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1.

Overview of Mining and its Impacts


1
Proposed mining projects vary according to the these metal ores are the subject of this Guidebook.
type of metals or materials to be extracted from the The Guidebook does not discuss the mining of
earth. The majority of proposed mining projects ores that are extracted using strip mining methods,
involve the extraction of ore deposits such as including aluminum (bauxite), phosphate, and
copper, nickel, cobalt, gold, silver, lead, zinc, uranium. The Guidebook also does not discuss
molybdenum, and platinum. The environmental mining involving extraction of coal or aggregates,
impacts of large-scale mining projects involving such as sand, gravel, and limestone.

1.1 PHASES OF A MINING PROJECT


There are different phases of a mining project, EIA for the exploratory phase of a mining project
beginning with mineral ore exploration and because the impacts of this phase can be
ending with the post-closure period. What profound and because further phases of mining
follows are the typical phases of a proposed may not ensue if exploration fails to find sufficient
mining project. Each phase of mining is quantities of high-grade mineral ore deposits.
associated with different sets of environmental
impacts. 1.1.2 Development

1.1.1 Exploration If the mineral ore exploration phase proves that


there is a large enough mineral ore deposit, of
A mining project can only commence with sufficient grade, then the project proponent may
knowledge of the extent and value of the mineral begin to plan for the development of the mine.
ore deposit. Information about the location and This phase of the mining project has several
value of the mineral ore deposit is obtained during distinct components.
the exploration phase. This phase includes
surveys, field studies, and drilling test boreholes 1.1.2.1 Construction of access roads
and other exploratory excavations.
The construction of access roads, either to
The exploratory phase may involve clearing of provide heavy equipment and supplies to the
wide areas of vegetation (typically in lines), to mine site or to ship out processed metals and
allow the entry of heavy vehicles mounted with ores, can have substantial environmental impacts,
drilling rigs. Many countries require a separate especially if access roads cut through ecologically

Chapter 1 3
sensitive areas or are near previously isolated In almost every case, metallic ores are buried
communities. If a proposed mining project under a layer of ordinary soil or rock (called
involves the construction of any access roads, then ‘overburden’ or ‘waste rock’) that must be moved
the environmental impact assessment (EIA) for the or excavated to allow access to the ore deposit.
project must include a comprehensive assessment The first way in which proposed mining projects
of the environmental and social impacts of these differ is the proposed method of moving or
roads. excavating the overburden. What follows are brief
descriptions of the most common methods.

1.1.3.1 Open-pit mining

Open-pit mining is a type of strip mining in which


the ore deposit extends very deep in the ground,
necessitating the removal of layer upon layer of
overburden and ore.

In many cases, logging of trees and clear-cutting


or burning of vegetation above the ore deposit
may precede removal of the overburden. The
use of heavy machinery, usually bulldozers and
dump trucks, is the most common means of
Erosion near a mining road, Pelambres mine, Chile
removing overburden. Open-pit mining often
PHOTO: Rocio Avila Fernandez
involves the removal of natively vegetated areas,
1.1.2.2 Site preparation and clearing and is therefore among the most environmentally-
destructive types of mining, especially within
If a mine site is located in a remote, undeveloped tropical forests.
area, the project proponent may need to begin
by clearing land for the construction of staging
areas that would house project personnel and
equipment. Even before any land is mined,
activities associated with site preparation and
clearing can have significant environmental
impacts, especially if they are within or adjacent
to ecologically sensitive areas. The EIA must
assess, separately, the impacts associated with site
preparation and clearing.

1.1.3 Active mining


Open-pit mine in Cerro de Pasco, Peru
Once a mining company has constructed PHOTO: Centro de Cultura Popular LABOR, Peru

access roads and prepared staging areas that Because open-pit mining is employed for ore
would house project personnel and equipment, deposits at a substantial depth underground, it
mining may commence. All types of active usually involves the creation of a pit that extends
mining share a common aspect: the extraction below the groundwater table. In this case,
and concentration (or beneficiation) of a metal groundwater must be pumped out of the pit to
from the earth. Proposed mining projects allow mining to take place. A pit lake usually
differ considerably in the proposed method for forms at some point in time after mining stops and
extracting and concentrating the metallic ore. the groundwater pumps are turned off.

4 Guidebook for Evaluating Mining Project EIAs


1.1.3.2 Placer mining off-site. Mining projects that only involve the
reworking of abandoned mine waste piles avoid
Placer mining is used when the metal of interest the environmental impacts of open-pit mining
is associated with sediment in a stream bed or and placer mining, but still entail environmental
floodplain. Bulldozers, dredges, or hydraulic jets impacts associated with purification (beneficiation)
of water (a process called ‘hydraulic mining’) of metals from the waste piles.
are used to extract the ore. Placer mining is
usually aimed at removing gold from stream 1.1.4 Disposal of overburden and
sediments and floodplains. Because placer waste rock
mining often occurs within a streambed, it is
an environmentally-destructive type of mining, In almost every project, metallic ores are buried
releasing large quantities of sediment that can under a layer of ordinary soil or rock (called
impact surface water for several miles downstream ‘overburden’ or ‘waste rock’) that must be moved
of the placer mine. or excavated to allow access to the metallic ore
deposit. For most mining projects, the quantity
1.1.3.3 Underground mining of overburden generated by mining is enormous.
The ratio of the quantity of overburden to the
In underground mining, a minimal amount of quantity of mineral ore (called the ‘strip ratio’)
overburden is removed to gain access to the ore is usually greater than one, and can be much
deposit. Access to this ore deposit is gained by higher. For example, if a proposed mining project
tunnels or shafts. Tunnels or shafts lead to a more involves the extraction of 100 million metric tons
horizontal network of underground tunnels that of mineral ore, then the proposed mining project
directly access the ore. In an underground mining could generate more than one billion metric tons
method called ‘stoping’ or ‘block caving,’ sections of overburden and waste rock.
or blocks of rock are removed in vertical strips
that leave a connected underground cavity that is These high-volume wastes, sometimes containing
usually filled with cemented aggregate and waste significant levels of toxic substances, are usually
rock. deposited on-site, either in piles on the surface
or as backfill in open pits, or within underground
Although underground mining is a less mines. Therefore, the EIA for a proposed mining
environmentally-destructive means of gaining project must carefully assess the management
access to an ore deposit, it is often more costly options and associated impacts of overburden
and entails greater safety risks than strip mining, disposal.
including open-pit mining. While most large-
scale mining projects involve open-pit mining,
1.1.5 Ore extraction
many large underground mines are in operation
around the world.
After a mining company has removed overburden,
extraction of the mineral ore begins using
1.1.3.4 Reworking of inactive or
specialized heavy equipment and machinery,
abandoned mines and tailings
such as loaders, haulers, and dump trucks, which
transport the ore to processing facilities using
Some mining projects involve the reworking
haul roads. This activity creates a unique set
of waste piles (often tailings) from inactive or
of environmental impacts, such as emissions of
abandoned mines, or older waste piles at active
fugitive dust from haul roads, which an EIA for a
mines. Typically, this is proposed when more
proposed mining project should assess separately.
efficient methods of metal beneficiation have
made it economical to re-extract metals from
old mining waste. The material from the piles
may be sent to processing facilities on-site or

Chapter 1 5
1.1.6 Beneficiation

Although metallic ores contain elevated levels of


metals, they generate large quantities of waste.
For example, the copper content of a good
grade copper ore may be only one quarter of
one percent. The gold content of a good grade
gold ore may be only a few one-hundredths of
a percent. Therefore, the next step in mining is
grinding (or milling) the ore and separating the
relatively small quantities of metal from the non-
metallic material of the ore in a process called
‘beneficiation.’ Heap leach, Bighorn gold mine, CA
PHOTO: Bender Environmental Consulting

Milling is one of the most costly parts of 1.1.7 Tailings disposal


beneficiation, and results in very fine particles that
allow better extraction of the metal. However, As previously discussed, even high-grade mineral
milling also allows a more complete release ores consist almost entirely of non-metallic
of contaminants when these particles become materials and often contain undesired toxic
tailings. Tailings are what remains following metals (such as cadmium, lead, and arsenic).
milling of the ore to fine particles and extraction of The beneficiation process generates high-volume
the valuable metal(s). waste called ‘tailings,’ the residue of an ore that
remains after it has been milled and the desired
Beneficiation includes physical and/or metals have been extracted (e.g., with cyanide
chemical separation techniques such as gravity (gold) or sulfuric acid (copper)).
concentration, magnetic separation, electrostatic
separation, flotation, solvent extraction, If a mining project involves the extraction of a few
electrowinning, leaching, precipitation, and hundred million metric tons of mineral ore, then
amalgamation (often involving the use of the mine project will generate a similar quantity
mercury). Wastes from these processes include of tailings. How a mining company disposes of
waste rock dumps, tailings, heap leach materials this high-volume toxic waste material is one of
(for gold and silver operations), and dump leach the central questions that will determine whether
materials (for copper leach operations). a proposed mining project is environmentally
acceptable. The key long-term goal of tailings
Leaching involving the use of cyanide is a kind disposal and management is to prevent the
of beneficiation process, usually used with gold, mobilization and release into the environment of
silver, and copper ores, that merits separate toxic constituents of the tailings.
attention because of the serious environmental
and public safety impacts. With leaching, finely An entire section of this Guidebook is devoted to
ground ore is deposited in a large pile (called a detailed comparison of tailings disposal options
a ‘leach pile’) on top of an impermeable pad, (see Section 3.2.1.3). These options include: (1)
and a solution containing cyanide is sprayed on the use of a wet tailings impoundment facility or
top of the pile. The cyanide solution dissolves ‘tailings pond’; (2) dewatering and disposal of
the desired metals and the ‘pregnant’ solution dry tailings as backfill; and (3) sub-marine tailings
containing the metal is collected from the bottom disposal.
of the pile using a system of pipes.
The first option (a tailings pond) is by far the most
commonly used option, but the second option

6 Guidebook for Evaluating Mining Project EIAs


(dry tailings disposal) is, in most circumstances, 1.1.8 Site reclamation and closure
the environmentally-preferable option. The third
option (sub-marine tailings disposal) is sometimes When active mining ceases, mine facilities and
proposed with mine sites located near deep sea the site are reclaimed and closed. The goal of
environments, or in rare instances in freshwater mine site reclamation and closure should always
lakes. Sub-marine tailings disposal has a poor be to return the site to a condition that most
environmental record in the few instances where it resembles the pre-mining condition. Mines that
has been practiced. are notorious for their immense impact on the
environment often made impacts only during the
Before the adoption of environmental laws closure phase, when active mining operations
and standards, many mining companies simply ceased. These impacts can persist for decades
dumped tailings in the nearest convenient and even centuries. Therefore, the EIA for every
location, including nearby rivers and streams. proposed mining project must include a detailed
Some of the worst environmental consequences discussion of the mine Reclamation and Closure
of mining have been associated with the open Plan offered by the mining proponent.
dumping of tailings, a practice now nearly
universally rejected. The International Finance Mine reclamation and closure plans must describe
Corporation (IFC)/World Bank Group explains: in sufficient detail how the mining company will
restore the site to a condition that most resembles
“Riverine (e.g., rivers, lakes, and lagoons) pre-mining environmental quality; how it will
or shallow marine tailings disposal is not prevent – in perpetuity – the release of toxic
considered good international industry contaminants from various mine facilities (such as
practice. By extension, riverine dredging which abandoned open pits and tailings impoundments);
requires riverine tailings disposal is also not and how funds will be set aside to insure that the
considered good international practice.”1 costs of reclamation and closure will be paid for.

An entire section of this Guidebook is devoted


to a discussion of how to evaluate whether the
Reclamation and Closure Plan offered by a mining
proponent is adequate (see Section 3.7).

Wet tailings disposal at a mine in Peru


PHOTO: Centro de Cultura Popular LABOR, Peru

1 IFC/World Bank (December 2007) “Environmental,


Health and Safety Guidelines for Mining.” http://www.ifc.org/
ifcext/sustainability.nsf/AttachmentsByTitle/gui_EHSGuide-
lines2007_Mining/$FILE/Final+-+Mining.pdf

Chapter 1 7
1.2 ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL IMPACTS OF MINING
The remainder of this chapter describes the
most important environmental impacts of mining
projects.

1.2.1 Impacts on water resources

Perhaps the most significant impact of a mining


project is its effects on water quality and
availability of water resources within the project
area. Key questions are whether surface and
groundwater supplies will remain fit for human
consumption, and whether the quality of surface
waters in the project area will remain adequate to Acid mine drainage
support native aquatic life and terrestrial wildlife. PHOTO: SOSBlueWaters.org
As Earthworks explains:
1.2.1.1 Acid mine drainage and
contaminant leaching “Acid mine drainage is considered one
of mining’s most serious threats to water
The potential for acid mine drainage is a key resources. A mine with acid mine drainage has
question. The answer will determine whether the potential for long-term devastating impacts
a proposed mining project is environmentally on rivers, streams and aquatic life.
acceptable. When mined materials (such as
the walls of open pits and underground mines, “HOW DOES IT FORM? Acid mine drainage
tailings, waste rock, and heap and dump leach is a concern at many metal mines, because
materials) are excavated and exposed to oxygen metals such as gold, copper, silver and
and water, acid can form if iron sulfide minerals molybdenum, are often found in rock with
(especially pyrite, or ‘fools gold’) are abundant sulfide minerals. When the sulfides in the rock
and there is an insufficient amount of neutralizing are excavated and exposed to water and air
material to counteract the acid formation. The during mining, they form sulfuric acid. This
acid will, in turn, leach or dissolve metals and acidic water can dissolve other harmful metals
other contaminants from mined materials and in the surrounding rock. If uncontrolled, the
form a solution that is acidic, high in sulfate, and acid mine drainage may runoff into streams
metal-rich (including elevated concentrations of or rivers or leach into groundwater. Acid mine
cadmium, copper, lead, zinc, arsenic, etc.) drainage may be released from any part of
the mine where sulfides are exposed to air and
Leaching of toxic constituents, such as arsenic, water, including waste rock piles, tailings, open
selenium, and metals, can occur even if acidic pits, underground tunnels, and leach pads.
conditions are not present. Elevated levels of
cyanide and nitrogen compounds (ammonia, “HARM TO FISH & OTHER AQUATIC LIFE: If
nitrate, nitrite) can also be found in waters at mine mine waste is acid-generating, the impacts to
sites, from heap leaching and blasting. fish, animals and plants can be severe. Many
streams impacted by acid mine drainage have
Acid drainage and contaminant leaching is the a pH value of 4 or lower – similar to battery
most important source of water quality impacts acid. Plants, animals, and fish are unlikely to
related to metallic ore mining. survive in streams such as this.

8 Guidebook for Evaluating Mining Project EIAs


“TOXIC METALS: Acid mine drainage also According to a study commissioned by the
dissolves toxic metals, such as copper, European Union:
aluminum, cadmium, arsenic, lead and
mercury, from the surrounding rock. These “Because of the large area of land disturbed
metals, particularly the iron, may coat the by mining operations and the large quantities
stream bottom with an orange-red colored of earthen materials exposed at sites, erosion
slime called yellowboy. Even in very small can be a major concern at hardrock mining
amounts, metals can be toxic to humans and sites. Consequently, erosion control must be
wildlife. Carried in water, the metals can travel considered from the beginning of operations
far, contaminating streams and groundwater through completion of reclamation. Erosion
for great distances. The impacts to aquatic life may cause significant loading of sediments
may range from immediate fish kills to sub- (and any entrained chemical pollutants) to
lethal, impacts affecting growth, behavior or nearby waterbodies, especially during severe
the ability to reproduce. storm events and high snow melt periods.

“Metals are particularly problematic because “Sediment-laden surface runoff typically


they do not break down in the environment. originates as sheet flow and collects in
They settle to the bottom and persist in the rills, natural channels or gullies, or artificial
stream for long periods of time, providing conveyances. The ultimate deposition of the
a long-term source of contamination to the sediment may occur in surface waters or it may
aquatic insects that live there, and the fish that be deposited within the floodplains of a stream
feed on them. valley. Historically, erosion and sedimentation
processes have caused the build-up of thick
“PERPETUAL POLLUTION: Acid mine drainage layers of mineral fines and sediment within
is particularly harmful because it can continue regional flood plains and the alteration of
indefinitely causing damage long after mining aquatic habitat and the loss of storage capacity
has ended. Due to the severity of water within surface waters. The main factors
quality impacts from acid mine drainage, many influencing erosion includes the volume and
hardrock mines across the west require water velocity of runoff from precipitation events,
treatment in perpetuity. Even with existing the rate of precipitation infiltration downward
technology, acid mine drainage is virtually through the soil, the amount of vegetative
impossible to stop once the reactions begin. cover, the slope length or the distance from
To permit an acid generating mine means that the point of origin of overland flow to the point
future generations will take responsibility for where deposition begins, and operational
a mine that must be managed for possibly erosion control structures.
hundreds of years.”2
“Major sources of erosion/sediment loading
at mining sites can include open pit areas,
1.2.1.2 Erosion of soils and mine wastes heap and dump leaches, waste rock and
into surface waters overburden piles, tailings piles and dams,
haul roads and access roads, ore stockpiles,
For most mining projects, the potential of soil vehicle and equipment maintenance areas,
and sediment eroding into and degrading surface exploration areas, and reclamation areas. A
water quality is a serious problem. further concern is that exposed materials from
mining operations (mine workings, wastes,
contaminated soils, etc.) may contribute
sediments with chemical pollutants, principally
heavy metals. The variability in natural
2 Earthworks Fact Sheet: Hardrock Mining and Acid Mine
Drainage. http://www.earthworksaction.org/pubs/FS_AMD.pdf

Chapter 1 9
site conditions (e.g., geology, vegetation, the slope to be revegetated either naturally or
topography, climate, and proximity to and with human assistance.”3
characteristics of surface waters), combined
with significant differences in the quantities and
characteristics of exposed materials at mines,
preclude any generalisation of the quantities
and characteristics of sediment loading.

“The types of impacts associated with erosion


and sedimentation are numerous, typically
producing both short-term and long-
term impacts. In surface waters, elevated
concentrations of particulate matter in the
water column can produce both chronic and
acute toxic effects in fish.
Overburden drainage at an Australian mine
“Sediments deposited in layers in flood plains PHOTO: Peripitus
or terrestrial ecosystems can produce many
impacts associated with surface waters, ground Environment Australia summarizes the problem as
water, and terrestrial ecosystems. Minerals follows:
associated with deposited sediments may
depress the pH of surface runoff thereby “Potentially adverse effects of inadequate
mobilising heavy metals that can infiltrate minesite water management and design
into the surrounding subsoil or can be carried include: unacceptably high levels of suspended
away to nearby surface waters. The associated solids (Non-Filterable Residue) and dissolved
impacts could include substantial pH solids (Filterable Residue) in surface runoff
depression or metals loading to surface waters [and] bed and bank erosion in waterways. It
and/or persistent contamination of ground is self-evident that a Sediment and Erosion
water sources. Contaminated sediments may Control Plan is a fundamental component of a
also lower the pH of soils to the extent that Minesite Water Management Plan.”4
vegetation and suitable habitat are lost.
1.2.1.3 Impacts of tailing impoundments,
“Beyond the potential for pollutant impacts on waste rock, heap leach, and dump leach
human and aquatic life, there are potential facilities
physical impacts associated with the increased
runoff velocities and volumes from new land The impacts of wet tailings impoundments,
disturbance activities. Increased velocities and waste rock, heap leach, and dump leach
volumes can lead to downstream flooding, facilities on water quality can be severe. These
scouring of stream channels, and structural impacts include contamination of groundwater
damage to bridge footings and culvert entries. beneath these facilities and surface waters.
In areas where air emissions have deposited Toxic substances can leach from these facilities,
acidic particles and the native vegetation percolate through the ground, and contaminate
has been destroyed, runoff has the potential groundwater, especially if the bottom of these
to increase the rate of erosion and lead to facilities are not fitted with an impermeable liner.
removal of soil from the affected area. This
3 MINEO Consortium (2000) “Review of potential envi-
is particularly true where the landscape is ronmental and social impact of mining” http://www2.brgm.fr/
characterised by steep and rocky slopes. Once mineo/UserNeed/IMPACTS.pdf
the soils have been removed, it is difficult for 4 Environment Australia (2002) “Overview of Best Practice
Environmental Management in Mining.” http://www.ret.gov.au/
resources/Documents/LPSDP/BPEMOverview.pdf

10 Guidebook for Evaluating Mining Project EIAs


Tailings (a by-product of metallic ore processing) in a study commissioned by the European Union:
is a high-volume waste that can contain harmful
quantities of toxic substances, including arsenic, “Mine water is produced when the water table
lead, cadmium, chromium, nickel, and cyanide is higher than the underground mine workings
(if cyanide leaching is used). Although it is rarely or the depth of an open pit surface mine.
the environmentally-preferable option, most When this occurs, the water must be pumped
mining companies dispose of tailings by mixing out of the mine. Alternatively, water may be
them with water (to form a slurry) and disposing pumped from wells surrounding the mine to
of the slurry behind a tall dam in a large wet create a cone of depression in the ground
tailings impoundment. Because the ore is usually water table, thereby reducing infiltration. When
extracted as a slurry, the resulting waste contains the mine is operational, mine water must be
large amounts of water, and generally forms continually removed from the mine to facilitate
ponds at the top of the tailings dams that can be the removal of the ore. However, once mining
a threat to wildlife. Cyanide tailings in precious operations end, the removal and management
metals mines are particularly dangerous. of mine water often end, resulting in possible
accumulation in rock fractures, shafts, tunnels,
Ultimately, tailing ponds will either dry, in arid and open pits and uncontrolled releases to the
climates, or may release contaminated water, in environment.
wet climates. In both cases, specific management
techniques are required to close these waste “Ground water drawdown and associated
repositories and reduce environmental threats. impacts to surface waters and nearby wetlands
can be a serious concern in some areas.
During periods of heavy rain, more water may
enter a tailings impoundment than it has the “Impacts from ground water drawdown may
capacity to contain, necessitating the release of include reduction or elimination of surface
tailings impoundment effluent. Since this effluent water flows; degradation of surface water
can contain toxic substances, the release of this quality and beneficial uses; degradation of
effluent can seriously degrade water quality of habitat (not only riparian zones, springs, and
surrounding rivers and streams, especially if the other wetland habitats, but also upland habitats
effluent is not treated prior to discharge. such as greasewood as ground water levels
decline below the deep root zone); reduced or
Dozens of dam breaks at wet tailings eliminated production in domestic supply wells;
impoundments have created some of the worst water quality/quantity problems associated
environmental consequences of all industrial with discharge of the pumped ground water
accidents. When wet tailings impoundments back into surface waters downstream from
fail, they release large quantities of toxic waters the dewatered area. The impacts could
that can kill aquatic life and poison drinking last for many decades. While dewatering is
water supplies for many miles downstream of the occurring, discharge of the pumped water,
impoundment. after appropriate treatment, can often be used
to mitigate adverse effects on surface waters.
1.2.1.4 Impacts of mine dewatering However, when dewatering ceases, the cones
of depression may take many decades to
When an open pit intersects the water table, recharge and may continue to reduce surface
groundwater flows into the open pit. For mining flows …. Mitigation measures that rely on the
to proceed, mining companies must pump and use of pumped water to create wetlands may
discharge this water to another location. Pumping only last as long as dewatering occurs.”5
and discharging mine water causes a unique set
of environmental impacts that are well described 5 MINEO Consortium (2000) “Review of potential envi-
ronmental and social impact of mining” http://www2.brgm.fr/
mineo/UserNeed/IMPACTS.pdf

Chapter 1 11
1.2.2 Impacts of mining projects materials that generate hazardous air pollutants
on air quality such as particulate matter, heavy metals, carbon
monoxide, sulfur dioxide, and nitrogen oxides.
Airborne emissions occur during each stage of
the mine cycle, but especially during exploration, 1.2.2.1 Mobile sources
development, construction, and operational
activities. Mining operations mobilize large Mobile sources of air pollutants include heavy
amounts of material, and waste piles containing vehicles used in excavation operations, cars that
small size particles are easily dispersed by the transport personnel at the mining site, and trucks
wind. that transport mining materials. The level of
polluting emissions from these sources depends
The largest sources of air pollution in mining on the fuel and conditions of the equipment. Even
operations are: though individual emissions can be relatively
small, collectively these emissions can be of real
• Particulate matter transported by the concern. In addition, mobile sources are a major
wind as a result of excavations, blasting, source of particulate matter, carbon monoxide,
transportation of materials, wind erosion and volatile organic compounds that contribute
(more frequent in open-pit mining), fugitive significantly to the formation of ground-level
dust from tailings facilities, stockpiles, ozone.
waste dumps, and haul roads. Exhaust
emissions from mobile sources (cars, 1.2.2.2 Stationary sources
trucks, heavy equipment) raise these
particulate levels; and The main gaseous emissions are from combustion
of fuels in power generation installations, and
• Gas emissions from the combustion drying, roasting, and smelting operations. Many
of fuels in stationary and mobile sources, producers of precious metals smelt metal on-site,
explosions, and mineral processing. prior to shipping to off-site refineries. Typically,
gold and silver is produced in melting/fluxing
furnaces that may produce elevated levels of
Once pollutants enter the atmosphere, they
airborne mercury, arsenic, sulfur dioxide, and
undergo physical and chemical changes before
other metals.
reaching a receptor (Figure 1). These pollutants
can cause serious effects to people’s health and to
1.2.2.3 Fugitive emissions
the environment.
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency defines
Large-scale mining has the potential to contribute
‘fugitive emissions’ as “those emissions which
significantly to air pollution, especially in the
could not reasonably pass through a stack,
operation phase. All activities during ore
chimney, vent or other functionally-equivalent
extraction, processing, handling, and transport
depend on equipment, generators, processes, and

Figure 1.
Impacts
Emissions Atmosphere Human health,
Mobile and stationary sources. Pollutants are transported, diluted, Environment (water, soil, wildlife),
(Can be measured and controlled) undergo physical and chemical changes Infrastructure,
Global climate

12 Guidebook for Evaluating Mining Project EIAs


opening.”6 Common sources of fugitive emissions Volatilization of mercury from active heaps and
include: storage and handling of materials; mine tailings facilities has recently been identified as
processing; fugitive dust, blasting, construction another substantial source of mercury emitted to
activities, and roadways associated with mining the atmosphere. This process should be assessed
activities; leach pads, and tailing piles and ponds; and controlled. Overall, mercury present in gold
and waste rock piles. Sources and characteristics ore may be released to the land (in disposed air
of fugitive emissions dust in mining operations pollution control wastes and spent ore tailings),
vary in each case, as do their impacts. Impacts to the air (not removed by air pollution control
are difficult to predict and calculate but should devices, or from tailings or heaps), or in the gold
be considered since they could be a significant product (i.e., as an impurity).
source of hazardous air pollutants.
1.2.2.5 Noise and vibration
1.2.2.4 Incidental releases of mercury
Noise pollution associated with mining may
Mercury is commonly present in gold ore. include noise from vehicle engines, loading and
Although concentrations vary substantially, even unloading of rock into steel dumpers, chutes,
within a specific ore deposit, mercury is found power generation, and other sources. Cumulative
in gold ore and associated waste materials. If impacts of shoveling, ripping, drilling, blasting,
the content of mercury in a gold ore is 10 mg/ transport, crushing, grinding, and stock-piling can
kg, and one million tons of ore is processed at a significantly affect wildlife and nearby residents.
particular mine (not unusual concentrations), 10
tons of mercury are potentially released to the Vibrations are associated with many types of
environment. This is a major source of mercury equipment used in mining operations, but blasting
and should be controlled. is considered the major source. Vibration has
affected the stability of infrastructures, buildings,
In some gold mining projects, gold-containing and homes of people living near large-scale
ore is crushed and then, if necessary, heated open-pit mining operations. According to a study
and oxidized in roasters or autoclaves to remove commissioned by the European Union in 2000:
sulfur and carbonaceous material that affects gold
recovery. Mercury that is present in the ore is “Shocks and vibrations as a result of blasting
vaporized, particularly in roasters, which are some in connection with mining can lead to noise,
of the largest sources of mercury emitted to the dust and collapse of structures in surrounding
atmosphere. inhabited areas. The animal life, on which the
local population may depend, might also be
Following roasting or autoclaving, the ore is disturbed.”7
mixed with water and reacted with a cyanide leach
solution, where gold and mercury are dissolved 1.2.3 Impacts of mining projects
and solids removed via filtration. The purified on wildlife
solution is sent to an electrowinning process,
where the gold is recovered. In this process, Wildlife is a broad term that refers to all plants
mercury must also be recovered and collected. If and any animals (or other organisms) that are not
not collected by air pollution control devices, this domesticated. Mining affects the environment
mercury could be released to the atmosphere and and associated biota through the removal of
impact the environment and public health. vegetation and topsoil, the displacement of fauna,
the release of pollutants, and the generation of
noise.
6 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Title 40 Code of
Federal Regulations, Section 70.2. http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/ 7 MINEO Consortium (2000) “Review of potential envi-
pkg/CFR-2009-title40-vol15/xml/CFR-2009-title40-vol15- ronmental and social impact of mining” http://www2.brgm.fr/
part70.xml mineo/UserNeed/IMPACTS.pdf

Chapter 1 13
1.2.3.1 Habitat loss example, sediment contamination of rivers and
streams is common with surface mining.
Wildlife species live in communities that depend
on each other. Survival of these species can 1.2.3.2 Habitat fragmentation
depend on soil conditions, local climate, altitude,
and other features of the local habitat. Mining Habitat fragmentation occurs when large areas
causes direct and indirect damage to wildlife. The of land are broken up into smaller and smaller
impacts stem primarily from disturbing, removing, patches, making dispersal by native species from
and redistributing the land surface. Some impacts one patch to another difficult or impossible, and
are short-term and confined to the mine site; cutting off migratory routes. Isolation may lead to
others may have far-reaching, long-term effects. local decline of species, or genetic effects such as
inbreeding. Species that require large patches of
The most direct effect on wildlife is destruction or forest simply disappear.
displacement of species in areas of excavation
and piling of mine wastes. Mobile wildlife 1.2.4 Impacts of mining projects
species, like game animals, birds, and predators,
on soil quality
leave these areas. More sedentary animals, like
invertebrates, many reptiles, burrowing rodents,
Mining can contaminate soils over a large area.
and small mammals, may be more severely
Agricultural activities near a mining project may
affected.
be particularly affected. According to a study
commissioned by the European Union:
If streams, lakes, ponds, or marshes are filled
or drained, fish, aquatic invertebrates, and
“Mining operations routinely modify the
amphibians are severely impacted. Food supplies
surrounding landscape by exposing previously
for predators are reduced by the disappearance of
undisturbed earthen materials. Erosion of
these land and water species.
exposed soils, extracted mineral ores, tailings,
and fine material in waste rock piles can result
Many wildlife species are highly dependent on
in substantial sediment loading to surface
vegetation growing in natural drainages. This
waters and drainage ways. In addition, spills
vegetation provides essential food, nesting sites,
and leaks of hazardous materials and the
and cover for escape from predators. Any activity
deposition of contaminated windblown dust
that destroys vegetation near ponds, reservoirs,
can lead to soil contamination.
marshes, and wetlands reduces the quality and
quantity of habitat essential for waterfowl, shore
“SOIL CONTAMINATION: Human health
birds, and many terrestrial species.
and environmental risks from soils generally
fall into two categories: (1) contaminated
The habitat requirements of many animal species
soil resulting from windblown dust, and (2)
do not permit them to adjust to changes created
soils contaminated from chemical spills and
by land disturbance. These changes reduce living
residues. Fugitive dust can pose significant
space. The degree to which animals tolerate
environmental problems at some mines. The
human competition for space varies. Some
inherent toxicity of the dust depends upon
species tolerate very little disturbance. In instances
the proximity of environmental receptors
where a particularly critical habitat is restricted,
and type of ore being mined. High levels
such as a lake, pond, or primary breeding area, a
of arsenic, lead, and radionucleides in
species could be eliminated.
windblown dust usually pose the greatest
risk. Soils contaminated from chemical spills
Surface mining can degrade aquatic habitats with
and residues at mine sites may pose a direct
impacts felt many miles from a mining site. For
contact risk when these materials are misused

14 Guidebook for Evaluating Mining Project EIAs


as fill materials, ornamental landscaping, or “The displacement of settled communities
soil supplements.”8 is a significant cause of resentment and
conflict associated with large-scale mineral
1.2.5 Impacts of mining projects development. Entire communities may be
on social values uprooted and forced to shift elsewhere, often
into purpose-built settlements not necessarily of
The social impacts of large-scale mining their own choosing. Besides losing their homes,
projects are controversial and complex. Mineral communities may also lose their land, and
development can create wealth, but it can also thus their livelihoods. Community institutions
cause considerable disruption. Mining projects and power relations may also be disrupted.
may create jobs, roads, schools, and increase the Displaced communities are often settled in
demands of goods and services in remote and areas without adequate resources or are
impoverished areas, but the benefits and costs left near the mine, where they may bear the
may be unevenly shared. If communities feel brunt of pollution and contamination. Forced
they are being unfairly treated or inadequately resettlement can be particularly disastrous
compensated, mining projects can lead to social for indigenous communities who have strong
tension and violent conflict. cultural and spiritual ties to the lands of their
ancestors and who may find it difficult to
EIAs can underestimate or even ignore the impacts survive when these are broken.”9
of mining projects on local people. Communities
feel particularly vulnerable when linkages with 1.2.5.2 Impacts of migration
authorities and other sectors of the economy are
weak, or when environmental impacts of mining According to the International Institute for
(soil, ai, and water pollution) affect the subsistence Environment and Development:
and livelihood of local people.
“One of the most significant impacts of mining
Power differentials can leave a sense of activity is the migration of people into a mine
helplessness when communities confront area, particularly in remote parts of developing
the potential for change induced by large countries where the mine represents the single
and powerful companies. The EIA process most important economic activity. For example,
should enforce mechanisms that enable local at the Grasberg mine in Indonesia the local
communities to play effective roles in decision- population increased from less than 1000 in
making. Mineral activities must ensure that the 1973 to between 100,000 and 110,000 in
basic rights of the individual and communities 1999. Similarly, the population of the squatter
affected are upheld and not infringed upon. settlements around Porgera in PNG, which
These must include the right to control and use opened in 1990, has grown from 4000 to over
land; the right to clean water, a safe environment, 18,000.10 This influx of newcomers can have
and livelihood; the right to be free from a profound impact on the original inhabitants,
intimidation and violence; and the right to be and disputes may arise over land and the
fairly compensated for loss. way benefits have been shared. (These were
among the factors that led to violent uprisings
1.2.5.1 Human displacement and at Grasberg in the 1970s and the 1990s.)
resettlement
“Sudden increases in population can also
According to the International Institute for lead to pressures on land, water, and other
Environment and Development: 9 International Institute for Environment and Development
(2002) “Breaking New Ground: Mining, Minerals and Sustain-
able Development: Chapter 9: Local Communities and Mines.
Breaking New Grounds.” http://www.iied.org/pubs/pdfs/
8 Ibid. G00901.pdf

Chapter 1 15
resources as well as bringing problems of contamination is transferred to other economic
sanitation and waste disposal. activities, such as agriculture and fishing. The
situation is made worse when mining activities
“Migration effects may extend far beyond take place in areas inhabited by populations
the immediate vicinity of the mine. Improved historically marginalized, discriminated against, or
infrastructure can also bring an influx of excluded.
settlers. For instance, it is estimated that
the 80- meter-wide, 890-kilometre-long Proponents of mining projects must insure that
transportation corridor built from the Atlantic the basic rights of affected individuals and
Ocean to the Carajas mine in Brazil created communities are upheld and not infringed
an area of influence of 300,000 square upon. These include rights to control and use
kilometres.”10 land, the right to clean water, and the right to
livelihood. Such rights may be enshrined in
1.2.5.3 Lost access to clean water national law, based on and expressed through a
range of international human rights instruments
According to scientists at the University and agreements. All groups are equal under
of Manchester (UK) and the University of the law, and the interests of the most vulnerable
Colorado(U.S.): groups (low-income and marginalized) need to be
identified and protected.
“Impacts on water quality and quantity
are among the most contentious aspects 1.2.5.5 Impacts on public health
of mining projects. Companies insist
that the use of modern technologies will EIAs of mining projects often underestimate
ensure environmentally friendly mining the potential health risks of mining projects.
practices. However, evidence of the negative Hazardous substances and wastes in water, air,
environmental impacts of past mining activity and soil can have serious, negative impacts on
causes local and downstream populations to public health. The World Health Organization
worry that new mining activities will adversely (WHO) defines health as a “state of complete
affect their water supply. ... physical, mental and social well-being, and not
merely the absence of disease or infirmity.”12
“There are major stakes in these conflicts,
affecting everything from local livelihood The term ‘hazardous substances’ is broad and
sustainability to the solvency of national includes all substances that can be harmful to
governments. Fears for water quantity people and/or the environment. Because of the
and quality have triggered numerous and quantity, concentration, or physical, chemical or
sometimes violent conflicts between miners and infectious characteristics, hazardous substances
communities.”11 may (1) cause or contribute to an increase of
mortality or an increase in serious irreversible or
1.2.5.4 Impacts on livelihoods incapacitating illness; or (2) pose a substantial
present or potential hazard to human health or
When mining activities are not adequately the environment when improperly treated, stored,
managed, the result is degraded soils, water, transported, disposed of, or otherwise managed.
biodiversity, and forest resources, which are
critical to the subsistence of local people. When
contamination is not controlled, the cost of the
10 Ibid.
11 Bebbington, A., & Williams, M. (2008) “Water and
Mining Conflicts in Peru.” Mountain Research and Develop- 12 World Health Organization. 1946. Preamble to the
ment. 28(3/4):190-195 http://snobear.colorado.edu/Markw/ Constitution of the World Health Organization. Official Records
Research/08_peru.pdf of the World Health Organization No. 2, p. 100.

16 Guidebook for Evaluating Mining Project EIAs


Frequent public health problems related to mining • Visual impacts due to clearing of
activities include: vegetation, large excavations, dust, and
the presence of large-scale equipment,
• Water: Surface and ground water
and vehicles.
contamination with metals and elements;
microbiological contamination from 1.2.6 Climate change
sewage and wastes in campsites and mine
considerations
worker residential areas;
• Air: Exposure to high concentrations Every EIA for a project that has the potential to
of sulfur dioxide, particulate matter, heavy change the global carbon budget should include
metals, including lead, mercury and an assessment of a project’s carbon impact.
cadmium; and Large-scale mining projects have the potential to
alter global carbon in at least the following ways:
• Soil: Deposition of toxic elements from
air emissions. Lost CO2 uptake by forests and vegetation that
is cleared. Many large-scale mining projects are
Mining activities can suddenly affect quality of life
proposed in heavily forested areas of tropical
and the physical, mental, and social well-being of
local communities. Improvised mining towns and regions that are critical for absorbing atmospheric
camps often threaten food availability and safety, carbon dioxide (CO2) and maintaining a healthy
increasing the risk of malnourishment. Indirect balance between CO2 emissions and CO2 uptake.
Some mining projects propose long-term or even
effects of mining on public health can include
increased incidence of tuberculosis, asthma, permanent destruction of tropical forests. EIAs for
chronic bronchitis, and gastrointestinal diseases. mining projects must include a careful accounting
of how any proposed disturbance of tropical
1.2.5.6 Impacts to cultural and aesthetic forests will alter the carbon budget. The EIA
resources should also include an analysis of the potential for
the host country to lose funding from international
Mining activities can cause direct and indirect consortiums that have and will be established to
conserve tropical forests.
impacts to cultural resources. Direct impacts
can result from construction and other mining
CO2 emitted by machines (e.g., diesel-
activities. Indirect impacts can result from soil
powered heavy vehicles) involved in extracting
erosion and increased accessibility to current or
and transporting ore. The EIA should include
proposed mining sites. Mining projects can affect
a quantitative estimate of CO2 emissions from
sacred landscapes, historical infrastructures, and
machines and vehicles that will be needed during
natural landmarks. Potential impacts include:
the life of the mining project. These estimates can
be based on the rate of fuel consumption (typically
• Complete destruction of the resource
diesel fuel) multiplied by a conversion factor that
through surface disturbance or excavation;
relates units (typically liters or gallons) of fuel that
• Degradation or destruction, due is consumed and units (typically metric tons) of
to topographic or hydrological pattern CO2 that is emitted.
changes, or from soil movement (removal,
erosion, sedimentation); CO2 emitted by the processing of ore into
metal (for example, by pyro-metallurgical versus
• Unauthorized removal of artifacts or hydro-metallurgical techniques). An example is
vandalism as a result of increased access found in an assessment by CSIRO minerals of
to previously inaccessible areas; and Australia which used the Life Cycle Assessment
methodology to estimate the life cycle emissions
of greenhouse gases from copper and nickel

Chapter 1 17
production, including mining. This assessment electrowinning.13 The bottom line is that metal
found that Life Cycle greenhouse gas emissions mining generates more than 1 kg of greenhouse
from copper and nickel production range from gas for every 1 kg of metal that is produced, and
3.3 kilograms (kg) of CO2 per kg of metal for this does not take into account lost carbon uptake
copper produced by smelting to 16.1 kg of CO2 of cleared forests.
per kg of metal for nickel produced by pressure 13 T. E. Norgate and W. J. Rankin (2000) “Life Cycle Assess-
acid leaching followed by solvent extraction and ment of Copper and Nickel Production, Published in Proceedings,
Minprex 2000, International Conference on Minerals Processing
and Extractive Metallurgy, pp133-138. http://www.minerals.csiro.
au/sd/CSIRO_Paper_LCA_CuNi.htm

18 Guidebook for Evaluating Mining Project EIAs

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