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WINDSOR
Rethinking Comfort

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Proceedings of 10th Windsor Conference
Rethinking Comfort

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RETHINKING COMFORT

THE TENTH WINDSOR CONFERENCE

Thermal comfort in Classrooms: A critical review

Manoj Kumar Singh1, Ryozo Ooka2, Hom B Rijal3

1
Department of Human and Social Systems, Institute of Industrial Science, The University of
Tokyo, 4-6-1, Komaba, Meguro-ku, Tokyo 153-8505, Japan, email: mksinghtu@gmail.com
2
Department of Human and Social Systems, Institute of Industrial Science, The University of
Tokyo, 4-6-1, Komaba, Meguro-ku, Tokyo 153-8505, Japan, email: ooka@iis.u-tokyo.ac.jp
3
Faculty of Environmental Studies, Tokyo City University, 3-3-1 Ushikubo-nishi, Tsuzuki-ku,
Yokohama, 224-8551, Japan, email: rijal@tcu.ac.jp

Abstract: Classrooms play an important role in every student’s life as the quality of thermal environments also
influences a student’s performance and well-being. It is well known that at each educational stage, curricula
demand different learning approaches and types of systematic thinking, requiring increasing levels of
concentration. The absence of any standard or reference document relating to the design of appropriate
classrooms based on educational stages is worsening the situation. Total 81 research articles selected from the
Scopus database were considered for this study. It was found that at each education level in the studied
schools, students were highly dissatisfied with the prevailing indoor thermal environments. Primary school
students were least sensitive to outdoor temperature changes. There are relatively few published articles
published on thermal comfort in classrooms. Based on the reported findings, no consistent temperature
change was found necessary to record a shift of one thermal sensation vote by students in classrooms. This
study proposed different adaptive comfort equations for use in the estimation of indoor comfort temperature
in classrooms at different educational stage. Moreover, the study provides robust evidence that there is a
need for a separate set of different guidelines or standards for students of different ages in different stages of
their education.

Keywords: Thermal comfort, Adaptive thermal comfort, Classroom, Naturally ventilated, Air-conditioned,
Primary school, Secondary school, University classrooms

1 Introduction
1.1 Overview
It is widely recognised that educational systems across the world involve different stages of
learning where student spend different amounts of time in the classroom depending on
his/her age (de Dear et al, 2015; Djongyang et al, 2010; Lee et al, 2012; Mendell and Heath,
2005; Wargocki and Wyon, 2013; Zomorodian et al, 2016). Students between the ages of
two to twenty-six years old spend a considerable amount of their waking hours in a
classroom (approximate ages from kindergarten to university) (de Dear et al, 2015;
Djongyang et al, 2010; Lee et al, 2012; Mendell and Heath, 2005; Wargocki and Wyon,
2013). In the classroom a student also needs to concentrate to the highest levels as he/she
is continuously learning new topics, improving his/her skills and capacity for systematic
thinking (Lee et al, 2012; Wargocki and Wyon, 2013; Yang et al, 2013). Educational buildings,
and especially classrooms, should have the characteristics that provide a stimulating
environment to enhance the learning process (Giuli et al, 2012; Mendell and Heath, 2005;
Mishra and Ramgopal, 2015; Turunena et al, 2014). Many studies published since the 1960’s
suggest a strong correlation between the thermal environments and air quality within

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classrooms and student’s performance and well-being (Auliciems, 1969; de Dear et al, 2013;
Djongyang et al, 2010; Hoof, 2008).
More recently the teaching and learning approaches and strategies applied in
classrooms is evolving around the increasing role and use of ICT systems at various stages in
education systems (Djongyang et al, 2010; Gao et al, 2014; Kruger et al, 2004; Nico et at,
2015; Stazia, 2017; Teli et al 2014). With so many changes at play, it is now important to
categorize the indoor environment conditions within classrooms that are resulting from new
and emerging approaches to the design of classrooms at the different educational
stages(Djongyang et al, 2010; Kruger et al, 2004; Di Perna et al, 2011). Higher up the
education stages, the increasing use of computers is resulting in a revolution in the
conventional teaching spaces once dominated by teachers standing beside blackboards
(Djongyang et al, 2010; Kruger et al, 2004). With the growing dependence of classroom on
technology comes increasing energy consumption associated with both the operation and
maintenance of buildings (Huang et al, 2015; Nicol and Humphreys, 2002; Yang et al, 2014;
Yau, 2014). Absence of standard that deal specifically with indoor thermal environment of
education buildings and classrooms for students of different ages in different stages of their
education is compelling the designers and architects to use the existing standards such as
ASHRAE 55, CEN 15251, ISO-7730 as reference documents (ASHRAE 55, 2013; CEN 15251,
2007; ISO-7730, 2005). A review of the related literature indicates that architects and
engineers are treating the design of educational buildings like that of any other public
buildings (Djongyang et al, 2010; Stazia, 2017; Martinez-Molina, 2017; Huang and Hwang,
2016; Almeida and de Freitas, 2015). It is well known to the thermal comfort research
community that the database of ASHRAE-55, ISO 7730 and CEN 15251 standard mainly
contain data collected during comfort studies done on healthy adults in public buildings
across the world (ASHRAE 55, 2013; CEN 15251, 2007; ISO-7730, 2005). Several studies done
in air-conditioned and free running classrooms concluded that there are high levels of
dissatisfaction reported by students towards the prevailing thermal environments of the
classrooms (Auliciems, 1969; Auliciems, 1972; Auliciems, 1973; Auliciems, 1975; Humphreys,
1973; Humphreys, 1977; Kwok, 1998; Liang et al, 2012; Puteha et al, 2012; Teli et al, 2012;
Wong and Khoo, 2003; Yun et al, 2014). It is very interesting to note that this trend is
prevalent not only in the classrooms of developing countries but also in the developed
countries (Auliciems, 1969; Auliciems, 1972; Auliciems, 1973; Auliciems, 1975; Humphreys,
1973; Humphreys, 1977; Kwok, 1998; Liang et al, 2012; Wong and Khoo, 2003; Yun et al,
2014). The reason for this is that the reference standards against which the comfort
experienced by students are typically gauged were historically formulated for steady state
office environment where clothing and activity levels were deemed to be fixed as was the
density of occupants in spaces (occupants/m2) (Al-Rashidi, 2012; Auliciems, 1969;
Auliciems, 1972; Auliciems, 1973; Auliciems, 1975; Humphreys, 1973; Humphreys, 1977;
Kwok, 1998; Liang et al, 2012; Serghides et al, 2015; Wong and Khoo, 2003; Yun et al, 2014).
1.2 Objectives of this study
At each stage of schooling (kindergarten, elementary school, primary school, secondary
school, senior secondary school/high school and university) teaching and objectives are set
to facilitate the learning by students of certain skill sets (Djongyang et al, 2010; Auliciems,
1969; Auliciems, 1972; Auliciems, 1973; Auliciems, 1975; Humphreys, 1973; Humphreys,
1977; Kwok, 1998; Liang et al, 2012; Wong and Khoo, 2003; Yun et al, 2014). Based on the
skill set requirements at each stage of schooling, lessons to boost systematic thinking and
the physical activity of students have been devised accordingly (Djongyang et al, 2010;

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Auliciems, 1969; Auliciems, 1972; Auliciems, 1973; Auliciems, 1975; Fong et al, 2015;
Humphreys, 1973; Humphreys, 1977; Kwok, 1998; Liang et al, 2012; Wong and Khoo, 2003;
Yun et al, 2014). In many cases, students are required to adopt uniforms are from the
elementary to high school stages. These uniforms are typically specified and designed by
adults who do not wear them and have a little working grasp of activity related metabolic
rates and experiences (Barrett et al, 2013; Choi et al, 2013; Katafygiotou and Serghides,
2013). There appears to be little or no scientific understanding applied to the selection of
uniforms (de Dear et al, 2015; Giuli et al, 2015; Nam et al, 2015) which reflects the clear
disconnect between the experiences, requirements and aspirations of students and those of
the adults who dictate the dress codes and environments they occupy at school. Despite a
number of studies carried out to establish a link between student’s performance indoor
environment quality (IEQ) and IAQ, there remains a considerable gap in the basic
information and understanding necessary to draw correct conclusions on best ways forward
in the challenge of designing ‘optimally Fit for Purpose’ teaching and learning spaces,
behaviours and clothing and furnishing infra-structures in the rapidly evolving landscapes of
classroom practices (Almeida and de Freitas, 2015; Nam et al, 2015; Serghides et al, 2015).
The more obvious gaps in the information available to good designers include:
a) What is the status of thermal comfort and preferences of students in primary school,
secondary school and university classrooms operated under NV/FR and air-
conditioned mode?
b) Depending upon climate, do students perform better in air-conditioned or naturally
ventilated or mixed mode operated classrooms and if so which ones?
c) How to test the performance of students (should the evaluation be spread over
months or weeks)?
d) How to normalize the test procedure to judge the performance of students (because
different students may perform better in different tasks depending upon their
interest and motivation)?
This paper is divided into different sections based on the different stages of student
schooling (primary school, secondary school and university students) and tries to explore
the answers to the gaps in the information mentioned above. Data relating to comfort
parameters, schooling stage, classroom operation mode (NV/FR, mixed mode and air-
conditioned) and sample sizes are extracted from the articles and analyzed to draw
conclusions on research trends, thermal comfort and preferences in classrooms operated
under NV/FR and air-conditioned mode and regression equations of published articles based
on mode of operation of classrooms at each level. Finally, the authors proposed adaptive
comfort equations, highlight the gaps in the classroom comfort studies and propose a way
forward for the identification of improved and systematic performance-based criteria that
include also indicators for the wellbeing of students.

2 Thermal comfort assessment approaches

Most accepted way to define the thermal comfort conditions for a group of subjects
(sample size) in field or in laboratory is to carry out subjective evaluation by recording
subject’s thermal feelings, preferences, physical and personal comfort variables and
statistically relate them to arrive at some quantity which will be acceptable to 80% of the
sample size (ASHRAE, 2013, ISO, 2005). Thermal comfort studies done over the years
suggest that the diversity in climate, geographical location, built environments and subjects
have a strong influence on the acceptable thermal comfort conditions for that climate,

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geographical location and built environment (Auliciems, 1981; Brager and de Dear, 1998; de
Dear and Brager, 1998; Fanger, 1970; Humphreys, 1975; Humphreys, 1978; Humphreys and
Nicol, 1998; Karjalainen, 2012). This has also encouraged scientists and researchers to carry
out thermal comfort research in different parts of the world, covering different climates and
built environments applying heat balance approach and adaptive model (Brager and de
Dear, 1998; CEN 15251, 2007; Fanger and Toftum, 2002; Feriadi and Wong, 2004;
Karjalainen, 2012; Karyono, 2000; McCartney and Nicol, 2002; Mallick, 1996; Nicol and
Humphreys, 2002; Nicol, 2004; Wong, 2002; Mishra and Ramgopal, 2013; Teleghani et al,
2013; Yang et al, 2014).

3 Methodology of the study

To carry out this study “Scopus database” is searched with keyword “thermal comfort study
in classrooms”. Total 81 research articles appeared in the search out of which there is one
review article on “educational buildings” (Figure 1). The present study gives detail insights of
the thermal comfort studies done in the classrooms in different parts of the world. To
analyze the data in detail the research articles are broadly classified into three major
categories.

Figure 1 Number of paper published over the years in classroom thermal comfort

a) Kindergarten, elementary and primary school classrooms: Studies done in these

classrooms are clubbed together and in this study, it is referred as “primary school
classroom” for analysis.
b) Secondary, senior secondary and high school classrooms: Studies done in these
classrooms are merged together and referred as “secondary school classroom” for
analysis.
c) University classroom
The basis of this classification is present in Table 1. Also if a particular study has
considered primary and secondary school classrooms as their study area then the particular

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research article is counted for both primary and secondary school classroom study. A similar
approach is also adopted for the research that had considered secondary and university
classrooms as their study area. Table 1 presents the characteristics of the classrooms
extracted from 81 research articles, at different educational stages in different parts of the
world. From the table, we can see that the functionality and density of the classrooms are
quite different at different stages of schooling starting kindergarten. To know the share of
classroom thermal comfort studies in overall thermal comfort studies, Scopus database was
searched again with a keyword “Thermal comfort”. It returned 16504 articles (Figure 2).
Detailed analysis of this search and corresponding numbers are done in later sections.

Figure 2 Number of documents on Scopus scientific database when search with keywords “Thermal comfort,
th
Adaptive thermal comfort and thermal comfort in Classroom” (accessed on 11 Sept 2017)

In the context of different educational stages, 81 research articles are again sub-
categorized into different operation mode of classrooms. Different operation mode of
classrooms are considered with following definitions
i) Naturally Ventilated (NV): A Classroom is constructed to operate under free
running (FR) condition 12 months a year and same is considered under the study
period.
ii) Free running (FR): A classroom is constructed primarily to operate the heating
system (HS) or cooling system (CS) but during the study period either HS or CS
was switched off.
iii) Heating system (HS): A classroom is constructed with the heating system and
during the study period heating system was switched on.

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Table 1 Characteristics of classrooms at different educational stages

Classrooms at different educational stages
Parameters
Kindergarten Elementary/Primary Secondary/Sr. Secondary University
Occupants Children Children Children Adults
Age group (Years approximately) 3-6 7-11 12-18 19-26
Density Very high moderately high high low
Desk and benches. Each Desk and benches. Each Desk and benches. Each occupied by 1
Furniture Not always
occupied by 1 to 3 students occupied by 1 to 3 students to 2 students
Classroom types Learning + play Lecture Lecture + laboratory Lecture + laboratory
Students visit rooms for lecture and
occupy the room of 1 or 2 hours per
Duration of Occupancy
3-8(continuous) 4-6(continuous) 6-7(continuous) lecture continuously. So students
(hours)
experience transient thermal
environment almost all the time
Lecture rooms/Lecture Lecture rooms/Lecture Lecture rooms/Lecture theatres.
Layout of class No specific layout
theatres. Students sit in rows theatres. Students sit in rows Students sit in rows
No Control. As judged No Control. As judged by Partial control. Some controls

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Indoor environmental control by adults for both NV adults for both NV and (CS+ in NV but no control in (CS+ Some control in NV and in (CS+ HS)
and (CS+ HS) HS) HS)
Day lighting + artificial Day lighting + artificial
Lighting Day lighting + artificial lighting Day lighting + artificial lighting
lighting lighting
Very active as Sitting and attending lectures Sitting and attending lectures +
Attending lectures with light
Activities teaching involves + laboratory needs light to laboratory needs light to medium
activities
physical activity medium activity activity
Clothing as judged by Restricted clothing and had to Restricted clothing and had
Clothing No specific dress code, free to adjust
parents or elders follow dress code to follow dress code
Use of ICT Almost no use Less ( demonstration purpose) High (lectures) Very high (lectures, laboratory)
AC: Air conditioned (HS + CS); NV: Naturally ventilated, ICT: Internet and communication technology

654


iv) Cooling system (CS): A classroom is constructed with the cooling system and during
the study period cooling system was switched on.
v) Air-condition (AC): A classroom is constructed with heating and cooling system and
during the study period either of the systems was switched on.
For the above-mentioned classifications, data such as sample size, time of the survey,
geographic location, climate, operation mode of classrooms, comfort temperature, average
clothing level, indoor air velocity and average outdoor temperature etc. were extracted
from the research articles ( the data listed in the form of tables and not provided here
because of page constraints. But will be produced if asked by the reader). To analyze the
data, it was decided to consider NV/FR classrooms and air-conditioned classrooms and club
the studies accordingly for primary school, secondary school and university classrooms. It
was found that in some of the research papers outdoor temperature data were not
mentioned so online weather data source (mentioned in the reference list) was used to
extract the data for the period in which the study was done. In this study, the proposed
regression equations and adaptive thermal comfort models were analyzed in categories
based on operation modes of classrooms. It was found that very few studies have proposed
adaptive thermal comfort equations. Finally, a comparative analysis was carried out by
plotting the comfort temperatures proposed in the studies on ASHRAE -55 2015 and CEN -
15251 standards (ASHRAE 55, 2013; CEN 15251, 2007; ISO-7730, 2005).

4 Discussion
4.1 Article types and publication trend
At all educational stages, functional requirement of the classroom is very distinct and so the
student density in the classroom, indoor environment control, clothing choices, activity and
use of internet and communication technology. Figures 3 and 4 show the Koppen-Geiger
world climatic classification and the number of studies done in the classrooms of each
climatic zone. It can be seen in Figure 4 that the distribution of studies is quite skewed. The
highest number of studies is done in sub-tropical countries followed by countries in a
temperate climate. Mediterranean and hot and dry climate countries have quite a few
studies. Continent-wise, Asia and Europe lead the count. In Asia, maximum number of
studies is being reported from Taiwan, China, and Malaysia. In Europe, maximum number
of studies is being reported from UK, Italy, and Portugal. The approach followed by the
researchers to carry out thermal comfort studies is also analyzed. Figure 5 represents the
approach (PMV-PPD or adaptive thermal comfort methodology) followed in the studies
carried out in different continents. It is clear that a maximum number of studies followed
PMV-PPD methodology to evaluate the classroom thermal environment. To know about
number of studies done for each educational stages classroom e.g. primary, secondary and
university, figure 6 is plotted. It can be seen that highest number studies are done in
primary and University classrooms in Europe and Asia respectively.
Publication trend of 81 articles is shown in Figure 1. It can be seen that highest
number of articles are published in the year 2014 and 2015. The share of classroom thermal
comfort studies in overall thermal comfort studies is only 0.49%. Figure 2 shows the
increasing trend of publication with very high growth in last 10 years. To know the
composition of the type of articles Figure 7 is plotted. It shows that in both the thermal
comfort and thermal comfort in classrooms themes, original research papers dominate the
publication followed by conference papers.

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Figure 3 World map of Koppen-Geiger climate Figure 4 Summary of thermal comfort studies
classification conducted in different climates at various education
level (total 81 articles)

Figure 5 Distribution of papers considered for this review Figure 6 Classification of field studies conducted in
article following two schools of thoughts ( PMV-PPD and classrooms based on education stages in different
adaptive approach: total 81 articles) continents (total 81 articles)

Figure 7 Type of documents on Scopus scientific database when search with keywords “thermal comfort,
th
adaptive thermal comfort and thermal comfort in classroom” accessed on 7 August 2017

It is a healthy sign because it is enriching the database which is required to develop a

robust thermal comfort model. It is also showing the increasing awareness and concern
among the researchers and scientists about the IEQ and its role in the human well-being in
different kind of built environments. A small number of classroom centric studies is a

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matter of concern despite knowing the impact of adequate IEQ on the learning ability of
students and on his/her well-being. It demands more studies to be done across the globe so
that a grand database can be built and it can be taken forward to the formulation of a new
set of IEQ standards/guidelines for designing future classrooms.
4.2 Thermal comfort and preferences in primary school classrooms
All 81 research articles are classified into primary, secondary and university classrooms
based studies. 28 out of 81 studies are carried out on primary school’s classrooms (operated
under either NV/FR or air-conditioned mode). Studies done on elementary and primary
schools classrooms show a strong relationship between indoor thermal environment,
student performance and well-being but lacks to put forth any direct evidence. It was also
found that at this stage student do not take adaptive actions like changing clothing level,
changing setpoint temperatures and opening and closing of windows on their own
(Auliciems, 1975; Humphreys, 1977; Mors et al, 2011; Liu et al, 2016). At this grade student
has to follow the choices of the adults for thermal environments. PMV and PPD
methodology underestimate the actual thermal environments in both NV/FR and air-
conditioned classrooms (Auliciems, 1975; Haddad et al, 2017). Studies also suggested that
students at this stage are very active and have high metabolic rates compared to adults.
Also, these students are always in the same uniform and seldom allowed to adjust despite
the level of activity required in the classroom (Auliciems, 1975; Humphreys, 1977; Mors et
al, 2011; Liu et al, 2016). Above all at this stage of education student’s educational curricula
demands many physical activities which aggravate the unacceptability of existing thermal
environment (Auliciems, 1975; Humphreys, 1977; Mors et al, 2011; Liu et al, 2016).
4.3 Thermal comfort and preferences in secondary school classrooms
Total 27 research articles address the thermal comfort status and preferences in secondary
school classrooms operated under NV/FR and air-conditioned modes. Like primary school
classrooms, students at this stage are not satisfied with the existing thermal environment.
Studies relating sustainability and energy efficiency concluded that in designing new
classrooms or refurbishing old ones, more emphasis should be given adequate learning
conditions which include non-thermal parameters too. It has been found that adequate
learning conditions improve student’s performance as much as 30% (Almeida et al, 2015;
Almeida and de Freitas, 2015). At this stage also students in the classrooms prefer optimum
temperature towards cooler side of the thermal sensation scale. Studies done in NV/FR
classrooms concluded that students in summer months are more sensitive to change in
temperature compared to winter months and neutral temperature in summer is
considerably higher compared to winter months (Liang et al, 2012; Pereira et al, 2014;
Puteha et al, 2012; Wargocki and Wyon, 2007).
4.4 Thermal comfort and preferences in university classrooms
University classrooms students have a greater degree of freedom to take adaptive actions to
restore their comfort. Out of 81, 30 studies that are being carried out in university
classrooms and are operated under NV/FR or air-conditioned mode. Study linking controls,
adaptive actions and thermal comfort states that increasing level of control over
microclimate and adaptive actions is directly related to enhanced satisfaction of the
students towards the indoor thermal environment. Here also students preferred cool
sensation in both NV and air-conditioned classrooms. So in winter months, when the
heating system is required to run then set temperature can be kept low and this will save
heating energy consumption by 12% (Jung et al, 2011). In case of university student’s, they

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move in and out of the classroom after every class. So they are in transient condition for
about 20-30% of the time if a class is of 1-hour duration. So the memory of the previous
environment greatly affects the thermal comfort and preference of a student in university
classrooms. This happens several times in a day, during their stay in the university. In-
classroom students experience a transient thermal condition for first 10-15 minutes in a
class and when ISO 7730, ASHRAE 55 and CEN 15251 standard which generally deals with
steady-state conditions, applied to evaluate classrooms thermal environment, the deviation
reported by many studies seems obvious (ISO 7730, 2005; ASHRAE 55, 2013; CEN 15251,
2007; Cheng et al, 2008; Cao et al, 2011; Wang et al, 2014; Wang et al, 2017). Here also it is
the case where standards are applied to design an environment whose functionality and the
requirement is quite different to the mandate of the standard.
4.5 Regression equations and operation modes of classrooms
Based on above classification the studies which have proposed regression equations were
segregated. Table 2 presents the list of regression equations for primary, secondary and
university classrooms. These equations are establishing the relationship between mean
thermal sensation and indoor temperature (operative temperature, air temperature or
globe temperature). To find the change in temperature required to shift in one thermal
sensation vote, the inverse of the coefficient attached to mean thermal sensation is
calculated. On analyzing these values, it is found that very few studies are able to give
reliable value. A temperature change of up to 5 °C to shift one sensation vote seems in
good agreement with other thermal comfort studies. It is strange that values in the range of
7 °C to 22 °C are being found.
Regression equations proposed by studies in classrooms are analyzed where the
heating and cooling system is operational during the study period. Studies that proposed
the regression equation are listed in Table 3. Again analyzing the temperature change
required to shift one thermal sensation vote, we find that in this case, the values are more
reliable compared to NV and FR classrooms except for 3 studies. On analyzing mixed mode
operated classrooms we find that a maximum number of studies in all the categories show
high-temperature change to shift one thermal sensation vote. Table 4 presents the details
of the studies and calculated values. From Tables 2, 3 and 4 it is evident that in most of the
classrooms studies the results obtained are quite different from what thermal comfort
study reveals when done in a built environment other than classrooms. This also concludes
that the students in the classrooms were highly unsatisfied with the existing indoor
environmental conditions.

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Table 2 Proposed Regression equations by the comfort studies done in naturally ventilated and free running primary, secondary and university classrooms
Temperature
Operation change required to
Classroom Reference Country Building type Survey period Regression equation
type shift one thermal
sensation (°C)
Hwang et al., 2009 Central, Taiwan NV FR Sept 2005 to Jan 2006 MSV = 0.01Top – 0.30 10
Teli D et al., 2012 Hampshire, England, UK NV FR Mar to Aug 2011 TSV = 0.26Top – 5.68 3.85
M: TSV = 0.27Top – 5.56; M= 3.7;
Primary Teli et al., 2013 Southampton, UK HS + CS FR Apr to Jul 2011
F: TSV = 0.25Top – 5.48 F= 4
Yun et al., 2014 Seoul, Korea HS + CS FR Apr to Jun 2013 TSV = 0.29Top – 6.47 3.45
Liu et al., 2016 Weinan and Wuwei, China HS + CS FR Nov and Dec 2014 TSVm = 0.18 Top – 2.72 5.56
Secondary Hwang et al., 2009 Central, Taiwan NV FR Sept 2005 to Jan 2006 MSV = 0.01Top – 0.30 10
Liu et al., 2016 Northwestern China HS + CS FR Nov and Dec 2014 TSVm = 0.18 Top – 2.72 5.56
TSV = 0.045Top – 0.96; TSV= 22.2;
Zhang et al., 2007 Hunan University, China NV FR Mar to Apr 2005
PMV = 0.116Top – 2.88 PMV= 9.1
Cheng et al., 2008 Central Taiwan NV FR Apr to Nov 2006 TSV = 0.34Top – 8.4 2.94

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Dec 2015-Jan 2015, Apr
Wang et al., 2014 Harbin, China HS + CS FR TSVspr = 0.15Ta – 3.32 6.67
2011
University Mishra & Ramgopal,
Kharagpur, India NV FR Jan to Apr 2013 TSV = 0.14Top – 3.72 7.14
2014_1
Mishra & Ramgopal,
Kharagpur, India NV FR Jan to Apr 2013 TSV = 0.14Top – 3.72 7.14
2014_2
Baruah et al., 2014 Tezpur, India NV FR Feb and May 2013 TSV = 0.24Tin – 5.73 4.16
Vittal et al., 2016 Tamil Nadu, India NV FR Dec 2014 and Jan 2015 TSV = 0.54Tg – 15.59 1.85
NV: Naturally ventilated; FR: Free running; Tc: Comfort temperature; Top: Operative temperature; Ta: Air temperature; TSV: Thermal sensation vote; MSV: Mean
sensation vote; Tin: Indoor air temperature; TSV: Thermal sensation vote; TSVm: Mean thermal sensation vote; PMV: Predicted mean vote; M: Male; F: Female; TSVspr:
Spring season thermal sensation vote; AC: Air conditioned (HS + CS)

659
 Table 3 Proposed regression equations by the comfort studies done in heating and cooling system operated primary, secondary and university classrooms
Temperature change
Operation
Classrooms Reference Country Building type Survey period Regression equation required to shift one
type
thermal sensation (°C)
Queensland,
Primary Auliciems, 1975 HS + CS HS May to Aug 1973 TSV = 0.147Tin – 3.6 6.8
Australia
Jan to Apr 1967; Oct
Auliciems, 1969 Reading, UK HS + CS HS TSV = 0.12Tin – 7.72 8.33
Secondary 1967; Mar 1968
Queensland,
Auliciems, 1975 HS + CS HS May to Aug 1973 TSV = 0.15Tin – 3.6 6.67
Australia
Cheng et al.,
Central Taiwan HS + CS CS Apr to Nov 2006 TSVAC = 0.35Top – 8.8 2.86
2008
Wang et al., Dec 2015-Jan 2015, Apr
Harbin, China HS + CS HS TSVwin = 0.24Ta – 5.43 4.17
2014 2011
University
Wang et al.,
Harbin, China HS + CS HS Oct 2013 to Apr 2014 TSVm = 0.16Tin – 2.97 6.25
2016
Mara, My; Jp: Feb to Mar 2013; My: TSVcl = 0.33Top – 8.8; My: 3.03;

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Zaki et al., 2017 HS + CS CS
Kyushu, Jp My: Mar to May 2013 Jp: TSVcl = 0.43Top – 11.2 Jp: 2.33
CS: Cooling system; HS: Heating system; Top: Operative temperature; Ta: Air temperature; Tin: Indoor air temperature; TSV: Thermal sensation vote; TSVm: Mean
thermal sensation vote; ; TSVwin: Winter thermal sensation vote; ; TSVAC: Thermal sensation vote in air-conditioned classroom; My: Malaysia; Jp: Japan; AC: Air
conditioned (HS + CS)

Table 4 Proposed Regression equations by the comfort studies done in mixed mode operated primary, secondary and university classrooms
Temperature
change required
Building Operation
Classroom Reference Country Survey period Regression equation to shift one
type type
thermal
sensation (°C)
de Dear et al., FR + HS + CS +
Sydney, Australia HS + CS Sum 2013 TSVm = 0.12 Top – 2.78 8.33
2015 EC
Primary
Trebilcock et al., Aut, Win and Warm
Shiraz, Iran HS + CS HS+ EC+ FR TSVm = 0.27 Top – 6.25 3.7
2017 2012 - 2013

660
 Sept-Oct 1995; Jan - Feb
Kwok, 1997 Hawaii, USA HS + CS FR + HS + CS TSV = 0.29Top – 7.40 3.45
Secondary 1996
de Dear et al., FR + HS + CS +
Sydney, Australia HS + CS Sum 2013 TSVm = 0.12 Top – 2.78 8.33
2015 EC
Hwang R-L et al., Centre and South, TSV = 0.14ET – 3.76; TSV= 7.14;
HS + CS FR + CS Sum 2003, Sum 2004
2006 Taiwan PMV = 0.28ET – 7.72 PMV= 3.57
Jun to Sept and Dec to
Hu et al., 2006 Wuhan, China HS + CS FR + CS + HS TSV = 0.13ET – 2.93 7.7 ET
Feb
Buratti & Perugia, Terni, Nov to Dec 2004, Feb,
University HS + CS HS + CS PMV = 0.16Top – 3.31 7.69
Ricciardi, 2009 Pavia and Italy Mar & May 2005
Mishra &
Kharagpur, India HS + CS FR + CS Aug to Oct 2013 TSV = 0.14Top – 3.72 7.14
Ramgopal, 2015
Mara, My; Jp: Feb to Mar 2013; My: TSVcl = 0.33Top – 8.8; My: 3.03;
Zaki et al., 2017 HS + CS FR + CS
Kyushu, Jp My: Mar to May 2013 Jp: TSVcl = 0.43Top – 11.2 Jp: 2.33
NV: Naturally ventilated; CS: Cooling system; HS: Heating system; EC: Evaporative cooling; ET: Effective temperature; Top: Operative temperature; TSV: Thermal
sensation vote; TSVm: Mean thermal sensation vote; PMV: Predicted mean vote; My: Malaysia; Jp: Japan; AC: Air conditioned (HS + CS)

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Table 5 Proposed adaptive comfort equations by the comfort studies done in primary, secondary and university classrooms

Adaptive comfort
Classroom Reference Country Building type Operation type Survey period
equation

Liang et al., 2012
Primary Huang et al., 2015
Trebilcock et al., 2017
Secondary
Liang et al., 2012
Taichung, Taiwan NV FR Sept 2005 to Feb 2006 Tc = 0.62Tom+ 12.1
Central Taiwan NV FR May, Jun, Sept and Oct 2013 Tc = 0.33Trm + 18.8
Santiago, Chile NV FR Jul-Aug 2013 and Nov -Dec 2014 Tc = 0.834Trm + 7.11
Taichung, Taiwan NV FR Sept 2005 to Feb 2006 Tc= 0.62Tom + 12.1

Yao et al., 2010 Chongqing, China NV FR Mar 2005 to May 2006 Tc = 0.6Tout + 9.85
University Mar to Jun 2009, Sept to Dec
Jung et al., 2011 Busan, South Korea HS + CS HS + CS + FR Tc = 0.42Tom + 16.90
2009
NV: Natural Ventilation; FR: Free running; HS: Heating system; CS: Cooling system; Tom: Outdoor monthly mean temperature; Tc: Comfort temperature; Trm: Running
mean comfort temperature over two days; Tout: Outdoor temperature; AC: Air conditioned (HS + CS)

661


Very interestingly it can be said that this study did not succeed to find the consistency
between the temperature change required to shift one thermal sensation vote in
classrooms at different education stages and under different operation modes.
Table 5 presents the adaptive comfort equations proposed by six studies done in
primary, secondary and university classrooms altogether. Most of the studies have
comparable slope except the study done in Santiago, Chile. This study proposes very steep
slope stating that subjects were very sensitive to temperature change.
4.6 Adaptive comfort equations
In this study, comfort temperatures proposed by different studies are plotted on ASHRAE
55-2013 and CEN 15251-2007 comfort band. To draw this plot, proposed comfort
temperature and daily mean outdoor temperature data are extracted from the selected
research articles. In some research articles where the daily outdoor mean temperature was
not provided, a web source was used to get the data of that location for the study period
(Metoffice, 2017). Figures 8 and 9 present the plots of comfort temperature on ASHRAE -55
and CEN 15251 comfort band (ASHRAE 55, 2013; CEN 15251, 2007; ISO 7730, 2005). On
carrying out regression analysis we get four adaptive comfort equations, one each for
primary, secondary, university classrooms and all classrooms (considering primary,
secondary and university together).
Tcop_pri = 0.28Tout + 17.02 (N = 17; R2 = 0.21) (1)
Tcop_sec = 0.46Tout + 14.33 (N = 16; R2 = 0.75) (2)
Tcop_uni = 0.36Tout + 15.53 (N = 13; R2 = 0.48) (3)
Tcop_all = 0.36Tout + 15.77 (N = 46; R2 = 0.52) (4)
Where Tcop_pri is comfort temperature (operative temperature) in primary school classroom
Tcop_sec is comfort temperature (operative temperature) in secondary school classroom
Tcop_uni is comfort temperature (operative temperature) in university classroom
Tcop_all is comfort temperature (operative temperature) in all classrooms
and Tout is daily mean outdoor temperature
It is interesting to note that student at all the educational stages has a different level
of sensitivity towards outdoor temperature change. Out of all the stages, primary school
students are least sensitive to temperature change. This conclusion is supported by several
studies and primarily Humphreys (Humphreys, 1973; Humphreys, 1977) and Auliciems
(Auliciems, 1969; Auliciems, 1972, Auliciems, 1973; Auliciems, 1975). This happens because
the clothing level selection for this section of students is primarily adult dependent. Out of
three levels, the most sensitive to the outdoor change of temperature are secondary school
students. Because they have limited scope of clothing variation because they have to wear
school uniform throughout the year irrespective of the type of activity they have to perform
based on school curricula (limited scope of clothing related adaptation). University students
show the slope which is very close to ASHRAE standard and CEN standard because the
database used to propose these comfort bands consists of adults subjects and the university
students are in the age bracket of adults. Moreover, college students have maximum liberty
and flexibility out of three educational stages for adaptation as listed in Table 1. When all
comfort temperature of all stage classrooms is plotted together on ASHRAE comfort band it
resulted in equation 4. Figure 10 shows the plot all neutral temperature on ASHRAE comfort

10th Windsor Conference 2018 – Rethinking Comfort - Proceedings 662

band. Regression line shows that the slope is similar to that of ASHRAE standard. But this
picture is quite different to that of what was found when each primary, secondary and
university classroom plotted individually. The range of comfort temperatures is estimated
by finding out lowest and highest reported neutral temperatures in the primary, secondary
and university classrooms in each continent. For this plot operation mode of classrooms are
not considered. Figure 11 is showing the range of comfort temperature for primary,
secondary and university classrooms. It shows that among all the continents, university
classrooms in Asia are showing a highest band of comfort temperatures.

Figure 8 Plot of neutral temperature proposed by Figure 9 Plot of neutral temperature proposed by
studies carried out in primary school, secondary studies carried out in primary school, secondary school
school and university classrooms separately on and university classrooms separately on CEN comfort
ASHRAE comfort bands bands

Figure 10 Plot of neutral temperature proposed by Figure 11 Comfort temperature bandwidth in different
studies carried out in primary school, secondary continents proposed by research articles considered in
school and university classrooms together on this study (total 81 articles)
ASHRAE comfort bands
Indoor air quality consideration is not the prime objective of this study but it was
found that most of the studies reported quite a high level of CO2 concentration (up to 3000
ppm) in the classrooms (Almeida et al, 2015; Stazia et al, 2017). Most of the studies also
pointed out high density and lack of adequate ventilation as the probable reasons for the
high level of CO2 concentration in classrooms (poor indoor air quality) (Almeida et al, 2015;
Stazia et al, 2017).

5 Conclusions and ways forward

This study on thermal comfort in the classroom has led to the following conclusions:

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 • Students in all classrooms at all stages of their education, i.e. primary, secondary and
at university, report feeling comfortable on the cooler side of the thermal sensation
scale. Primary school students are least sensitive to outdoor temperature changes.
• In case of naturally ventilated classrooms, outdoor climatic conditions have a stronger
influence on indoor thermal conditions. Neutral temperatures in NV classrooms are
higher in summer than in winter.
• Studies done in NV/FR classrooms concluded that students in summer months are
more sensitive to change in temperature compared to winter months and their
thermal perception was strongly affected by acclimatization.
• In designing new classrooms and retrofitting old classrooms it is now required to
change the priority of providing an adequate learning environment
• Secondary school and university students are in a position to express their thermal
sensation experiences and are in a better position to make day to day adjustments like
changing clothing level, opening/closing of windows and switch on/off ceiling fans.
These adjustments play a significant role in defining the thermal acceptability in the
NV classrooms.
• In recent publications over last 10-15 years, it can be seen that both PMV-PPD and
adaptive methodology are simultaneously used by researchers with more emphasis on
the adaptive methodology to assess the classrooms thermal environment.
• Some studies able to show the qualitative relationship between IEQ and IAQ on
student academic performance and well-being. Still, this needs more research where
the performance and wellbeing can be quantified. Different authors follow different
methodology leading to difficulty in drawing conclusions. If the methodology is
standardized then it will help in quantifying performance and wellbeing of students in
classrooms.
• In air-conditioned classrooms in the winter season, it was found that students feel
comfortable a lower temperature so heating system temperature can be set low
temperature as it leads to saving of about 10% heating energy consumption without
compromising on thermal comfort.
• Classrooms are functionally quite different compared to other built environments like
offices and residences. Unavailability of classroom related guidelines making designers
and engineers consider classrooms as any other built environment which is failing its
intended purpose of providing an adequate learning environment.
• Naturally ventilated classrooms fair better compared to air-conditioned classrooms as
they have a lower CO2 level. Reason for this is attributed to lower ventilation rate and
high density of students in air-conditioned classrooms.
• A study done by Kruger et al concludes that Nonclassroom factors such as visibility,
acoustics, and furniture's also affected classroom comfort.
• Very interestingly this study did not succeed to find the consistency between the
temperature change required to shift one thermal sensation vote in classrooms at
different levels and under different operation modes. Though a temperature change
of up to 5 °C to shift one sensation vote seems in good agreement.
• Comfort temperatures given by the selected studies are being used to develop
adaptive comfort equations to estimate indoor comfort temperature in primary,
secondary and university classrooms.

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 Number of research articles published related to thermal comfort study in classrooms
are very less compared to thermal comfort study in general. It is seen that the research
trend in terms of publication is increasing in last few years and it is a good sign because it
shows the awareness and growing concern about the student’s performance and well-being
in classrooms. The research gaps mentioned in the introduction section still remains valid
but some progress can be seen in the form of different approach being adopted by
researchers to cover most of the aspects that affects the performance and well-being of
students in the classroom. The biggest limitation is this direction is the number of studies as
often field studies face the challenge of accessibility and reliable data collection. Since it is
very difficult to cover all aspects of comfort in a single study and this limitation can be
overcome by increasing the number of studies thus increasing the possibility to cover most
of the aspects of thermal comfort. Moreover, this study successfully brings forth the
evidence that the new classroom design or refurbishing the existing ones need a separate
set of guidelines or standards because existing comfort standards and design guidelines are
inadequate. Also, it is required to establish a standard methodology and protocol regarding
data collection and instrumentation for studies being conducted in classrooms. Different
methodology and instrumentation make it difficult to combine the data collected in
different studies and analyze them quantitatively linking performance, wellbeing, thermal
comfort.

Acknowledgements
This research is funded by the Japan Society for Promotion of Sciences (JSPS) postdoctoral
research grant.

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