Int J Civ Eng

DOI 10.1007/s40999-016-0071-9

RESEARCH PAPER

Mechanical and Basic Deformation Properties of Mortar

with Recycled Glass as a Fine Aggregate Replacement
Francisca Guadalupe Cabrera-Covarrubias1 • Jose Manuel Gomez-Soberon2 •

Jorge Luis Almaral-Sanchez3 • Susana Paola Arredondo-Rea3 •

Jose Miguel Mendivil-Escalante3

Received: 27 February 2016 / Revised: 7 September 2016 / Accepted: 17 September 2016

Ó Iran University of Science and Technology 2016

Abstract As a result of the large quantities of glass resi-
dues being generated, research is currently underway for
efficient, economic and eco-friendly alternatives, among
them the incorporation of recycled glass in mortar as a
substitute for natural sand; this work has researched and
studied recycled glass substitutions of 0, 15, 30, 60 and
100 %. A basic characterization of both sands was carried
out with the aim of comparing both materials (granulo-
metric profiles, density and absorption). Compressive and
flexural strength were studied with regard to the mechan-
ical behavior of the mortar in question; regarding defor-
mation, the basic, drying and total shrinkage were
determined. The results of the research show that the
recycled glass sands are less dense than the standard sand
used, and the latter has a higher absorption coefficient.
& Jose Manuel Gomez-Soberon
josemanuel.gomez@upc.edu
Francisca Guadalupe Cabrera-Covarrubias
guadalupe.cabrera04@gmail.com
Jorge Luis Almaral-Sanchez
jalmaral@uas.edu.mx
Susana Paola Arredondo-Rea
susypao79@gmail.com
Jose Miguel Mendivil-Escalante
josemiguelmendivil@hotmail.com
1
Escuela de Ingenieros de Caminos Canales y Puertos de
Barcelona, Polytechnic University of Catalonia, C. Jordi
Girona, 1, CP: 08034 Barcelona, Spain
2
Escuela Politécnica Superior de Edificación de Barcelona,
Polytechnic University of Catalonia, Av. Doctor Marañón,
44-50, CP: 08028 Barcelona, Spain
3 for example, it is reported that in Hong Kong only 1.2 % of
Facultad d Ingenieı́a Civil Los Mochis, Autonomous
University of Sinaloa, Fuente de Poseidón y Ángel Flores s/n
pte., CP: 81223 Los Mochis, Sinaloa, Mexico
With regard to compressive and flexural strength, the
mortars with recycled glass reported lower resistance than
the natural sand mortars, with the 15 % recycled glass
combination being the closest to the natural mortar. On the
other hand, in the case of deformation due to drying
shrinkage (the most significant), the recycled mortars
showed even more favorable results than the natural mor-
tar; the 100 % glass content had the lowest shrinkage rate
in the experimental phase. The study concludes that mor-
tars with 15 % recycled sand may feasibly be used in
applications with low mechanical requirements, with their
low rates of shrinkage deformation being an additional
advantage.
Keywords Recycled mortars  Recycled glass materials 
Basic and drying shrinkage  Sustainability construction
1 Introduction
The use of recycled materials in the construction industry is
an attractive option which is gaining force, not only due to
the large quantity of materials used in the sector but also to
the reduced quality requirements needed and the fact that
they can be produced in almost any location [1–4]. Among
these materials, one group which has not been incorporated
into the sector is that of glass residues. They were origi-
nally designed for short term use and frequently their reuse,
storage or landfill after-use is not the most adequate [5, 6].
All over the world huge quantities of glass bottles, used in
the drink industry, are being wasted, with only a small
number being reused or melted down to make new glass;
waste glass is recycled [7, 8]. In addition to the above, its
practical use is limited due to the high processing costs and

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the restrictions that guarantee the quality of the products.
As a result, glass waste is a burden on landfills, as it is non-
biodegradable, thus becoming an unfavorable alternative
for the environment [8, 9]. Consequently, it has become
necessary to find practical and environmentally friendly
alternatives for this waste [5, 10, 11], such as reuse [12], in
addition to the more emphasized recycling [13].
As an alternative to the use of recycled glass in the
construction industry, its use as a replacement in cement
has been studied [8, 14], showing that it possesses inter-
esting physical properties and chemical makeup—hy-
draulic apportion in some cases—[15, 16]; additionally it
has been shown that it can be easily separated from other
residues, free from possible impurities. Similarly, the use
of cathode ray tube glass (CRT) as a sand substitute in
mortar, for prolonged curing (90 days), produced less
strength loss than expected (a possible effect of the poz-
zolanic reaction of the CRT glass in the hydrated cement
paste), thus also contributing to obtaining long term
resistance [17].
Additionally, the use of recycled glass as a mortar sand
has been considered an ecological, profitable and attractive
solution [18] favored in places with few natural resources
[15, 19], thereby contributing to sustainability in con-
struction [20]. This alternative may even lead to advan-
tages in mortars, such as an increase in their resistance and
improvements in durability (chemical resistance) as well as
giving more aesthetic value to their finishing
[5, 7, 13, 14, 19].
Studies of the density of recycled mortars (GM) in
which part of the sand is replaced by glass sand (GS) show
that their density increases along with the glass content
[17]. If the GS used originated in television screens (high
lead presence) the differences are even more considerable
[21]; the size of the GS particles determines the increase of
density (bigger sized particles cause bigger density
increases) [22].
Regarding the absorption of the GM, it is shown that
they have a lower absorption than the standard mortars
with natural sand (NATM), the GS content being correla-
tive to the absorption reduction [21], which is explained by
the low absorption capacity of the glass particles (almost
zero) [11]. Additionally, the size of the particles causes
variation in absorption (greater absorption in GM with
smaller sized GS particles); which in turn is due to their
greater specific surface and air retention capacity [22].
With reference to the mechanical properties, compres-
sive and flexural strength tests in mortars that contain
different percentages of GS show similar trends in both
properties (a reduction as the substituted portion is
increased), this behavior being attributed to the creation of
weaker interfacial transition zones (ITZ) (smooth particle
glass and cement paste) [5, 11, 13, 17, 21–23], as well as
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Int J Civ Eng
fractures in the angular contour located in some of the glass
particles—an effect caused by the crushing process of the
glass—[7]. In some cases, GM which used metakaolin
(MK) as a partial replacement for cement also showed a
loss of resistance, this being attributed to the additive itself
[5, 7, 13].
Considering the size of the particles, it is noted that the
negative effect of resistance loss is lower when their
maximum size (TMA) is increased [22]; in this study it was
established that for the use of different TMA, that which
used the biggest particles (5 mm) showed greater resis-
tance; this is explained by the larger particles providing an
even distribution of the particle size, improving the pack-
ing and compactness of the particles.
With regard to the color of the GS, it was shown that the
GM with the green GS, compared with the brown, trans-
parent and mixed GS, showed better results in terms of
resistance (with even contents of less than 25 % being
superior to the reference mortar), which can be explained
by the greater pozzolanic reaction produced by its partic-
ular chemical composition (the presence of Cr2O3, which
provides its color), thus reducing porosity and improving
its ITZ [23].
In another work [24], a surprising case was studied in
which GM with different GS contents achieved resistance
to higher rates of compression than the reference model (in
a range of 10–30 MPa); despite the microstructural study
performed, the research was unable to find a satisfactory
explanation for this odd behavior; on the contrary [25], it
described a similar case as a possible explanation, in which
the fine GS improves the packing between the particles, as
well as that of the cementing additives used in the case (fly
ash and slag).
Referring to the deformation behavior due to drying
shrinkage, the GM are mortars which, to a considerable
extent, reduce this property when compared with the
standard mortars (the increase in the use of GS leads to less
shrinkage in the GM) [5, 7, 13]. The previous behavior is
explained by the impermeable properties of the GS (low
absorption) [17, 21], and also by its high shape coefficient,
the irregularity of its particles and the fact that its granu-
lometry locates its preferred profile shape in the fine par-
ticle zones [23]. However, contrary results to the
aforementioned have been presented [25], in which this
behavior is explained as a result of the use of additions
such as fly ash and slag (providing capacity to increase
compressive strength) which increases the drying
shrinkage.
Therefore, two objectives (with differentiated scopes)
have been established for this work:
On the one hand the aim is to provide a global study (the
physical, mechanical and deformation properties of the
GM) which will serve as a comparative reference for
Int J Civ Eng
various previous studies, given that the current incipient
state of the knowledge contains some divergences, short-
comings or contradictions (research on specific aspects or
with little integral conception). Subsequently, an experi-
mental campaign has been prepared which will provide the
physical, mechanical and delayed shrinkage properties of
the GM, with varying percentages of substitution of natural
sand by GS (0, 15, 30, 60 and 100 %); the physical and
mechanical properties produce samples which are
equitable with previous studies, which allows for their
comparison, and the availability of a wide range of
replacements means that gaps in previous studies, which
had only focused on certain percentages of replacement,
can now be filled. The aim is to clarify, normalize and
standardize the basic universal knowledge of GM behavior;
as well as to determine it in those cases where it has not yet
been clearly established.
Additionally, as an innovation, this work proposes to
look into the hitherto unstudied behavior of the delayed
shrinkage of the GM in its different varieties (basic, drying
and total). The aim of the analysis is to verify the behavior
that its use implies, thus contributing with real experi-
mental results which facilitate the establishment of the
criteria for its best use, as well as its possible application
compared to the usual mortars. The innovative aspect in the
shrinkage behavior of the GM arises from the origin, cause
and impact of the phenomenon itself (as well as the pos-
sible influence of the residue and its content used in this
research), given that this is governed by recognized factors
such as the thickness of the specimen, the exposed area, the
exterior temperature and the relative humidity. All of these
act directly on the use and application of mortars in the
construction industry, such as covering elements, exterior
application, wall protection, etc. As a result, a definition (as
yet unstudied) is a priority for guaranteeing its application
and use.
2 Materials and Methodology
2.1 Materials
A transparent GS was used, obtained from a local industry
involved in cullet processing, more specifically the recy-
cled glass from windows, doors and windshields (lami-
nated glass), producing a fine-fraction material size of
between 0–1.8 mm. Silica sand, acquired from a local
business dealing in natural sands for construction, was used
as an NS, made up of particles with a grain size of 0–4 mm.
Figures 1a and 2b, respectively, show the GS and the NS
used in the research; as can be appreciated, both materials
show obvious visual differences, such as the size of their
particles, color, maximum size (less in the case of GS) and
the distribution of the particles.
Regarding the distribution of particles, both sands
require an adjustment to their granulometric profile to unify
them (as much as is technically and commercially possible)
and to try to adjust them within the limits established by
ASTM C144. If the adjustment is not made it will lead to
the decompensation of the granulometric profiles (a dis-
tribution of sizes with pronounced jumps, abrupt changes
in curves or granulometric curves far from the limits of the
specifications), generating distortion in the experimental
results and producing variations linked to the dissimilar
profiles. Therefore, criteria were established for combining
different percentages of each, which involved using frac-
tions of particle size (both from the initial material of each
sand) that were then separated using a No. 30 (0.59 mm)
sieve. The method involved making a composition, with
the minimum possible action, which produced similar
profiles in both while being close to the limits of the
specifications; to do so, the optimum sieve was chosen as a
starting point (beginning with the particle sizes that cause
the profiles to move away from the limits of the specifi-
cations). If the resulting fractions obtained are mixed with
different percentages (separately for each study profile: GS
and NS), and an identical requirement objective is estab-
lished (maximum compactness), the resulting profiles of
each sample show that the granulometric curves between
them are ‘‘comparable’’ and are to be found close to the
limits of the specifications. This prevents possible varia-
tions within the study (attributed to the variation of the
profiles); however, it should be noted that this situation
should be assumed in industrial applications. In the case of
recycled glass, this was with a combination of 30 % of
sand bigger than the No. 30 sieve (0.59 mm) and 70 %
smaller. Regarding NS, the optimum combination was of
50 % of each type separated by the same sieve.
The granulometric curves of both sands resulting from
the previous granulometric adjustment are shown In Fig. 2,
as well as the limits established in the specifications. As
can be seen in the case of the GS, its granulometric profile
is located close to the upper limits, which indicates that the
particle sizes tend to be mostly fine, as shown by its fine-
ness modulus (FM 1.8) presented in Table 1. The NS
profile is also found within the established limits, with the
exception of 4 % of the material (sieve No. 8, 2.38 mm).
The adjustment helps prevent the distribution factor of the
particle size becoming determinant in the replacement
proposal of both sands; although the method of dispensing
also takes this variability into account, this is an habitual
practice in research [6, 7, 22, 26].
Some of the physical properties of the sands used are
shown in Table 1, where it can be seen that the volumetric
weights (M) of GS have lower values than those of NS
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 Int J Civ Eng

Fig. 1 Sands used (cm): a GS,

b NS

Fig. 2 Granulometric profile of

sands used

[the difference in over dry (OD) is 370 kg/m3 and in a
saturated surface dry condition (SSD) it is 437.3 kg/m3]
and show equal behavior in their density (the difference in
OD is 107.8 kg/m3 and in SSD it is 134.8 kg/m3); this is
explained by the GS showing higher voids content in NS
in the volumetric weight test, as well as having a lower
absorption coefficient than the NS. Regarding the fineness
modulus (ASTM C33) the GS is considered fine sand,
while the NS is medium sand; in both cases less than
10 % of the contents are particles smaller than 75 lm.
Finally, Portland cement, classified as CEM I 42.5 N/SR
(UNE EN 197-1:2011) was used as a binder, as its

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Int J Civ Eng

Table 1 Physical properties of sands due to the requirements of each mixture being influenced
Property *
GS NS
by the GS.
To allow time for the water to be absorbed by the NS,
MOD (kg/m3) 1415.0 1735.1 the mixtures were given a previous saturation (1 min with
MSSD (kg/m3) 1423.5 1860.8 the initial water of the mixture) before the cement was put
Voids (%) 42.8 32.9 into the mixer. This had the objective of establishing
3
Density (OD) (kg/m ) 2473.84 2581.6 similar internal saturation conditions of the particles for
Density (SSD) (kg/m3) 2488.8 2623.6 both sands used (different absorption coefficient, see
Water absorption (%) 0.6 1.6 Table 1) and in this way created similar hydration pro-
Fineness modulus 1.8 2.4 cesses [27, 28].
Materials finer that 75 lm (sieve no. 200) (%) 5.3 2.9
*
Determined according to ASTM
2.3 Details of Tests

2.3.1 Density and Porosity

Table 2 Dosages of the study mixtures
The apparent density, open porosity and absorption of the
Material (g) GS replacement factor
mortars was assessed using some of the test material
R=0 R = 15 R = 30 R = 60 R = 100 remaining from the previous flexural strength test (UNE
NATM GM15 GM30 GM30 GM100 EN 1015-10 and EN 1936) at an age of 60 days (this being
Watera 334 294 303 302 304 the most representative age for assessing the maturity of
Cement 400 349 339 305 271 the mixtures, also to be a reference of these results with
Natural sandb long term tests, such as shrinkage). Half a piece of the test
\Sieve #30 800 593 474 244 0 material was smoothed on the broken side—the result of
[Sieve #30 800 593 474 244 0 the flexural test—using a power saw, to improve the geo-
Recycled sandc metric similarity of the test materials.
\Sieve #30 0 146 284 513 758
[Sieve #30 0 63 122 220 325
2.3.2 Compression and Flexural Strength
a
Determined according to ASTM The ages established for these tests, in accordance with the
b
Necessary water for mixture = water of hydration ? water to sat- ASTM C348 standard, were of 3, 7, 28, 60 and 90 days.
urate aggregates ? water for workability
c
After removing the specimens from the molds, they were
Dry condition
kept saturated through immersion in water until the test age
was reached; subsequently, removed from the water, the
properties and components are commonly used in this field; tests were carried out before they passed 30 min of the
tap water was used, without any treatment or additives. suspension of the curing in immersion in water.
Three samples of each variable were used for the flex-
2.2 Production of Test Samples ural test, in accordance with ASTM C348, and for com-
pression, one of the halves used in the flexural test (3
Test samples of mortar measuring 4 cm 9 4 cm 9 16 cm, samples per variable) was used, being based on the stipu-
with a replacement factor ‘‘R’’ = (GS/total sands) 9 100 lations of ASTM C349.
(in weight) equal to 0, 15, 30, 60 and 100 % of GS content
as NS substitution, were prepared to evaluate the com- 2.3.3 Shrinkage
pressive and flexural behavior, as well as test samples of
2.5 cm 9 2.5 cm 9 28.5 cm to evaluate mortar shrinkage. To characterize the phenomena of shrinkage (basic, by
All the mixtures were designed with initial cement/sand drying and total) six specimens, of 2.5 cm 9 2.5 cm 9
ratios of 1:4 (in weight) and water/cement of 0.5; this was 28.5 cm, were made of each variable studied; moments
corrected in accordance with the ASTM C203 standard after being removed from the mold three of them were
until a fluidity of 110 ± 5 %, conforming to ASTM C109, covered with three layers of paraffin (PAR) and then with
was achieved. three of aluminum foil, with the aim of assessing the basic
The characteristics and proportions for making 1 dm3 of shrinkage (ebasic); the remaining three were used without
the mixtures for the study are shown in Table 2, where it covering to measure the total shrinkage (etotal) (see
can be seen that at the extremes of the studied variables the Fig. 3a). The shrinkage by drying (edrying) of these mortars
water used increases from 294 to 304 g, which could be was deduced from the difference between the values

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Fig. 3 a Basic and total shrinkage specimen, b the micrometric
reader, c the test frame
obtained from both types of covering conditions. This
process was established in accordance with similar previ-
ous studies: [29, 30]. The readings of the shrinkage were
carried out in the following sequence: the first reading was
taken 24 h after mixing, then the materials were placed in a
curing chamber for 28 days, with readings being taken at 3,
7, 14 and 28 days (removing them from the chamber only
to take the readings); when this period had elapsed the
sample materials were removed from the chamber and
subjected to laboratory environmental conditions
(T = 23 °C and HR = 50 %), with readings being taken at
3, 7, 14, 28, 40, 60 and 90 days. To carry out the readings a
set composed of a rigid frame (Fig. 3c) and a micrometric
reader with a precision of 0.001 mm (Fig. 3b) was used, in
accordance with ASTM C490-04.
3 Results and Discussion
3.1 Density and Porosity
The physical properties of the hardened mortar are shown
in Fig. 4. Regarding the apparent density, the GM show
values lower than the NATM, which decrease as the factor
R increases; these variations range from -7.5 % for the
GM15 to a maximum of -36.5 % for the GM100, in both
cases with regard to NATM. The previous behavior may be
attributed to the low density of the GS used in comparison
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Int J Civ Eng
to that of the NS (see Table 1), which coincides with
findings from previous research [21, 22, 31].
Additionally, the GM showed a considerable increase of
porosity and absorption (248.9 and 235.7 %, respectively).
This behavior could have been due to an increase in the
mixing water needed to reach the normal working consis-
tency of the mortar, as specified for tests by ASTM C109,
which evaporates once exposed to drying process condi-
tions, leading to a greater network of voids in the GM. This
behavior may also be influenced by the smaller size and
angularity of the GS glass particles. The latter leads to
variations in properties, which in turn require more water
to achieve consistency, and which in previous studies
indicated the production of bigger pores in the GM [13].
3.2 Compressive Strength
Figure 5 shows the resistance behavior to compression
(MPa) vs. time (days), where it can be seen that the dif-
ferent GM show less compressive strength than the NATM
for all the ages studied; the variable GM15 (60 days)
reaches the value closest (-37.7 %) to that reported by the
control specimen (NATM).
It should be emphasized that, regarding GM15, the rest
of the study variables (GM30, GM60 and GM100) show
very different behavior, with a distancing of up to 64 % at
3 days and of 51 % in general terms for the other ages (7,
28, 60 and 90 days). This evident divide among the dif-
ferent GM behaviors may establish a trend for the maxi-
mum possible commercial application, which should not
exceed 15 % in its content.
Previous research showed similar behavior in general
terms (loss of resistance related to the increase in GS
content) [13, 31] due to the weak bonds between the glass
particles and the cement paste [12, 13, 17, 21]. In other
research this behavior was associated with the greater size
of the GS particles: 0.135–1.5 mm [32], and 5–10 mm
[13], which causes a negative effect on the performance of
alkali-silica reaction (ASR) in its environs [33]. Consid-
ering the data established in this study, this behavior should
be linked to the high porosity and absorption that GM
attains (increase in the need for mixing water), which
produces ITZ that are weaker and prone to fracture.
The previous hypotheses have been corroborated by
means of a scanning electron microscope (SEM) with a
JEOL JSM-6510 with which images of the matrix were
obtained. Figure 6 shows the GS, NS, cement paste (CP)
and the ITZ located at the junction of the components.
Figure 6a concerns the NATM and it can be seen that, in
comparison with Fig. 6b, which belongs to the matrix of
GM15, it shows a denser matrix with less visible porosity,
as well as an ITZ of less thickness between the NS and CP;
Int J Civ Eng
Fig. 4 Density, open porosity
and absorption of GM
Fig. 5 Compressive strength of
GM with respect to age
while in Fig. 6b the matrix is less dense and the GS profile
is smoother, which prevents better adherence with the CP
and also leads to a wider and more porous ITZ than that of
the NATM.
Regarding the loss of strength related to the increase in
GS content, Fig. 7 shows the GMs with the greatest amount
(GM60 and GM100); in both images it can be seen that the
ITZ is wider, with an area of high porosity around the GS,
as well as the presence of microfissures (marked on the
circumferences). The smooth surfaces of the GS, as well as
the possible expansion due to the effect of the ASR, affect
the adherence between the GS and the CP, having reper-
cussions on the strength of these mortars. Additionally, a
large amount of pores can be observed, mainly in the
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Fig. 6 a NATM (0 % of GS), b GM15 (15 % of GS)
Fig. 7 a GM60 (60 % of GS), b GM100 (100 % of GS)
GM100 (Fig. 7b), due to the greater quantity of water
needed to reach the desired workability, which produces a
more porous matrix of inferior density. Figure 8 shows the
images of the main components in the chemistry of the
mortars, for the samples of Fig. 7; these were obtained by
means of mapping with X-ray diffraction (XRD) micro-
analysis, connected to the SEM unit. By juxtaposing the
images, the increase of the ITZ in the composites Si and Ca
(for the two GM), as well as the high number of
microfissures in the GM100 containing the greatest amount
of GS (Fig. 8b) can be distinguished.
Referring to the hydration process of the mortars in
terms of the mechanical effect of compression (Fig. 9), it
can be stated that the curves of all the GM belong to the
same ‘‘family’’, showing that the hydration process is also a
valid hypothesis for the GM. Although the GM vary with
respect to the NATM (minor increases in strength), with
the passing of time they rise. Based on the extremes of the
study (3 and 90 days), we can observe that the NATM
shows the greater hydration speed, with an increase of
15.5 MPa, while the GM60 and GM100 show the lowest
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Int J Civ Eng
hydration speeds with a difference of 5.20 and 5.21 MPa,
respectively.
3.3 Flexural Strength
Figure 10 shows that all the GM have resistance values
lower than the NATM, with GM15 showing the highest
values of all the GM at all ages, obtaining in regard to the
NATM the lowest difference at the age of 3 days
(-28.2 %), and the greatest at that of 7 days (-49.9 %).
It is noteworthy that the other study variables (GM30,
GM60 and GM100) show behavior distant from that of
GM15, achieving a distance of up to 54 % at 3 days and up
to 35 % in general terms for the rest of the ages (7, 28, 60
and 90 days). In general, this similar behavior in both
flexural and compression is due to the weakness of the ITZ
of the GM, this being considered the weakest link in the
matrix, a characteristic obtained from its higher porosity
and absorption.
Previous research reported similar behavior of the GM,
this being due to a weak join between the glass and the
Int J Civ Eng

Fig. 8 Microanalysis of components by mapping in SEM of the majority compounds: a GM60, b GM100

Fig. 9 Evolution of hydration

with the age of the GM based on
the compressive strength

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Fig. 10 Flexural strength of
GM with respect to age
cement paste [5, 7, 12, 13, 17, 20–22, 31]. Another variable
identified as a cause of this characteristic is the size of the
GM particles. When the particle size increases it causes a
reduction in the flexural strength; this is attributable to the
smoother surface of the glass particles, which weaken the
join with the mortar and produce a lower resistance [22].
On the other hand, the expansion due to the ASR effect
may be caused by particles with a high silica content in the
glass which, upon initiating contact with cement, cause
decreased strength due to bad adherence between the glass
surface and the cement paste [12].
Regarding the hydration capacity, Fig. 11, it can be
stated that this is evolutive for all samples, and based on
the extremes of the study (3 and 90 days) it can be seen that
the NATM acts fastest, with an increase of 4.9 MPa; in the
case of the GM it is the GM30 with an increase of 2.6 MPa,
and the variable with the worst rate of hydration evolution
is the GM60 with an increase of 2.3 MPa. In general terms,
the limits of this behavior are less noticeable than in the
previously mentioned compression strength (compression
is a better correlation property than flexural for GM).
Regarding the last two mechanical properties for the age
of 28 days (characteristic as a reference), it can be said that
the GM have compressive strength values of between 19
and 56 % of the value shown by the reference NATM;
while for flexural strength the GM show between 29 and
53 %. As a comparison between these properties the
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Int J Civ Eng
flexural strength values show relationships which go from
1/2.56 to 1/2.34 of their compressive strength. For each of
the different percentages of GS in the GM the following
apply: NATM = 1/3.17; GM15 = 1/3.34; GM60 = 1/2.56
and GM100 = 1/2.07. In general terms the following
equation can be used for all the GM:
compressive strength
Flexural strength ¼
3
3.4 Shrinkage
To facilitate the study of deformations in the GM the
curves have been divided into two stages: (a) the curing
chamber, which goes from the age (t): 0 \ t \ 28 days,
and (b) the laboratory environment, which goes from the
age of 28 \ t \ 90 days.
For the basic shrinkage process (ebasic) in the curing
chamber stage (Fig. 12a), it can be seen that GM15, GM30
and NATM show signs of shrinkage, whereas GM60 and
GM100 show those of expansion (all referred to in the
graph with the term PAR, to denote being covered in
paraffin). Analyzing this behavior for the first three GM, it
can be said that the low absorption of the GS (with low
replacements in GM) provides little water for the hydration
process, which in turn produces chemical reaction shrink-
age due to the consumption of water (intrinsic to sand). On
Int J Civ Eng
Fig. 11 Evolution of hydration
with the age of GM based on the
flexural strength
Fig. 12 a ebasic, b etotal of the GM
the other hand, the behavior of the second group of vari-
ables could be explained by the high w/c relationship
required (high replacements in GS) to obtain the desired
workability, which in turn modifies the rheology of the
GM.
For the total shrinkage process (etotal), in the first stage
(curing chamber) (Fig. 12b), all the GM test samples ulti-
mately show values of expansion deformation at the end of
their period of exposure in the curing chamber; this
behavior may be explained by the curing conditions (high
relative humidity and constant temperature), which favor
the inclusion of water in the interior of the samples and
become more sensitive and determinant when comparing
GM with NATM.
Regarding the exposure stage (laboratory environment),
it was necessary to discard the values obtained in the first
123

stage of deformation (curing chamber, both ebasic and etotal),
so that the real values of deformation for this stage could be
obtained. To establish this, an adjustment of values was
carried out (value equal to zero to the value of deformation
obtained at the start of the drying phase in the laboratory
environment), doing the same with its age; that is, e28 -
days = 0 % and t28 days = 0 days. As a result the defor-
mation values of the sample materials were obtained
without considering the curing phase in the curing
chamber.
In Fig. 13a the curves of ebasic are presented (laboratory
environment without considering previous stage); here it
can be seen that for the time (t) = 90 days, the variable
NATM and all the GM variables are ultimately located in
the shrinkage zone.
The behavior of the mortars in this stage of the study is
conditioned by the laboratory environment, which pro-
duces an ‘‘interruption’’ in the initial expansion process
(curing period in curing chamber), and leads to a new non-
incremental and evidently constant trend (horizontal) for
the particular case of the NATM. On the contrary, the GM
shows an inclination towards the values of shrinkage, with
GM15 and GM60 being the most notable variables. As a
result, it can be said that the behavior of the GM may be
affected by a desiccation process from t [ 30 days after its
exposure in the laboratory environment, which could be
explained by the greater propensity of its structure to
facilitate movement of water with the exterior.
In the case of Fig. 13b the curves of etotal are shown,
where it should be pointed out that in all cases noticeable
and similar deformations are observed among them when
compared with ebasic. This can be synthesized in the
behavior by saying that at the start of the new
Fig. 13 a ebasic, and b etotal for the GM in laboratory environment
123
Int J Civ Eng
environmental condition (low HR and high temperature),
all the specimens suffer drastic deformations of shrinkage
(loss of interior water from the porous system, reducing the
interfacial tension that generates shrinkage), which later
leads to small incremental changes in shrinkage as part of a
horizontal type trend.
During the 40 \ t \ 90 day period, the majority of the
curves show a constant linear trend. This behavior may be
explained by showing that in this period the effect of the
laboratory environment is offset by the interfacial tensions
of the GM, and so it is not possible to extract the water in
these conditions.
For the extreme case (GM60 at t = 90 days) an etotal
maximum 0.1088 % was reported, with the rest of the
variables forming similar behavioral groupings to this.
However, for the GM100 variable, reported etotal defor-
mations were even lower than for the control variable
(NATM) itself; this may be explained by the high content
of glass material with closed porosity and low absorption,
which can interfere with the behavior. However, this is not
conclusive in the cases of the other glass contents.
The drying shrinkage (edrying) can be obtained from the
difference between etotal and ebasic, as shown in Fig. 14,
where lower values can be seen for the case of the GM
compared with the NATM. The NATM mortars, GM15
and GM30 for t = 90 days are those showing the greatest
shrinkage (edrying = 0.0953, 0.0844 and 0.0883 %,
respectively), while GM100 showed the least shrinkage
(edrying = 0.0675 %), followed by GM60 (edrying =
0.0731 %). Related research has shown results in which the
drying shrinkage is similar in behavior to the pattern
established in detail in this work (diminishing as the per-
centage of glass substitution rises). However, in general
Int J Civ Eng
Fig. 14 edrying of the MC
terms the imbalances and deficiencies of those studies are
centered on particular considerations: [5, 17, 21] only
evaluate the etotal (without the effect of the ebasic) at an
initial t = 28 days after curing in the curing chamber; Ling
et al. [13] determines the etotal (without the effect of the
ebasic) at a tinitial = 0 days without curing in the curing
chamber.
In conclusion, this effect may be expressed by the fact
that the GS improve the stability of the changes in the
deformation behavior and dimensions of the mortar. The
reduction of edrying can be attributed to the reduced water
absorption capacity of the glass particles (see Table 1), as
the behavior suggests [5, 7, 17, 21]. These particles, being
unable to keep the available water inside the matrix, pre-
vent the phenomenon of the rapid evaporation of the water
physically contained in the interior of the matrix, which is
the direct cause of shrinkage. Another possible explanation
for this behavior might be the irregular shape of the glass
particles [23], as due to this the w/c ratio of the mixture
containing them must change to establish similar worka-
bility requirements.
4 Conclusions
Based on the results of this research the following con-
clusions can be reached:
The GS showed a lower percentage of absorption with
regard to the NS; however, the amount of water needed in
the mixture to obtain the desired workability rose in tan-
dem with the increase in the glass replacement factor. The
shape, the distribution of sizes and the characteristic
angularity of the particles (as well as an increase in the
specific surface area) are responsible for causing the
increases of water needed to obtain the equivalent condi-
tion of consistency; these characteristics of the particles are
caused by the crushing process that produces them, as well
as by the rigidity of their material (brittle fault).
The compression and flexural strengths of the GM were
lower than those of the NATM (for all ages in the study),
with the lowest difference (of the GM) appearing in GM15
(with a compression strength value of 17.42 MPa and
flexural strength of 5.78 MPa, both at 90 days). The
behavior of both mechanical properties is explained (hav-
ing previously eliminated the possibility of an ASR) by
considering the microstructure of its matrix (cement
paste—natural sand—glass sand with transition zones
between them), which stimulate and increase the weak
joins between the glass particles and the cement paste.
Considering the results of this study, this behavior must be
linked to the high porosity and absorption reached by the
GM (causing an increase in the need for mixing water)
which increases the weak and fissure-prone ITZ. Although
the hydration process of these GM is lower, the shape of
123

their evolutionary curves is similar to that of the NATM
and so, based on the results presented, the GM could be
used in applications where the mechanical requirements are
lower.
Regarding edrying, all of the GM showed better behavior
than the NATM; the latter’s deformation was 0.0953 %, while
that of the GM100 was 0.0675 % (best behavior at 90 days).
Based on the results, the addition of GS to mortars can sig-
nificantly prevent drying shrinkage, which is a favorable
aspect in applications with requirements of this type. To put it
simply, it can be stated that the edrying decreases with the
increase in substitution of the GS, which stabilizes the changes
in the shrinkage behavior and the variation of the dimensions
of the mortar containing it; at the same time this favorable
‘effect’ is caused by the reduced capacity of water absorption
of the glass particles which, being unable to retain the avail-
able water within the matrix, prevent the phenomenon of the
rapid and high evaporation of water retained physically in the
interior of the mortar’s matrix.
In brief, it can be said that the GM15 could be an
alternative for use in mortar applications with lower
strength requirements, which also has adequate deforma-
tion behavior: reduced drying shrinkage (with reference to
a NATM) Finally, they should be considered as a viable
solution in terms of environmental conservation, which
satisfies society’s current requirements.
Acknowledgments The authors wish to thank the CONACYT for its
doctoral thesis program, the Escuela Politécnica Superior de Edifi-
cación de Barcelona-UPC, the Departamento de Construcciones
Arquitectónicas II-EPSEB-UPC, the Facultad de Ingenierı́a Mochis-
UAS, as well as the Doctores Jóvenes-UAS program.
Compliance with Ethical Standards
Funding information The research was carrying out without exter-
nal funding.
Disclaimer The opinions, findings, conclusions, and recommenda-
tions expressed in this paper are those of the authors and do not
necessarily reflect those of the sponsor.
Conflict of interest The author declares that there is no conflict of
interests regarding the publication of this paper.
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