly at right angles to the bedding planes of the
rocks. Also the upstream dip of the rock does not allow the water in the reservoir to
percolate below the dam. As a result, the leakage of water and the development of
the up lift pressure will be less.

Figure 5.6 Dam on the strata gently dipping upstream
(iv) Dam on strata dipping down stream
Dams built on rock beds dipping downstream are not safe due to the following reasons:
1. The percolating water may cause lubrication along the bedding plane, which may
facilitate sliding of the dam.
2. The water percolating through the strata dissolves the cementing materials of the
rock beds and enlarges the openings by mechanical erosion. This undermines the
strength of the rocks and increases the seepage of water.
3. The water, which enters the openings of the rocks below the dam, causes uplift
pressure that tends to decrease the stability of the structure.
4. The resultant force R, which is due to the weight of the dam and the horizontal
water pressure acts nearly parallel to the bedding planes and endangers the
stability of the dam.

Figure 5.7 Dam on strata dipping downstream
(v) Dam built across the strike of the rocks
The best foundation condition is when only one type of uniform rock is present along the
entire length and width of the dam.
If a dam is aligned across the strike of the strata, then its foundation will be on different
rock types of varying properties. This situation leads to unequal settlements of the dam
foundation. As the bedding planes of the strata lie across the axis of the dam there is
possibility of series leakage of water, not only through the porous beds, but also through
the bedding planes.
(vi) Dams on jointed and permeable rocks
When fissured, fractured and jointed rocks exist in the foundations may cause leakage of
water through them and uplift pressure takes place. Uplift pressure may cause sliding
of the dam. This is because up lift pressure acts opposite to the weight of the structure.
Therefore such rocks are to be consolidated by grouting. Grouting is a method by
which suitable mixture of cement and water or cement-calcium chloride is injected into
the rocks to seal the openings. Grouting is done to consolidate the rock and to stop
seepage of water through them.
(vii) Dam on fault

Faults are most trouble sources if they are active, dipping downstream and encountered
across the length of the dam. The fault zones cause the following problems:
(a) A fault zone causes leakage of water and it is difficult to seal these fault zones
at reasonable cost.
(b) The rocks may be weathered up to a great depth along a fault zone. This
requires digging and excavating out the weathered rock and refilling the
trench with concrete.
(c) The crushed and fissured rocks that exist along a fault zone are not competent
in the foundation. Hence they have to be grouted intensively to increase their
bearing capacity.
(d) Along a fault, some displacement of strata is always expected, particularly
during an earthquake. Such a movement will not only reopen the fault
fissure, but also rupture the dam.
(e) A site, where the fault is known to have been active in the recent years, Should
always be discarded.
(viii) Abutment problems
Attention should be given to the orientation of joints, bedding planes, foliation and weak
zones present in the abutments.
If such weak zones are parallel to the thrust of water in the reservoir, the stability of the
dam is endangered.
The rocks that are present in the abutments of an Arch dam should be strong enough to
resist the pressure without being crushed. If the bedding planes are dipping toward to the
sides of the valley slope, then this condition is very prone for landslide occurrence.

5.3.2 Investigation of Reservoirs Sites
Reservoirs are artificial lakes formed along the course of a river by impounding of the
natural flow of river water by constructing dam across the river.
Considerations for successful reservoirs
A reservoir can be claimed to be successful if
 It is water tight that is it does not suffer from any serious leakage of water.
 It has a long life due to a very low rate of silting in the reservoir basin.
 It should have adequate capacity to hold a large and desirable quantity of water.
 It should have less chances of occurrence of seismicity and lands slides.
 It must have good bearing geology.
Problems associated with reservoirs
The main geological problems associated with the reservoirs are
1) Ground water conditions
2) Silting
3) Permeable rocks
1. Ground water conditions
If the water table occurs at considerable depth below the river floor, the river water
percolates through the country rock and reaches the ground water. This means loss
of water from the river continues till the water table rises to the level of the river.
Such rivers are called influent rivers. Hence there is leakage.
If the water table occurs at shallow depth or near or intersecting the valley sides, then
seepage of ground water will occur and water will be added to the river. Hence there is
no leakage. Such a river is known as Effluent Rivers.

Figure 5.8(a) Influent and (b) Effluent river condition at reservoir site
2) Silting of reservoirs
The reservoirs built on rivers, which carry large amount of sediments, may silt up very
soon and its water storage capacity may be reduced considerably. The amount of silt
produced and supplied to the rivers depends mainly upon lithological character and
topography of the catchment’s area. The rivers flowing over the soft rocks and high
gradient areas carry greater amounts of silt. On such rivers silt traps may be constructed
up stream in order to check the rate of silting in the reservoir. Provisions should also be
made for washing out the silt through the passage of the dam.
The measures that help to reduced silting of reservoirs are
a) Vegetation
b) Covering with slabs on weak zones
c) Terracing of the slope and construction of retaining walls
d) Check dams
e) By diversion of sediment-loaded waters.
3) Permeable rocks

During the geological investigations it is necessary to locate the highly permeable rocks
that are present in the reservoir area. The rocks, which are highly porous, are likely to
cause series leakage from the reservoir.
Generally the leakage of water from the strata that have downstream dip will be more
than those which have upstream dip.
The following methods used to seal permeable zones:
a) Natural silting
b) Grouting
c) Covering weak zones with concrete slabs.
5.3.3 Investigation of tunnel site
Tunnels are underground passages or routes used for different purposes. They are made
by excavation of rocks below the surface or through the hills or mountains, or sides of
valley.
Figure 5.9 Tunnels
Purpose of tunnel
1. To reduce distance between places of interest across natural obstacles like hills
to save time i.e. to lay roads or railway tracks.
2. To divert the normal flow of river water to facilitate the work of dam foundation
i.e. dug along the valley sides.

3. For power generation i.e. tunnels allow water to pass through them under force.
4. For supplying drinking water or for laying cable.
Types of tunnels
Tunnels are classified according to their purposes. The following tunnels are the
common ones (I) Traffic tunnel (II) Hydropower tunnel (III) public utility tunnels (iv)
diversion tunnel.
The geological factors which influence tunneling
These include the following
I. Inclined strata
1. Tunnel along the strike line: In the inclined rock beds, when a tunnel is driven
parallel to the strike direction, there is tendency in the rocks to slide into the tunnel.
This is particularly the case when hard and soft rocks like sand stone and shale is
interbedded.
Figure 5.10 Tunnel along the strike line
2. Tunnel across the strike of the rocks: When a tunnel is made across the strike of the
rocks, it will pass through different beds of rocks. In such cases, there will be arching
action or down ward pressure from the roof. Water problems are likely to be met in a
place where porous beds are found.

Figure 5.11 Tunnel across the strike line of the rocks
(II) Folded rocks
1. Tunnels along troughs: This encounters unfavorable conditions, because rock
masses along trough are harder and more resistant. This means excavation through
them will be difficult process. Further, the inclination of bedding planes may guide
the percolated water towards the trough and create undesirable ground water
problems. Such problems will be very severing if artesian conditions prevail.
2. Tunnels along crests: The rock masses along the crest may be in a highly fractured
condition due to development of tension joints. As a consequence of this, if tunnels
are driven in such places, there may be frequent fall of rocks from the roof. Of
course, such joints, which develop perpendicular to the bedding planes of rocks,
produce some wedge-shaped blocks, which may act as keystones preventing the fall
of adjacent rock masses. Hence lining is necessary.

Figure 5.12 A= Tunnel along crest and, B= Tunnel along trough
3. Tunnel aligned parallel to fold axis through limbs: This is desirable because
similar rocks with similar properties are encountered along the course of the tunnel.
Figure 5.13 Tunnel aligned parallel to fold axis through limbs
4. Tunnel aligned perpendicular to fold axis through limbs: This is undesirable
because, under such a condition, different rock formations are encountered from
place to place along the length of the tunnel, and also the tunnel has to pass through a
series of anticlines and synclines which will pose additional problem like water
problem.

Figure 5.14 Tunnel aligned perpendicular to fold axis through limbs a) in anticline b)
syncline
(III) Fault zones
Faults are commonly found associated with a zone of highly crushed rock or fault gouge.
The crushed rocks, being highly permeable, allow the ground water to seep into the
tunnel. In addition to this, they also form unstable roof rock. The fault gouge is a very
fine and soft material upon wetting; it becomes plastic and caves into the tunnel.
Therefore faults are a serious source of major trouble in tunnels. Generally it is better to
deviate from the fault zones.
(IV) Jointed rocks
In one way, the jointed rocks facilitate, easy tunneling but in the other way they present
many difficulties. If the joints are closely spaced and water bearing, rock falls and
ground water seepage may occur into the tunnel. If larger water bodies like lake, canal,
or river are side by, more flow of water into the tunnel through open joints and fissures
takes place.
(v) Water bearing rocks

Excavation a tunnel through the water bearing rock is difficult since ground water rushes
into the tunnel and causes flooding during excavation. If soft rocks like clayey rocks are
present, their strength will be diminished due to water flow.
(VI) Swelling rocks
Shale, unconsolidated tuff and anhydrite are examples of swelling rocks. They absorb
moisture and swell when they are exposed. If a tunnel is to be constructed in these rocks,
special treatment is to be adopted. Strong supports are to be used and they should be
protected from wetting as far as possible.
Geological survey of tunnels
A detailed geological map is prepared, showing various rock types present in the area.
Their lithological characters and mechanical properties are determined. The geological
or structural features such as folds, faults, joints, shear zones etc are studied and marked
on the geological maps. The surface water seepage’s if any, and depth of water table, at
various places along the tunnel alignment, are also shown on the map. Deep exploration
that is drilling and geophysical survey may confirm the results of the surface geological
survey.
5.3.4 Investigation of bridge sites
Bridge is a structure constructed across a barrier or river that separates the two land areas,
for communication.
Types of Bridges
The common types of bridges are
(i) Simple beam (ii) Cantilever (iii) Arch (iv) Rigid-Frame (V) Suspension Bridges
Important terms
Abutment is the embankment that connects the bridge to the roadway.

Pier is the intermediate bridge support built mostly of concrete often with granite facing.
The factors that influence the bridge sitting
The weight of bridge, the load of traffic and pressure of the wind and flowing water are
ultimately transmitted to the foundations of piers and abutments. Therefore the design
and construction of bridge is governed largely by:
(I) Nature of rock (II) Structure of rock (III) Types of river channel
(I) Nature of rocks: The rocks over which the piers and abutments are to be founded
must be strong and durable. They should be free from closely spaced joints, fissures,
shear zones, solution channels and other zones of weakness. Poorly cemented, thinly
bedded and softer sedimentary rocks should be avoided. Grouting may consolidate the
rocks having joints and fractures.
(II) Structure of rocks: If a bridge is aligned across the strike of the country rocks,
different types of rock beds having varying strength and composition are met with along
the foundation. In such cases putting boreholes in the ground used for a close
examination of the foundation rock under each pier and abutment, If thinly bedded soft
rocks such as shales were exposed in the riverbed the water current would easily cut
deep grooves parallel to the bedding and hence would undermine the foundation of
piers.
For placing the abutment of a bridge, the valley walls are thoroughly examined. The
valley walls, where the strata dip into the river channel, form unstable slope, because
they have a tendency to slide in to the river channel. Such unstable valley slopes should
be avoided.
A fault, if it is running across the bridge alignments, is a source of many troubles. The
highly crushed and watered zones of rocks, which exist in the fault zones, make the

foundation treatment extremely expensive. It is therefore an advised that the possibility
of avoiding the fault by shifting the bridge alignment upstream or downstream.
(III) Types of river channel: In alluvial channels the thickness of loose sands and
gravel’s may be so great that it is not economical to reach the bed rock for placing the
piers. In such cases pile foundation is used. The piles are generally driven through the
alluvial material to the bedrock. Friction piles are used where the bedrock is not
available up to a great depth.
Most favourable geologic conditions at a bridge site
The sound rock profile should not lie at a great depth. The foundation and the abutment
rocks should be strong enough to support the load. The geological structures of the
country rocks should not endanger the stability of the piers and abutments. If the bridge
lies across a river channel, the erosive action of running water (scouring) should not be
so large.In regions susceptible to earthquake shocks, seismic forces have to be carefully
considered in bridge design. Regular inspection and maintenance of bridge piers and
abutments should be carried out.

Questions
1. Define engineering geological site investigation
2. What are the purposes of site investigation? State the methods and stages of site
investigation?
3. List and discus the phase of site investigation
4. What are the Geological/ engineering geological parameters to be considered in

selection of site for the following engineering structures? Discus the
geological/engineering geological problems which are frequently occurred?
What should be done to overcome the problems/measures to be taken?
a. Dam
b. Tunnel
c. bridge
5 Briefly explain the difference between the following Disturbed and Undisturbed
soil sample
6 List and explain the main geological problems associated with reservoirs
7 What are the important geological requirements, which should be considered in the
selection of a dam site?
8 Discuss with regard to stability of dams constructed on strata:
a. Dipping downstream and
b. Dipping up stream
9 State the problems related to tunnels constructed:
a) On swelling rocks and
b) Along fault zones

CHAPTER: SIX
6 QUARRIES AND THEIR PRODUCTS
6.1 Definition of Quarry
Quarry: is place where rock is separated from its natural beds and processed for use in
construction. Quarrying is the process of breaking and obtaining stones from their
natural rock out crops.
6.2 Types of quarries
There are two types of quarries: Open and underground quarries. Open quarries may be
shelf quarries, where the rock is extracted from hillside, or pit quarries, where the rock
is extracted from a certain depth in the ground.
Quarry products are dimension stone, crushed stone, and broken stone (riprap).
6.3 The controlling factor for selection of quarry site
The search of rock material for building stone, crushed rock, or riprap is controlled by
factors (1) quality (2) supply of the material (quantity) and (3) economics of
production and delivery.
1. Quality
Rock for dimension stone must be free of cracks, uniform texture, attractive color, and
in some cases capable of taking a polish. Crushed stone and riprap must have
satisfactory strength, soundness, and low water sorption. Particularly rock selected for
riprap should be roughly squared and reasonably flat faced. Values of specific gravity
of 2.6 and higher are preferred because the rock has to be resistant for wave action etc.
2. Supply
The rock supply of a quarry generally is estimated in tones. For dimension and
crushed stone operations, the supply should be sufficient for about 20 years

if initial expense and costs are to be justified. For riprap quarries economically feasible
operations usually is possible even if the supply is only sufficient for the immediate
use on the structure.
3. Economic factor
One of the most important factors, which may make the operation economically
prohibitive, is the cost of transportation of the product to the place of consumption.
This is provided that populated areas should be at safe distance.
6.4 Quarrying methods
Quarrying is done by one of the following 4 methods after investigation of its quality,
quantity and economic benefit.
i) Excavating ii) Wedging iii) Heating iv) Blasting.
i) Excavating: This method is employed when stones to be quarried are lying buried in
earth or are under loose overburden before excavating.
a. Cut and grade the access road to the sit
b. Cut an access road to the area, which will become the head, or top, of the
quarry face.
c. Carry out the initial levelling and grading of the area.
d. Remove at least sufficient over burden to allow an early start on developing the
largest practicable rock face.
After these arrangements Shovels, Pick. Axes, Hammers and Chisels etc. are made
ready to use in the excavation work.
ii) Wedging: This method is suitable for quarrying soft stratified rocks. The operation
is started near a vertical face. In this method steel wedge is hammered in to the rock to
create cracks into which steel bars are inserted and the stone blocks are separated. If

vertical face is absent, cutting or boring channel or drilled holes create a vertical face
by power drilling machines. To separate big blocks of proper dimensions, lifting crane,
plugs, steel hammers (sledgehammers) are used in drilled holes.
iii) Heating: This method is suitable where only small blocks of more or less regular
shape are required and suitable rocks bedded in horizontal layers, which have not much
thickness to be quarried.
This method consists of filing a heap of fuel on small area of the exposed rock face and
burning a steady fire for some hours. Because of uneven heating to top and bottom
layers, the rock masses separate themselves along the joint with some sound.
iv). Blasting: It is the quarrying of stones using explosives. The purpose of blasting for
the quarrying is to loosen large masses of rocks and not to violently blow up the whole
rock mass into pieces. Quarrying by blasting requires the following steps:
a) Drilling of blast holes of calculated dimensions at predetermined places in the
rock.
b) These drilled holes are charged with the explosives of suitable quality in a
carefully selected manner.
c) Igniting or firing of charge or shot, which explode with in the body of the rock
and thus rocks, break in to parts and thrown into at distances that depend upon
the quantity and quality of the explosives used in the shot.
The two basic kinds of explosives are black blasting powder and high explosives.
1. Black blasting powder: is used in dimension stone quarries. Black blasting
powder may be either “A” blasting powder of “B” blasting powder type.
“A” blasting powder that is mixture of charcoal, potassium nitrate and sulfur in
proportion of about 15:75:10 respectively.
“B” blasting powder that is mixture of charcoal, sodium nitrate and sulfur in proportion
of about 16:72:12 respectively. “B” blasting powder is slower and less expensive than
“A”
2. High explosives: are used in crushed stone quarries and in most civil engineering
excavation operations. High explosive may be:
a) Those containing mainly Nitro-glycerin and Nitroglycol both are designated by
symbol NG. These are the main types used in civil engineering. They
commonly referred as dynamite, and they may have either a granular or
gelatinous nature. Nitroglycol is less expensive than Nitro-glycerin.
b) Those, which do not contain NG-types (mostly military type explosives),
Dynamite should not explode by detonation. Blasting powder or Gunpowder
can be ignited by means of fuse.
16.5 Quarry hazards: Accidents in quarries mostly are due to
1. Falls of the over burden or slides of the rock slopes.
2. Mishandling of explosives
3. Poorly organized haulage transport of the rock material together with
carelessness and of fatigue a rear tiredness of the drivers
4. A serious occupational disease of stone cutters is silicosis, a lung infection that
develops as a result of inhaling quartz powder during working hours. For
protection against the disease dust respirators are used.
6.5 Rocks as building materials
Building materials (stones) are products of rocks that are used in construction of
buildings, dams, bridges etc. The rock materials used for construction include:
a) Building stones in the form of masonry blocks.
b) Rubble-in the form of small irregular fragments.

c) Crushed stones-to make concrete
d) Limestone-to make lime and cement.
6.6 Properties of Building Stones
The properties that are commonly examined for rock materials, which used for
construction, are:
i. Mineral composition: The rocks are aggregates of minerals. If the constituent
minerals of rock are hard, free from cleavage and resistant to weathering, the
rock is likely to be strong and durable. The rocks, which are rich in weak
minerals such as mica, talc, calcite and clay minerals, are not durable.
ii. Texture: Fine-grained rocks are generally more dense and stronger than
coarse-grained rocks. It is for this reason that Basalt and Dolerite are widely
used as road metal.
iii. Structure: Many rocks contain structures like stratification, lamination, flotation
and cleavage. Such rocks can withstand greater loads if their beds are
perpendicular to the line of action of load. Since laminated or banded rocks
may scale badly with weathering, it is not advisable to place them in civil
engineering works with the cleavage or bedding planes vertical.
iv. Porosity: The porosity of a rock is the ratio of the volume occupied by pores to
the total volume of rock sample. It is generally expressed as percentage. A less
porous rock is generally more durable and stronger and therefore it is preferred
for construction work.
v. Permeability: is capacity of a rock to transmit water. It indicates the ease with
which water can percolate through the openings of the rock. The permeable
rocks are considered harmful because they cause seepage of water. Permeable

are not only result in loss of stored water, but may also endanger the civil
engineering structures by developing pore water pressure.
vi. Durability: It is the capacity of stone to retain its original size, strength and
appearance throughout along period. The durability of a rock depends upon (a)
its chemical composition (b) its mineral constituents (c) its texture, (d) its
permeability and porosity (d) its structure (f) climatic conditions.
vii. Strength of rock: is determined by knowing its crushing strength, shearing
strength, and resistance to abrasion. Crushing strength is the resistance offered
by a stone to pressure or compressive strength. Shear strength is the resistance
offered by a stone against shear stresses that tend to move one part of the
specimen with respect to other. Resistance to abrasion is the resistance of stone
against scratching or rubbing action. The stone used for paving and flooring
purposes must have high resistance to abrasion.
viii. Resistance to fire: The resistance of rock to fire will be more if it expands or
contracts uniformly throughout its body. This in turn depends on the mineral
composition and grain size. Monomineralic rocks quartzite, marbles, compact
limestone and dolomite possess greater fire resistance property because such
rocks have uniform expansion or contraction. Sandstone generally suffers the
least damage. Next in the order of decreasing resistance to damage are
fine-grained granite, limestone, gneiss and marble.
Grain size is also important in this context because, in Aphanitic rocks, the minerals
being very small in size, each grain will not exert any significant volume change by
itself and therefore the rock as a whole undergoes expansion or contraction uniformly.
Generally stones which are free from calcium carbonate and oxides of iron resistance
to fire.
6.7 Rocks used as building and industrial materials
i). Granites
 Granites are plutonic igneous rocks, which have high crushing strength, durability
and weight. They have low porosity, pleasing pink and grey colour and takes good
polish.
 They are used for the construction of massive masonry required in heavy civil
engineering works like dams, bridges, retaining walls, harbor and etc.
 Granite stones are also used for architectural works, ornamental works and face
coverings
 Buildings, which are facing to sea and exposed to dusty winds, are built by granite
because of its compactness and hardness due to the presence of Silica.
 Granites are also used in the constructions in the industrial towns, since acids,
flames and smoke do not affect granite.
 Granite is also used as road metal and as aggregate for concrete making because of
its hardness. Toughness and resistance to abrasion. (Toughness is the resistance to
impact forces).
ii).Gneiss
Gneiss is high-grade metamorphosed form of Granite. It has high crushing strength,
durability and weight. It is also used for the construction of heavy engineering
structures like Dams, Bridges etc.
iii).Basalts and Dolerites
They are fine-grained igneous rocks, which are basic in composition. They make
excellent road metal ad aggregate for concrete because of their high crushing strength.
They are not commonly used as building stone because of their dull and unpleasant
colour, even though they have easy workability and durability.

iv). Sandstones
Sandstone is a clastic sedimentary rock.
Well-cemented sandstones are good building stones. They are used both in building
masonry and as flagstones. Fine-grained sandstone is used for buildings, which face to
sea and exposed to dusty winds because of their compactness and hardness due to
presence of silica,
Compact sandstone is used in fire resistance construction since they have better fire
resistance
Sandstone is also for making Ballast for constructing railway track.
v).Quartzite
Quartzite is metamorphosed sandstone.
Quartzite is not used as building stones since its workability is difficult due to its
extreme hardness. However quartzite broken stone is used as road metal. As aggregate
for concrete making and as ballast for railway track, Pure and white quartzite is used in
glass making industry.
vi). Limestone and marble
 Limestone is non-clastic sedimentary rock
 Marble is metamorphosed limestone
 Due to homogenous texture, easy workability and pleasing colour, limestone
and marble are used for building and ornamental works
 Compact limestone is also used for ballast along railway track
 Lime stone is also used in the cement making industry
vii).Slates
 Slates are metamorphosed form of shale

 Slates can be split easily into thin and smooth slabs. Hence they are chiefly
used for roofing, flooring (or paving) in buildings.
 Slates and marbles slabs also used in the electrical industry for making
electrical switch boards since they have poor electrical conductivity, and they
can be easily cut into any shape and size. Also they take very fine polish.
Questions
1. What are the main factors that controlled during prospecting the geological
construction materials for hydraulic and civil structural works? Discus briefly
2. List and explain the different methods of quarrying?
3. How the mineral compositions affect the durability nature of building stone?
4. What are the two kinds of explosive?
5. For what kinds of rocks wedging method of quarrying is suitable?

References
1. Agarwal, C.K., Mehrotra, V.K. and Mitra, Subhash, 1991, “Need of Long Term
Evaluation of Rock Parameters in the Himalayas Proc.”, 7th International
Congress Rock Mech., Aachen, Germany.
2. Arora, K.R., 1997, “Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering”, Standard
Publishers Distributers, Delhi, India
3. Attewell,P.B and Farmer,I.W,1985 “Principles of Engineering Geology”, A
Halsted Press Book by Chapman and Hall, London,U.K.
4. Bell F.G., (2007). Engineering Geology. 2/e .Butterworth-Heinemann.
5. Bell,F.G, 1980 “Engineering Geology and Geotechnics”, Newnes-Butterworths,
London, UK.
6. Bharat Singh and Varshney R.S, 1995 ‘’ Engineering for Embankment Dams’’,
Oxford and IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.
7. Bieniawski, Z.T., 1989, “Engineering Rock Mass Classifications”, John Willey
and Sons, New York.
8. Bowles, J. E., 1996. Foundation Analysis and Design, Joseph E. Bowles,
McGraw-Hill.
9. Budhu, M, Soil Mechanics and Foundations, Wiley and Sons, (2000)
Murthy,V.N.S, Geotechnical Engineering
10. Cernica, J. N., 1995. Geotechnical Engineering - Soil Mechanics, Wiley and
sons.
11. Das, B. M., 1995. Principles of Foundation Engineering, PWS pub. Co.
12. Das, Braja, 2002. Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, 5th ed., Brooks/Cole,

13. Getinete Asfaw, 2005 ‘’Engineering Geological study on Rib dam project, South
Gonder (North-Western Ethiopia)’’, unpublished M.Sc Thesis, Department of
Earth Sciences, Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia.
14. Goodman (1993).Engineering geology, rock in civil Engineering
15. Goodman, R.E., 1989, “Introduction to Rock Mechanics”, John Wiley and Sons,
New York.
16. Hoek, E and Bray, J.W., 1997, “Rock Slope Engineering”, E&FN Sponand
Imprint of Chapman and Hall, 2-6 Boundary Row, London SEI 811 N, UK.
17. Houlsby, A.C. (1977). Routine interpretation of the Lugeon (1993) water-test.
Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology, 9, 303-13
18. Jaeger, J.C. and Cook, N.G.W. (1979). Fundamentals of Rock Mechanics (3rd
Edition). Chapman and Hall, London.
19. Johnson, R.B and Degraff, J.V, 1991 “Principles of Engineering Geology”, John
Wiley and Sons, New York.
20. John Wiley and sons,1999, “Principles of Engineering Geology”,
21. Krynine, D. P and Judd, W.R, 2001 “Principles of Engineering Geology and
Geotechnics”, Mc Graw, Hill Book Co., Inc., New York,U.S.A
22. Lambe, T. W., Whitman, R. V. (1999), Soil Mechanics, John Wiley & Sons Inc.
23. Leake Mariam A, (1996): Catalogues of Ethiopian Earthquakes ,Earthquakes
parameters, strain release and seismic risk ,Geophysical Observatory ,Faculty of
Science ,Addis Ababa university
24. Mahadevaswamy, G.M, 2002 ‘’ Hydro geologic appraisal using conventional
and remote sensing methodology of Lokapavani Micro watershed, Mandy
District, Karnataka, India’’, Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, University of Mysore

25. Mclean &Gribble (1997).Geology For Engineers
26. Parbin Singh ( 2004) Engineering and General Geology
27. Plumer et al ( ) Physical Geology
28. Prakash, S., 1995. Fundamentals of Soil Mechanics, Prakash Foundation.
29. Raghuvanshi, T. K, 1996 ‘’ Engineering Geological Appraisal of Kishau Dam
Project, Garhwal Himalaya, India’’, Unpublished PhD Thesis, Indian Institute of
Technology Roorkee, India
30. Richard John Huggett,2011, Fundamentals of Geomorphology
31. Roberts & Foster, Geology for Engineers,5th edition
32. Roy Whitlow, (2001). Basic Soil Mechanics, Prentice Hall, London.
33. Samuel Abraham Engineering Geology lectures notes
34. Smith, G.W., (1982). Elements of Soil Mechanics for Civil and mining
Engineers, GRANADA, London.
35. Teferra, A. & Mesfin, L., 1999. Soil Mechanics, AAU
36. Terzaghi, K. and Ralph B. Peck, (1967). Soil Mechanics in Engineering
Practice, 2nd Edition, John Wiley and Sons, New York.

Engineering Geology Module

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Engineering Geology Module

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Soil Mechanics and Geology Module HWRE-M2101

ODA BULTUM UNIVERSITY

DEPARTMENT OF HYDRAULICS AND WATER RESOURCES ENGINEERING

ENGINEERING GEOLOGY (Geol 2103) MODULE FOR HOLISTIC

EXAM FOR 4TH YEAR HWRE STUDENTS

1. Shikuri Mahmud (M.Sc)

Oda Bultum University IoT HWRE Page I

PART III ........................................................................................................................ I

ENGINEERING GEOLOGY (Geol 2103) MODULE FOR HOLISTIC EXAM FOR

4TH YEAR STUDENTS .................................................................................................I

List of Figure ............................................................................................................... V

List of Table ............................................................................................................. VIII

Rationale and objective of the module ......................................................................... IX

1.1 Definition of Geology and Engineering Geology ............................................. 1

1.2 Scope and Application of engineering geology ................................................ 2

1.3 The earth's interior structure and its composition ............................................. 4

2 GEOLOGICAL MATERIALS (MINERAL AND ROCK) .................................... 11

2.1.1 Rock Forming Minerals ............................................................................. 15

2.1.2 Application of minerals ............................................................................. 19

2.2 Rock .............................................................................................................. 20

2.2.1 Rock Cycle ................................................................................................ 20

2.2.2 Igneous Rock Formation ........................................................................... 21

2.2.2.1 Classification of igneous rocks ........................................................... 21

2.2.2.2 Structures of Igneous rocks ................................................................ 24

2.2.2.3 Engineering considerations of igneous rocks ...................................... 27

2.2.3 Sedimentary rock formation ................................................................... 28

2.2.3.1 Types of sedimentary Rocks ............................................................... 31

Clastic Rocks ....................................................................................................... 31

2.2.4 Engineering consideration of Sedimentary rocks ....................................... 36

2.2.5 Metamorphic rock formation ..................................................................... 37

2.2.5.1 Types of metamorphism ..................................................................... 38

2.2.5.2 Engineering consideration of metamorphic rocks ............................... 40

2.2.6 Geological structures of rocks ................................................................... 41

2.2.6.1 Deformation of rocks.......................................................................... 41

2.2.6.2 Fold, Fault and Joints ......................................................................... 43

3 IN SITU TESTING METHODS........................................................................... 57

3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 57

3.2 In-situ Tests for Rock Mass ........................................................................... 58

3.2.1 Measurement of Deformability .................................................................. 58

3.2.2 Measurement of In-situ Shear stress .......................................................... 62

3.2.3 The Assessment of the Rock Permeability ................................................. 63

4 ENGINEERING GEOLOGY AND EARTH PROCESSES .................................. 71

4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 71

4.2 Types of Earth Processes ............................................................................... 71

4.2.1 Safety, Risk and Geological Forecasting .................................................... 72

4.2.2 Risk Assessment for Natural Earth Processes ............................................. 72

4.2.3 Earthquake Induced Processes ................................................................... 73

4.2.3.1 A Basic Landslides/ Rockslides Classification System ........................ 75

4.2.3.2 Causative classification ...................................................................... 76

4.2.4 Geological work of rivers (streams) ....................................................... 84

Erosional features of stream ................................................................................. 85

4.2.5 Geological work of sea (ocean) ................................................................. 89

4.2.6 Geological work of wind ........................................................................ 92

Features of wind erosion ...................................................................................... 93

Types of sand dunes ............................................................................................. 95

4.2.7 Geological work of glaciers ................................................................... 97

5 ENGINEERING GEOLOGICAL SITE INVESTIGATION ................................ 102

5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 102

5.2 Phase of Site investigation ........................................................................... 103

5.3 Geological considerations in Engineering Structures.................................... 109

5.3.1 Investigation of Dam site ......................................................................... 109

5.3.2 Investigation of Reservoirs Sites .............................................................. 119

5.3.3 Investigation of tunnel site....................................................................... 121

5.3.4 Investigation of bridge sites ..................................................................... 126