The  Colombian  Tiple:  Sound  Radiation  Patterns  and  
Implications  for  Amplification  and  Recording  
Strategies  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Juan  José  Cardona  Bernat  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Submitted  in  Partial  fulfillment  of  the  requirements  for  the    
Master  in  Music  Technology    
in  the  Department  of  Music  and  Performing  Arts  Professions  
in  the  Steinhardt  School  
 
 
 
 
New  York  University  
Advisor:  Dr.  Agnieszka  Roginska  
 
 
November  20,  2014
  
Acknowledgements  

 
                     The   completion   of   this   project   would   have   not   been   possible   without   the  
invaluable  help  of  family,  friends,  acquaintances  and  even  strangers.  To  my  parents,  
my   deepest   gratitude.   They   are   the   reason   why   I   did   not   give   up   when   doubts  
overwhelmed   me,   and   without   their   tireless   support   and   belief   in   me   none   of   this  
would   have   been   possible.   I   hereby   express   my   eternal   gratefulness   to   my   uncle,  
aunt,  and  cousins  in  Piscataway  for  treating  me  as  one  of  their  own  during  these  two  
years,  and  for  helping  me  every  step  of  the  way.  You  have  shown  me  and  taught  me  
what  family  is  truly  about,  and  that  lesson  is  worth  all  the  sacrifices.  Infinite  thanks  
to   my   friends   Samuel   Nacach,   Kunal   Jathal,   Adriana   Madden   and   James   Burns   for  
their   patience,   academic   support,   company   and   friendship   that   made   this   whole  
experience  so  much  more  valuable  in  every  sense.  Special  thanks  to  the  organizers  
of  the  music  festival  “Mangostino  de  Oro”  in  San  Sebastián  de  Mariquita,  Colombia,  
for   making   my   visit   and   research   so   easygoing   and   pleasant.     To   my   best   friend   in  
Colombia   Jorge   Zárate   for   his   support   in   the   long   and   short   distance,   for   believing   in  
the   value   of   this   work   and   for   his   assistance   and   collaboration.   Without   the  
enthusiasm   and   willingness   to   participate   in   this   study   of   Tiple   player   Diego  
Bahamón   this   work   would   have   certainly   not   been   possible.   To   all   the   instrument  
players   and   sound   engineers   who   dedicated   some   of   their   time   to   share   experiences  
and  opinions  with  me  I  express  my  gratitude.  I  am  also  very  grateful  to  my  advisor  
Dr.   Agnieszka   Roginska   for   having   guided   me   throughout   this   whole   process   and   for  
her   constant   support   and   good   disposition.   Special   thanks   to   the   recording   crew:  
Luca  Bruegger,  Eleni  Maltas,  and  Aggie  H.  Tai,  and  to  Shao-­‐Ting  Sun,  who  was  always  
of  great  assistance  in  the  moments  when  I  felt  lost.  Finally,  thanks  to  Colfuturo  and  
New  York  University  for  their  economic  support,  on  a  more  practical  plane,  none  of  
this  would  have  occurred  without  their  financial  aid.  
 

  2  
 Table  Of  Contents  
 

1.  INTRODUCTION   5  
1.1  A  COUNTRY’S  VOICE   5  
1.2  WHAT  TIPLE  PLAYERS  AND  AUDIO  PROFESSIONALS  HAVE  TO  SAY   7  
1.3  SOUND  AS  A  PHYSICAL  PHENOMENOM   10  
1.4  THE  TIPLE  AS  A  SOUND  SOURCE   11  

2.  HISTORY  AND  CONTEXT   13  

2.1  TIPLE:  DEFINITION  AND  TERM  ORIGIN   13  
2.2  THE  TIPLE:  A  COLOMBIAN  INSTRUMENT   15  
2.3  THE  COLOMBIAN  TIPLE  AS  WE  KNOW  IT  TODAY   17  

3.  LITERATURE  REVIEW   21  
3.1  GENERAL  CONSIDERATIONS   21  
3.2  ON  THE  COLOMBIAN  TIPLE   22  
3.3  ON  SOUND  RADIATION  PATTERNS   24  
3.4  ON  MICROPHONE  PLACEMENT   33  
3.5  OTHER  REMARKS   35  

4.  METHODOLOGY   37  
4.1  OVERVIEW   37  
4.2  ON  THE  SPECIFICS  OF  THE  METHODOLOGY   38  
4.3  EQUIPMENT  CALIBRATION   43  
4.4  OTHER  EQUIPMENT  AND  SIGNAL  FLOW   45  

5.  TIPLE’S  SOUND  RADIATION   47  

5.1  DATA  SELECTION   47  
5.2  ANALYSIS  TOOLS   48  
5.3  OBSERVATIONS  AND  PRACTICAL  IMPLICATIONS   50  

6.  CONCLUSIONS  AND  FUTURE  WORK   61  

6.1  CONCLUSIONS   61  
6.2  FUTURE  WORK   63  

REFERENCES   65  

APPENDIX:  SOUND  RADIATION  PLOTS   68  

 
 
 

  3  
  
 
 

“In  that  fragile  wooden  box,  with  a  female  

waist  and  corn  violin  anatomy,  lies  the  

emotional  endeavor  of  an  invincible  race.  

Of  a  nation  born  for  greatness,  conquest,  

and  triumph”  

(Robledo  Ortiz,  as  cited  in  Puerta  Zuluaga,  1988)  

  4  
  

1.  INTRODUCTION  
 
 
1.1  A  COUNTRY’S  VOICE  
 
 

Folkloric  music  and  instruments  are  often  paralleled  with  a  culture’s  voice  

and  tone  quality.  They  possess  such  a  peculiar  and  distinctive  sound  that  when  

experienced,   they   inevitably   transport   the   listener   to   the   native   regions   of   the  

music.     Certainly,   this   space-­‐travel   capacity   could   be   attributed   to   the   lack   of  

mass   popularity   of   folkloric   instrumentation,   which   causes   a   particular   set   of  

individuals   to   experience   a   strong   territorial   association   of   evocative   nature  

when  exposed  to  their  sounds.  On  the  other  hand,  mainstream  instruments  that  

are   used   worldwide   for   different   music   genres   and   across   cultures   do   not  

provoke  the  same  sense  of  belonging.  One  could  think  that  these  circumstances  

are  beneficial  for  the  exaltation  and  preservation  of  folklore  musical  instruments  

as   well   as   to   the   constant   renovation   of   their   repertoire.   Unfortunately,   reality  

shows  a  completely  opposite  scenario.    

Music   as   a   cultural   manifestation   has   not   escaped   the   effects   of  

globalization,  and  not  unlike  the  case  of  other  aspects  of  society,  the  tendency  is  

towards   the   homogenization   of   musical   taste   driven   by   the   expansion   of   musical  

markets,   rather   than   on   the   diversification   and   differentiation   of   singular  

cultural  musical  expressions.  Under  these  conditions,  it  is  becoming  more  rare  to  

  5  
see   young   people   from   new   generations   enthusiastic   about   learning   to   play  

traditional   instruments,   renewing   their   repertoire,   or   even   attempting   to  

introduce  them  and  adapt  them  to  more  modern  musical  contexts.  

Social   dynamics   as   the   above   described   are   even   more   accentuated   in  

developing  countries  like  Colombia,  which  in  the  great  globalization  scheme  act  

more   as   culture   “absorbers”   than   as   culture   “exporters”   (Vargas   Llosa,   2000).  

Young   generations   are   more   likely   to   be   interested   in   emulating   what   foreign  

music   models   dictate   than   in   experimenting   with,   and   promoting   their   own  

cultural  products.    

Under   these   circumstances,   the   work   presented   in   this   thesis   gains  

relevance  in  that  it  uses  modern  technological  means  to  study  the  behavior  of  a  

Colombian   traditional   folklore   instrument,   the   Tiple,   which   has   been  

progressively   pushed   out   of   musical   circles.   The   Colombian   Tiple   is,   a   string  

instrument,   considered   the   national   instrument   and   declared   as   an   artistic  

heritage  by  the  Colombian  senate  (Saldarriaga,  2006).    

The   hope   is   that   the   insight   gained   through   this   research   will   become  

useful   information   for   professionals   working   in   the   fields   of   music   production,  

recording  and  live  sound  of  or  applied  to  Colombian  Tiple  music.  Furthermore,  as  

one  of  the  first  technical  research  papers  on  the  subject,  this  document  will  serve  

as  a  means  to  stimulate  interest  in  the  instrument  as  well  as  become  a  valuable  

addition  to  the  world’s  sounds  palette.  

 
  6  
1.2  WHAT  TIPLE  PLAYERS  AND  AUDIO  PROFESSIONALS  HAVE  TO  SAY  
 

To  properly  evaluate,  research  and  understand  the  significance  and  effects  

of  the  instrument,  it  was  imperative  to  observe  and  survey  the  current  technical  

practices   in   relation   to   the   Tiple,   and   document   the   general   opinion   on   those  

topics,   as   experienced   by   those   directly   involved.     I   immersed   myself   in   its  

musical  scene  and  spoke  to  Tiple  professionals  with  experience  both  as  players  

and   engineers.   I   traveled   to   the   Colombian   town   of   San   Sebastián   de   Mariquita  

for   the   weekend   starting   on   Friday   August   the   15th   and   ending   Sunday   August  

the  17th  of  2014.  During  those  days,  the  National  Music  Festival  “Mangostino  de  

Oro”,  which  features  Colombian  traditional  music  and  showcases  the  Colombian  

Tiple,   was   held.   Throughout   the   events   of   the   festival,   I   had   the   invaluable  

opportunity   of   meeting   and   sharing   opinions   with   some   of   the   most   experienced  

and   well-­‐regarded   performers   of   the   Colombian   Tiple,   as   well   as   with   the  

engineers  working  on  site.    

 
                                     Figure  1.1:  Tiple  soloist  concert  during  the  2014  “Mangostino  de  Oro”  music  festival.  

  7  
  

When   asked   their   opinion   on   the   current   amplification   and/or   recording  

practices  applied  to  the  Colombian  Tiple,  most  performers  seemed  to  agree  that  

engineers  lacked  specific  technical  knowledge  on  the  behavior  of  the  instrument,  

stating   their   work   as   “too   empirical   and   not   specialized”.   In   the   performers’  

opinion,   “engineers   fail   to   recognize   the   different   sound   profiles   that   the   Tiple  

produces  when  used  for  different  musical  purposes  (accompaniment,  soloist,  or  

melodic)  and  apply  the  same  strategies  indistinctively”.  There  is  the  feeling  that  

the   true   sound   footprint   of   the   Tiple   is   never   accurately   captured,   neither  

reproduced.  

But   what   exactly   is   this   sound   footprint   they   talk   about?   How   can   it   be  

described   with   words,   if   even   possible?   When   asked   about   this,   performers  

struggled   to   put   in   words   the   sound   that   they’ve   been   hearing,   molding,   and  

perfecting   for   years.   But   despite   the   difficulty,   some   general   patterns   could   be  

extracted   from   their   answers.   They   all   seem   to   agree   on   the   fact   that   the  

distinctive   trait   of   the   Tiple’s  sound   lies   on   its   high   range,   on   its   rich   harmonic  

content,   and   on   the   metallic   character   of   the   sound   imposed   by   the   strings’  

material   (Tiple’s   strings   are   made   of   steel   and   copper).   According   to   one   very  

renowned  Tiple  performer  and  researcher,  “in  the  amplification  and  recording  of  

the   Colombian   Tiple   it   is   the   highest-­‐pitched   sounds   which   should   always   be  

highlighted   given   that,   by   definition,   they   constitute   the   instrument’s   soul”.   A  

commonplace  in  the  collective  responses  was  the  belief  that  in  order  to  capture  

the   true   beauty   and   expressive   quality   of   the   Tiple   it   is   necessary   to   find   the  

  8  
perfect   balance   between   the   low,   mid,   and   high   range   of   the   sound,   but   always  

featuring  and  giving  prominence  to  the  high  range,  which  makes  it  unique.  

On   the   other   hand,   and   probably   as   a   perfect   match   to   the   opinions   of   their  

counterparts,  the  engineers  working  on  site  did  not  have  many  details  to  share.  

When   questioned   about   their   approach   to   the   amplification   of   the   instrument,  

they   failed   to   provide   any   kind   of   information   that   was   specifically   related   to   the  

behavior   of   the   Tiple.   No   particular   decision   in   microphone   selection   or  

placement  was  described  to  account  for  the  peculiarities  of  the  instrument,  and  

they   just   looked   to   be   following   the   general   procedures   applied   to   guitars   and  

instruments   alike.   Only   one   technician   mentioned   using   some   specific   signal  

post-­‐processing   like   equalization   and   occasionally   some   compression   to  

highlight   the   Tiple’s   eccentricities.   It   is   true,   however,   that   the   lack   of  

thoroughness  in  the  equipment  selection  process  could  have  been  determined  by  

the  narrowness  of  the  range  of  possibilities.    Nonetheless,  it  is  important  to  say  

that  in  no  way  what  has  been  previously  exposed  is  meant  to  discredit  the  work  

of  the  engineers,  which  was  indeed  professional  and  effective.  It  is  simply  a  way  

of   demonstrating   that   the   technical   approach   to   the   Colombian   Tiple,   in   what  

might   be   the   most   important   venue   for   it   at   the   moment,   is   not   sufficiently  

backed  up  by  scientific  knowledge.  

 
 
 

  9  
1.3  SOUND  AS  A  PHYSICAL  PHENOMENOM    
 

The   experience   of   sound   by   humans   is   a   result   from   the   interactions   of  

various  physical  phenomena  that  culminate  in  our  brains’  interpretation  of  such  

events,  and  ultimately,  our  perception.  A  sound  event  is  triggered  whenever  the  

stationary  pressure  of  the  air  surrounding  us  is  altered  by  means  of  a  vibrating  

element   that   forces   air   particles   to   momentarily   displace.   Such   displacements  

cause   what   is   known   as   zones   of   compression   (higher   than   the   regular   air  

pressure)   and   rarefaction   (lower   than   regular   air   pressure).   Although   particles  

themselves  do  not  travel  (their  average  position  in  space  remains  constant),  the  

compression   and   rarefaction   pattern   does,   and   it   travels   through   the  

transporting   medium   at   a   constant   speed   (speed   of   sound)   in   the   form   of  

longitudinal  pressure  waves,  which  eventually  reach  the  listeners’  eardrums.    

Each   individual   sound   event   possesses   a   series   of   differentiating  

characteristics:   the   frequency   (amount   of   occurrences   of   the   pressure  

differences  cycle  in  a  certain  amount  of  time),  the  period  (amount  of  time  it  takes  

a   single   particle   to   complete   1   full   motion   cycle),   the   amplitude   (amount   of  

displacement   of   the   affected   particles),   and   the   wavelength   (distance   between  

two  identical  adjacent  points  in  a  wave).  

As  soon  as  a  pressure  wave  hits  the  eardrum,  our  auditory  system  sets  in  

motion   a   series   of   processes   intended   to   transform   the   mechanical   stimuli   into  

an   electrical   signal   for   the   human   brain   to   understand.   The   interpretation   of  

  10  
sound   events   by   our   brains   is   no   less   important,   but   it   belongs   to   the   realm   of  

psychoacoustics,  and  it  is  beyond  the  scope  of  this  project.  

1.4  THE  TIPLE  AS  A  SOUND  SOURCE  

 

Musical   instruments   are   examples   of   vibrating   elements   that   set   off   the  

above-­‐described  process.  String  instruments,  the  subcategory  to  which  the  Tiple  

belongs,   agitate   the   propagation   medium   by   means   of   their   resonant   bodies  

(Rossing,   Moore,   &   Wheeler,   2001).   Even   though   the   strings   are   the   direct  

vibration  mechanism,  they  can  only  radiate  a  small  amount  of  energy  due  to  their  

small   volume   and   surface.   In   order   to   increase   the   efficiency,   the   strings   transfer  

their   vibrational   motion   to   the   instrument’s   body   via   the   bridge,   affecting   a  

larger   air   amount   and   consequently   producing   a   louder   sound.   The   acoustical  

interaction  of  different  parts  of  a  Tiple,  namely  the  top  plate,  back  plate,  the  ribs  

and   the   air   cavity,   is   defined   as   a   system   of   coupled   vibrators   (Rossing,   2010).  

This  system,  however,  behaves  differently  at  different  frequencies.  While  in  the  

low   frequency   range   the   coupled   system   comprises   the   top   and   back   plates,  

along   with   the   ribs   and   the   air   cavity,   at   high   frequencies   solely   the   top   plate  

radiates  most  of  the  sound.  The  diagram  below  illustrates  such  behavior:  

  11  
  
                       Figure  1.2:  Schematic  of  the  behavior  of  the  guitar  at  different  frequencies.  (Rossing,  2010,  pg.  20).  

Taking  into  account  that  the  form  of  the  Tiple  is  not  homogenous  at  every  

single   point   from   where   sound   is   radiated,   one   can   expect   to   encounter  

differences   in   the   way   sound   propagates   and   interacts   with   the   environment  

around  the  instrument.  Such  differences,  which  are  expected  to  be  both  spectral  

and   intensity-­‐based,   are   of   special   interest   to   any   individual   interested   in   the  

field   of   audio.   Nonetheless,   the   approach   to   this   type   of   information   can   be  

purely   scientific,   or   factual,   as   it   can   be   practical   and   meaningful   for   real   life  

purposes   and   applications.   The   latter   is   the   case   of   audio   engineers   working   in  

real  world  scenarios.  Information  describing  the  radiation  pattern  of  a  particular  

instrument   is   useful   to   audio   engineers   to   the   extent   that   it   allows   them   to   place  

a   sound-­‐capturing   device,   specifically   a   microphone,   through   an   informed   and  

conscious   process,   rather   than   based   on   chance   or   experience-­‐based   intuition.  

This   is   not   to   say,   that   experience-­‐based   intuition   is   to   be   disregarded   because   it  

is   irrelevant;   it   only   means   that   it   can   be   complemented   with   objective   data   to  

achieve  more  precise  results  with  greater  efficiency.    

  12  
  

2.  HISTORY  AND  CONTEXT  

 

2.1  TIPLE:  DEFINITION  AND  TERM  ORIGIN  

 

The   word   Tiple   has   multiple   definitions   in   the   Real   Academy   for   the  

Spanish  Language’s  Dictionary.  While  some  of  them  are  clearly  unrelated  to  any  

musical   aspect,   there   are   as   many   as   four   definitions   that   denote   some   musical  

characteristic.   The   word   Tiple   is   commonly   used   nowadays   in   Spain   to   specify  

the   highest-­‐pitched   human   voice,   usually   associated   with   women   or   children  

(Spanish   Language   Real   Academy’s   Dictionary,   2012,   Tiple   definition,   para.   1).  

Furthermore,   Tiple   is   also   used   to   specify   an   individual,   who   possesses   such   a  

voice.  There  is,  however,  one  definition  that  is  more  closely  related  to  the  object  

of   study   of   this   thesis,   and   it   reads:   “Small   guitar   of   high-­‐pitched   voices”.   It   is  

undoubtedly   the   most   relevant   and   accurate   description   of   the   studied  

instrument,   but   it   still   lacks   precision,   detail   and   context,   particularly   given   its  

national   symbolism.     Nonetheless,   despite   the   numerous   meanings,   the   word  

Tiple   describes   a   high-­‐pitched   sound,   vocal   or   instrumental,   and   the   voice   or  

instrument  that  emits  it.  

                     The  origins  of  the  word  Tiple  can  be  traced  back  to  the  12th  century,  when  

polyphony  was  reaching  its  peak  development  manifested  through  the  works  of  

French   composers   Léonin   and   Pérotin   (Burkholder,   Grout,   &   Palisca,   2014).   As  

part   of   such   development,   different   voices   were   being   added   to   the   already  

  13  
customary   primum   or   tenor   of   monophonic   pieces,   namely   the   duplum   and  

triplum   (Voices   that   accompanied   the   tenor   or   “Cantus   Firmus”   but   that   were  

higher   in   pitch,   according   to   their   sequential   naming).     The   triplum,   which  

carried  the  high  notes,  was  also  called  superius,  which  later  evolved  into  soprano.  

Triplum,  in  turn,  turned  into  treble  in  English  and  it  is  still  in  use,  and  for  the  case  

of  Spanish  and  Portuguese,  the  word  triplum  came  to  be  triple  first,  and  it  later  

settled  for  Tiple  (Puerta  Zuluaga,  1988).  

                     The   term   Tiple   is   widely   mentioned   in   various   literature   references   from  

the   Spanish   Golden   Age   by   renowned   writers   such   as   Miguel   de   Cervantes  

Saavedra,   as   well   as   in   some   texts   and   documents   narrating   the   events   that  

occurred  during  the  expeditions  in  the  New  World  (America/Colombia):  

“Coming   from   upriver,   we   saw   four   canoes   filled   with  

Indians   who   wanted   to   see   and   claim   the   land,   and,   as   soon  
as   they   saw   us,   they   hastily   turned   around,   drawing   their  
weapons,  in  such  a  way  that  in  less  than  a  half  hour,  from  
the  town  we  could  hear  drumming  calling  the  land,  because  
you   could   hear   it   from   far   away,   and   they   were   so   well  
harmonized,   that   they   had   their   own   contra,   tenor   and  
tiple”  (Carvajal,  1972,  as  cited  in  Puerta  Zuluaga,  1988)  
 

Clearly  during  the  16th  century  the  term  Tiple  was  already  of  common  use  

both   in   Spain   and   the   New   World,   particularly   in   Colombia.   However,   up   until  

then,   the   term   was   primarily   used   to   denote   high-­‐pitched   voices,   or   less  

commonly  used  instruments,  but  never  to  describe  a  particular  instrument  with  a  

given  set  of  characteristics.  It  is  not  until  the  18th  century,  1754,  that  the  Tiple  is  

mentioned  as  a  separate  instrument  in  a  guitar  studying  method  written  by  Pablo  

Minguet   (Puerta   Zuluaga,   1988).   However,   the   Tiple   he   mentions   is   a   smaller  

  14  
version  of  the  Spanish  guitar  of  5  courses,  not  yet  the  instrument  that  has  become  

a  Colombian  national  patrimony.  

2.2  THE  TIPLE:  A  COLOMBIAN  INSTRUMENT  

 

The  Colombian   Tiple,  as  we  know  it  today,  is  a  20th  century  creole  creation  

derived   from   the   Spanish   vihuelas 1  and   guitars.   It   is   a   string   instrument  

displaying  a  form  factor  almost  identical  to  that  of  classical  guitars,  but  of  smaller  

dimensions.    

The   Tiple   served   as   a   catalyst   in   the   construction   of   a   national   identity  

during   the   independence   battles   carried   out   throughout   the   first   quarter   of   the  

19th   century.   In   fact,   one   of   the   first   well-­‐versed   interpreters   of   the  Tiple   was   a  

national  hero  from  the  independence  struggles,  general  Francisco  José  de  Paula  

Santander  (Puerta  Zuluaga,  1988).  The  instrument  and  the  music  played  with  it,  

acted   as   a   symbol   of   alienation   and   authenticity   that   contrasted   with   the  

traditions   imposed   by   the   conquerors,   and   as   such,   it   intensified   the  

independence   ideals.   Yet,   despite   its   recognition   as   an   independent   instrument  

at  the  beginning  of  the  19th  century,  it’s  only  halfway  through  that  century  that  

the  word  Tiple  is  directly  associated  with  the  instrument  we  know  today,  and  the  

object  of  study  of  this  thesis.  

                                                                                                               
1  Vihuela  is  a  guitar-­‐shaped  string  instrument  from  15th  and  16th  century  in  Spain,  Portugal  and  
Italy,  usually  with  six  doubled  strings  (Bader,  2012).    
  15  
 In   1845   the   first   portrayal   of   a   Colombian  Tiple   in   the   national   context   is  

documented.   Ironically,   the   author   of   this   first   watercolor   painting   of   the  

instrument  is  not  a  creole,  but  a  British  diplomat  and  painter  named  Edward  W.  

Mark,  who  arrived  in  the  country  in  1843.  His  painting  portrays  a  scene  from  a  

regular  afternoon  in  the  marketplace  of  the  town  of  Guaduas.  A  peasant  stands  in  

the  middle  of  the  scene  holding  and  strumming  what  appears  to  be  a  Tiple.  The  

apparent   reverse   playing   position   is   merely   a   consequence   of   the   player   being  

left-­‐handed.  

 
Figure  2.1:  Edward  Marks  (Painter).  (1845).  Plaza  de  Mercado  de  Guaduas  "Guaduas  Marketplace"  
[Watercolor  Painting],  Retrieved  October  15,  2014,  from:  
http://www.banrepcultural.org/blaavirtual/musica/tiple/7.htm  

                     The   first   learning   methods   specifically   conceived   for   the   Colombian   Tiple  

date   back   to   1868,   when   José   Eleuterio   Suárez   published   his   “Easy   Method   to  

Learn  the  Tiple’s  Tones”.  At  this  point  in  time,  however,  the  Tiple  consisted  of  8  

strings   grouped   in   four   doubled   courses   tuned   like   the   top   4   strings   of   the   guitar  

(D-­‐G-­‐B-­‐E).  Each  course  was  made  up  of  a  thin  steel  string  and  a  thick  bourdon.  

Almost   other   50   years   passed   before   the   final   step   in   the   evolution   of   the  

instrument   took   place.   It   was   by   1915,   beginning   of   the   20th   century,   when   the  

  16  
Colombian  Tiple  as  it  is  known  nowadays  came  to  form.  Another  4  strings  were  

added   to   the   previous   version   (1   per   course)   in   an   effort   to   resolve   the   issues  

caused  by  the  position  of  the  strings  in  the  doubled  courses.  When  the  thin  steel  

string  was  placed  above  the  bourdon,  the  sound  resulted  strident  and  shrill,  and  

when  the  bourdon  was  placed  above  the  thin  steel  string  the  lower  sounds  would  

dominate  the  sonority.  An  extra  thin  steel  string  per  course  was  found  to  be  an  

optimal   solution   for   the   exposed   problem,   and   the   Tiple  as   we   know   it   today   had  

finally  come  to  form.  

2.3  THE  COLOMBIAN  TIPLE  AS  WE  KNOW  IT  TODAY  

 

The   Colombian   Tiple   is   a   string   instrument   classified   under   the   plucked  

strings   subcategory   suggested   by   Thomas   D.   Rossing   in   The   Science   of   String  

Instruments   (2010).   Even   though   Rossing   understandably   fails   to   mention   and  

examine   the   Colombian  Tiple   per   se,   it   is   clear   that   if   he   had   done   so,   it   would  

have  been  included  in  the  plucked  strings  subcategory,  both  because  of  its  close  

relationship   with   classical   acoustic   guitars   and   because   it   is   evidently   not   part   of  

either   the   bowed   strings   or   the   hammered   strings   subcategory.   The   Colombian  

Tiple   is   generally   plucked   or   strummed   using   the   fingertips,   but   it   can   also   be  

played  using  a  plectrum.  The  most  traditional  players  of  the  instrument  usually  

use  an  old  razorblade  as  an  alternative  to  the  plectrum.  

                     The  Tiple  consists  of  twelve  (12)  metallic  strings  grouped  in  four  (4)  tripled  

courses,   which   are   stretched   along   the   neck,   which   is   in   turn   subdivided   in   frets.  

The   strings   connect   the   mechanical   pegbox   located   in   the   head,   with   the  
  17  
instrument’s   bridge   located   in   the   top   plate.   The   instrument’s   box   is   flat  

bottomed,  and  the  top  plate  and  back  plate  are  assembled  together  via  the  ribs.  

The   first   course   of   strings   is   tuned   E4   (329.6   Hz),   while   the   other   three   (3)  

courses   consist   of   a   pair   of   “requintillos”   surrounding   the   “entorchado”.   This  

translates   into   two   (2)   lateral   steel   strings   tuned   to   the   same   frequency,   and   one  

(1)  central  wound  copper  string  or  “entorchado”  tuned  one  (1)  octave  lower  than  

the   lateral   strings   or   “requintillos”.   The   second   course   of   strings   is   therefore  

tuned   B4   (493.8   Hz)   for   the   “requintillos”,   and   B3   (246.9   Hz)   for   the  

“entorchado”.   The   third   course   is   tuned   G4   (391.9   Hz),   G3   (195.9   Hz),   G4,   and  

finally,   the   fourth   course   is   tuned   D4   (293.6   Hz),   D3   (146.8   Hz),   and   D4.   The  

range  of  string  gauges  goes  from  0.09  to  0.25  inches.  The  average  dimensions  of  

a  modern  Tiple  are  35  inches  long,  12.5  inches  wide,  and  4  inches  deep  between  

front  and  back  plates.  Additionally,  the  vibrating  strings  have  an  average  length  

of   21   inches.   Among   the   different   wood   types   used   in   the   instrument’s  

construction,   some   worth   mentioning   are   pine,   cedar,   ebony,   walnut,   and   spruce  

(Martinez  Acero,  Bustos  Ortiz,  &  Hermida  Cadena,  2009)  .    

The  Tiple  is  primarily  used  as  an  accompaniment  instrument  for  traditional  

folklore   Colombian   rhythms   such   as:   bambucos,   pasillos,   guabinas,   and  

torbellinos.    Despite   its   origins   as   a   peasant   instrument,   the   Tiple   worked   its   way  

up  to  the  highest  spheres  of  the  Colombian  society,  gaining  notoriety,  acceptance,  

and  the  affection  of  a  whole  nation.  The  Tiple  is  part  of  musical  formats  like  duos  

and  trios.  In  the  case  of  duos,  it  is  traditionally  complemented  by  a  guitar,  or  by  a  

guitar   and   a   Colombian  Bandola   in   the   case   of   trios.   During   the   second   half   of   the  

XXth   century,   many   composers   and   instrument   players   like   Pacho   Benavides  
  18  
started  to  experiment  with  the  Tiple  as  a  soloist  instrument,  capable  of  handling  

the  harmonic  accompaniment  while  simultaneously  featuring  the  melodic  theme.  

This  opened  the  door  to  a  whole  new  wave  of  musical  production  that  focused  on  

the  Tiple  and  its  timbre  richness  as  opposed  to  the  secondary  role  to  which  it  had  

been  subjected  up  to  that  moment.  It  could  be  argued  that  the  second  half  of  the  

XXth   century   represented   the   pinnacle   of   the   instrument’s   evolution   and  

popularity,  followed  by  the  period  of  oblivion  in  which  it  is  currently  submerged.  

  19  
    

 
 
Figure  2.2:  Traditional  Colombian  Tiple.  
  Figure  2.3:  Tiple  used  for  this  thesis.  

                                                     

  20  
3.  LITERATURE  REVIEW  
 

3.1  GENERAL  CONSIDERATIONS  

 

The   study   of   sound   radiation   patterns   for   instruments   is   not   in   any   sense   a  

novelty.   Numerous   works   on   the   subject   have   been   published   throughout   the  

years  (Bader,  Münster,  Richter,  &  Timm,  2010;  Bader,  2012;  Boren  &  Roginska,  

2013;  Muddeen  &  Copeland,  2012;  Pichon,  Berge,  &  Chaigne,  1998;  Rodríguez  &  

Guarín-­‐Zapata,  2013;  Suzuki,  1986)  and  it  can  only  be  expected  that  many  more  

are  yet  to  come.  Research  such  as  this  is  culturally  diverse,  in  the  sense  that  there  

will   always   be   instruments   that   haven’t   been   subjected   to   such   studies.  

Furthermore,  even  instruments  that  have  already  been  studied  will  continue  to  

be  tested  in  an  effort  to  increase  the  level  of  accuracy  in  the  description  of  such  

instruments’  sound  radiation  behavior.    

Specifically   for   the   subset   of   string   instruments,   Rossing   emphatically  

states   in   The   Science   of   String   Instruments   (2010),   how   difficult   it   is,   if   not  

impossible,   to   discuss   every   single   string   instruments’   behavior,   even   in   a  

document   as   comprehensive   and   broad-­‐based   as   his.   Furthermore,   when   he  

decides  to  acknowledge  that  his  research  on  acoustic  guitars  has  been  focused  on  

the  classical  guitar   and  the  American  steel-­‐string  folk  guitar,  and  starts  shifting  

his   attention   towards   other   guitar   families   around   the   world,   he   fails   to   even  

mention  the  wide  collection  of  acoustic  “guitars”  that  are  traditional  throughout  

the  South  American  Andean  region.  It  is  expected  then,  not  to  find  any  comment  

or  reference  to  the  Tiple.  In  fact,  it  is  very  difficult  to  find  any  previous  technical  
  21  
document  that  deals  with  the  acoustic  principles  of  the  Tiple  as  a  separate  entity.  

By   virtue   of   the   fact   that   they   are   basically   guitars   of   different   sizes,   many  

findings  and/or  generalizations  regarding  the  classical  guitar  (French  &  Hosler,  

2001)   are   transferrable   to   the   Tiple,   yet   there   still   remain   many   specific  

attributes  that  need  to  be  accounted  for.  

3.2  ON  THE  COLOMBIAN  TIPLE  

 

Despite   the   hardship   to   find   pertinent   academic   precedents,   a   couple   of  

technical  studies  pertaining  to  the  acoustics  of  the  Tiple  have  been  found,  and  are  

presented  here.  It  is  important  to  note  that  these  documents  do  not  discuss  what  

the  work  presented  in  this  thesis  intends  to  develop  and  therefore  they  serve  as  

indirect   sources,   relevant   mostly   because   they   deal   with   the   object   of   study   of  

this  work.    

The  first  document  presents  an  acoustical  analysis  of  the  Tiple  through  the  

acquisition   of   the   instrument’s   impulse   response   using   the   direct   method  

(Martinez   Acero   et   al.,   2009).   The   direct   method   refers   to   the   fact   that   the  

researchers   chose   to   excite   the   instrument’s   bridge   by   means   of   a   transducer  

capable   of   reproducing   a   preconceived   signal,   specifically   a   sine   sweep.   This  

signal   excited   the   bridge,   which   in   turn   transferred   the   vibrations   to   the  

instrument’s  body.  The  generated  sound  field  was  captured  with  a  flat  frequency  

response   microphone   and   the   obtained   signal   was   de-­‐convolved   to   extract   the  

instrument’s  Impulse  Response  (IR).  Although  the  experimental  setup  proved  to  

have  several  flaws,  including  the  non-­‐anechoic  characteristic  of  the  room  where  

the   measurements   took   place   and   the   improper   calibration   of   some   of   the  
  22  
measuring   equipment,   it   was   a   valuable   attempt   to   study   the   acoustics   of   an  

instrument   for   which   no   precedents   existed.   The   study   concludes   that   the  

frequency  response  of  the  Tiple  extends  from  146.83  Hz  (the  lowest  note  it  can  

reproduce,   D3)   all   the   way   up   to   16   KHz,   where   the   last   harmonic   with   a  

significant   SPL   is   displayed.   But   perhaps   the   most   important   conclusion   drawn  

by  the  authors  is  not  exactly  of  a  technical  nature.  In  their  own  words  “This  work  

is  meant  to  be  the  first  step  towards  the  creation  and  innovation  of  tools  in  the  

field   of  music  production  focused   on   folklore   instruments  such  as  the   Colombian  

Tiple”.  

A   second   document,   completed   as   a   bachelor’s   thesis,   presents   the  

development,   construction,   and   acoustical   analysis   of   a   structurally   modified  

Tiple   (Olarte   Rendón,   2012).   From   his   position   as   a   skilled   Tiple   player,   the  

author   decided   to   subject   the   instrument   to   a   series   of   physical   and   design  

modifications  in  an  effort  to  propel  its  evolution  as  a  modern  instrument  capable  

of   producing   an   enhanced   sound   footprint,   and   to   better   feature   its   intrinsic  

characteristics.   He   designed   and   built   a   prototype   of   a   modified   Tiple   and   then  

compared  the  acoustic  qualities  of  his  prototype  with  the  ones  of  the  traditional  

model.   Among   the   changes   the   author   introduced,   one   can   mention   a   slightly  

larger   size   (+   .4   inches),   a   different   bracing   pattern   for   the   top   plate   (fan   bracing  

was   changed   for   crossed   or   ‘X’   bracing),   and   the   elimination   of   one   of   the  

“requintillos”   per   course,   which   resulted   in   an   8-­‐stringed   Tiple   with   doubled  

courses.  Some  of  the  improvements  he  claims  his  prototype  achieves  are  related  

to   the   volume   capacity,   the   tuning   stability,   the   playability   of   the   high   register,  

and  the  definition.  For  example,  the  author  claims  that  his  prototype  achieves  a  
  23  
higher   Helmholtz   resonance   peak,   and   that   in   general   the   low   register   of   his  

model   is   more   filling   and   has   more   body   than   that   of   the   traditional   version  

(attributed  to  the  higher  peaks  his  model  displayed  in  the  60  Hz  to  250  Hz  region  

of   the   spectrum).   Worth   mentioning   too,   are   his   claims   regarding   the   greater  

clarity   and   definition   accomplished   by   his   model,   which   he   attributes   to   the  

higher   peaks   found   in   the   region   between   4   KHz   4.6   KHz   in   comparison   to   the  

traditional  Tiple.  Despite  the  acoustical  improvements,  the  author  acknowledges  

that   the   changes   in   structure   may   well   require   drastic   changes   in   the   playing  

technique   due   to   the   new   physical   dimensions   and   the   reduced   number   of  

strings,   which   could   represent   controversy   and   opposition   amongst  

traditionalists.   Although   the   present   work   focuses   on   the   traditional   version   of  

the  Tiple,  the  previously  described  thesis  contributes  valuable  insight  in  terms  of  

the  experimental  methodology  to  study  the  Tiple.  

3.3  ON  SOUND  RADIATION  PATTERNS  

 

Musical  instruments’  sound  radiation  characteristics  can  be  analyzed  from  

various   perspectives,   and,   for   every   case,   the   use   of   custom-­‐built   microphone  

arrays   is   common.   As   was   stated   earlier,   there   always   exists   the   duality   between  

strictly   scientific   approaches   and   more   musical   application-­‐based   ones   to   the  

acoustics   of   musical   instruments.   To   the   former   belongs   considerable   research  

that   has   focused   on   analyzing   and   accurately   reconstructing   the   pressure   field  

generated  by  the  surface  of  radiating  bodies,  of  which  musical  instruments  could  

be   examples.   Multiple   methods   have   been   developed   to   conduct   such   studies,  

among   which   some   worth   mentioning   are   the   near-­‐field   acoustic   holography  

(NAH)  (Maynard,  Williams,  &  Lee,  1985)  that  uses  angular  spectrums  and  applies  
  24  
Inverse   Fourier   Transform   (IFT)   to   reconstruct   the   pressure   field   at   any   point  

opposite  to  the  array,  the  Helmholtz-­‐least-­‐squares  method  (HELS)  (Wang  &  Wu,  

1997)   that   achieves   the   same   goal   through   superposition   of   spherical   harmonics  

as  solutions  to  the  spherical  Helmholtz  equation,  the  boundary-­‐element-­‐method  

(BEM)   (Bai   &   Chu,   1992)   that   enhances   the   NAH   and   allows   for   the  

reconstruction   of   arbitrarily   shaped   sources,   and   the   more   recently   introduced  

minimum   energy   method   (Bader,   2010)   that   assumes   as   many   monopole  

radiators   as   microphones   in   the   recording   array   and   uses   an   α   parameter   to  

determine   each   monopole’s   directivity.   The   methods   briefly   described   above   are  

very   commonly   used   in   industrial   applications   where   the   structure   of   the  

acoustic   field   of   a   given   sound   source   needs   to   be   studied   in   detail.   Commonly,  

noise   issues   can   be   corrected   through   structural   and   or   geometrical  

modifications   suggested   by   such   analyses   (Magalhaes   &   Tenenbaum,   2004).   As  

relevant   and   interesting   as   all   this   research   is,   the   product   of   such   work   is   not  

directly   transferrable   or   applicable   to   the   job   of   audio   engineers   working   with  

instruments  on  site.  This  is  because  their  job  is  not  to  optimize  the  instrument  as  

a   sound-­‐producing   object,   but   rather   to   capture   the   best   possible   sound   of   an  

already  established  instrument.  

Of   more   interest   to   audio   professionals   working   in   live   sound   or   studio  

recording   scenarios   are   studies   dealing   with   the   way   in   which   different  

frequencies  behave  in  the  space  surrounding  the  instrument,  as  opposed  to  the  

behavior   of   the   vibrating   object’s   surface   itself.   This   is   relevant   mainly   because  

the  timbre  of  an  instrument,  which  depends  on  the  spectral  content,  varies  as  a  

function   of   the   listening   position   (Bartlett,   1981).   With   this   in   mind,   it   is   clear  
  25  
how  the  relative  position  of  a  microphone  (“listener”)  with  respect  to  the  sound  

source  (instrument)  has  a  definitive  effect  on  the  captured  tone  quality.    

A   classic   literary   reference   in   the   field   is   the   book   Acoustics   and   the  

Performance   of   Music   by   Jürgen   Meyer   (2009),   which   presents   a   detailed  

description   of   the   “directional   characteristics”   of   the   traditional   orchestral  

instruments.   Meyer   points   out   that   if   musical   instruments   behaved   like   perfectly  

spherical   sound   sources   that   contracted   and   expanded   identically   in   every  

direction,   then   there   would   be   no   need   to   concern   about   their   directional  

characteristics  with  respect  to  frequency,  because  they  would  behave  as  perfect  

omnidirectional  sources.  This   is   clearly   not   the   case   in   reality,  and  in  fact,  Meyer  

states  that  no  spherical  or  omnidirectional  radiation  occurs  above  500  Hz  for  any  

orchestral   instrument.   Meyer’s   work   on   directional   characteristics   is  

complemented   with   hall   acoustics   to   match   the   two   most   relevant   factors  

affecting   the   performance   of   music.   His   findings,   however,   are   useful   for   a  

broader  number  of  applications,  including  microphone  placement.  

The   task   of   capturing   and   representing   the   directional   radiation  

characteristics  of  an  instrument  can  be  addressed  in  different  ways.  If  one  takes  

into  account  that  musical  instruments  radiate  sound  in  every  possible  direction  

or   in   a   three-­‐dimensional   space,   then   it   would   be   very   easy   to   assert   that   the  

most  adequate  approach  would  be  to  use  a  spherical  microphone  array  to  study  

the  radiation  pattern,  as  such  an  array  is  three-­‐dimensional  on  its  own.  However,  

the   ultimate   goal   is   what   dictates   the   convenience   of   a   certain   methodology.   The  

spherical  microphone  array  approach  was  selected  by  Meyer  himself  (2009),  but  
  26  
also  by  Pollow,  Behler,  &  Masiero  (2009),  and  Pätynen  &  Lokki  (2010)  who  also  

conducted   directivity   pattern   studies   of   the   traditional   symphonic   orchestra  

instruments,   which   do   not   include   the   classical   guitar   or,   even   less,   the   Tiple.  

Both   Pollow   et   al.,   (2009)   and   Pätynen   et   al.,   (2010)   point   out   the   inherent  

difficulty   in   trying   to   determine   the   acoustical   center   of   the   recorded  

instruments   inside   the   array,   and   describe   how   several   remediating   measures  

had   to   be   taken   and   compromises   had   to   be   made   to   avoid   problems   such   as  

spatial   aliasing   caused   by   the   phase   differences   in   the   signal   of   different  

microphones.   Additionally,   the   acoustic   characteristics   of   the   space   where   such  

measurements  were  performed  are  also  a  factor,  as  sound  reflections  might  have  

a   greater   or   lesser   presence   in   the   measurements   according   to   the   acoustic  

character   (anechoic,   semi-­‐anechoic,   or   reverberant)   of   the   selected   space.   In   this  

particular   case,   both   studies’   measurements   were   performed   in   full   anechoic  

rooms.   The   above-­‐mentioned   papers   plot   the   results   of   the   measurements   in  

contrasting  manners.  While  Pollow  et  al.,  (2009)  choose  3D  color  coded  spectral  

graphs   achieved   through  spherical   harmonics   decomposition   interpolation   (see  

figures   3.1   and   3.2),   Pätynen   et   al.,   (2010)   opt   for   2D   graphs   that   individually  

illustrate   different   cross   sections   of   the   recording   sphere   (see   figures   3.3   and  

3.4).   Both   techniques   offer   useful   information   regarding   the   way   different  

frequencies  behave  in  the  three-­‐dimensional  space  surrounding  the  instrument,  

but   again,   the   desired   application   or   intended   use   of   the   collected   data   will  

indicate   the   ultimate   usefulness.   The   following   graphs   are   examples   extracted  

from  the  above-­‐described  works.  

 
  27  
    
Figure  3.1:  Spherical  microphone  array  used  by  Pollow   Figure  3.2:  Corresponding  radiation  pattern  diagrams  used  by  
et  al.  (2009,  pg.  1).   Pollow  et  al.  (2009,  pg.  3).  

   
Figure  3.3:  Radiation  pattern  diagrams  used  by  Pätynen  et   Figure  3.4:  Corresponding  spherical  microphone  array  used  
al.  (2010,  pg.  143).   by  Pätynen  et  al.  (2010,  pg.  140).  

   

 
  28  
  

In   his   Master’s   thesis   project   for   New   York   University,   Andrew   Madden  

(2012)   uses   a   three-­‐dimensional   sampling   strategy   to   capture   the   impulse  

response  of  a  Fender  Deluxe  guitar  amplifier.  The  purpose  of  his  work  was  to  use  

the   recorded   data   to   create   an   auralization   tool   capable   of   allowing   audio  

engineers   to   “listen”   to   what   different   microphone   positions   would   sound   like  

without   having   to   physically   try   them.   Despite   it   being   three-­‐dimensional   in  

nature,  the  recording  setup  is  not  spherical,  and  the  separation  between  capsules  

is   far   denser   than   that   of   the   spherical   setups   previously   described.   He   used   a  

grid-­‐like   approach   consisting   of   three   main   axes   (x,   y,   z)   in   which   any   two  

capsules   were   always   separated   by   the   same   distance   (31.8mm,   except  

diagonally).  Such  an  approach  was  possible  by  successively  placing  a  vertical  line  

array  in  the  multiple  measurement  positions.  Again,  the  intended  application  of  

such   measurements   suggested   the   need   for   such   a   high   density.   In   order   to   build  

an   ideal   auralization   tool,   one   would   theoretically   have   to   sample   every   possible  

location   in   space,   something   that   in   practice   results   impossible.   The   higher   the  

measurement   density,   the   closer   the   tool   can   get   to   this   ideal.   But,   since   the  

achievable   density   has   a   practical   limit,   the   author   used   linear   interpolation   to  

account   for   the   space   in   between   measurement   locations.   To   illustrate   the  

collected  data,  Madden  also  adopts  two-­‐dimensional  color-­‐coded  plots  that  allow  

the   reader   to   easily   assess   the   behavior   of   the   amplifier   at   different   horizontal  

cross   sections   for   different   heights   and   specific   frequencies.   Examples   of   his  

experimental  setup  and  results  diagrams  are  shown  below  for  greater  clarity.  

 
  29  
    
Figure  3.5:  Vertical  line  array  placed  at  a  single   Figure  3.6:  Example  of  obtained  sound  radiation  pattern  at  
measurement  position  (Madden,  2012,  pg.  17).   a  specific  frequency  (650Hz)  and  at  a  specific  horizontal  
cross  section  (6  measurement  Units)  (Madden,  2012,  pg.  23).  
 
 

All   of   the   above   leads   us   to   a   more   simplistic   approach   in   the   study   of   an  

instruments’   sound   radiation   pattern.   After   having   explored   the   possibilities   of  

three-­‐dimensional   recording   systems,   the   following   step   in   simplicity   has   to   be  

the  two-­‐dimensional  case.  Two-­‐dimensional  recordings  allow  for  the  researcher  

to  focus  on  a  particular  sound  radiation   region,  as  opposed  to  the  entire  sound  

field.   For   example,   a   recent   study   exploring   the   influence   of   attack   strength   on  

the   spectral   and   spatial   distribution   of   a   given   note   and   its   harmonics   for   the  

piano  (Roginska,   Mathew,   Anderson,   &   Case,   2013)   uses   a   two-­‐dimensional   grid-­‐

like   array   on   top   of   a   lid-­‐less   piano’s   sounding   board.   In   this   manner   the   authors  

could  measure  and  concentrate  on  the  characteristics  of  interest  in  that  specific  

radiation   area.   A   linear   microphone   array   was   sequentially   placed   at   the  

different   grid   positions   and   the   instrument   was   excited   equally   for   every  

  30  
position,   utilizing   the   MIDI   capabilities   of   the   tested   piano.   The   results   of   the  

measurements  are  then  displayed  in  two-­‐dimensional  plots  resembling  the  grid  

placement   with   respect   to   the   instrument.   The   color-­‐coding   adds   an   extra  

dimension   representing   the   intensity   differences   for   the   specific   harmonics  

throughout  the  measured  surface.  An  example  of  such  plots  is  shown  below  for  

illustration.  

 
Figure  3.7:    Two-­‐dimensional  diagram  showing  the  radiation  intensity  difference  between  two  dynamics  
(ff-­‐pp)  at  the  selected  frequency  (261.63Hz)  (Roginska  et  al.,  2013,  pg.  5).  

Finally,  as  part  of  his  Master’s  thesis  work  for  New  York  University,  Ernesto  

Lucar   (2012)   subjected   the   percussion   instrument   Peruvian   Cajón   to   a   two-­‐

dimensional  sound  radiation  study  focusing  on  the  direction  directly  in  front  of  

the   percussive   surface.   The   percussive   surface   was   in   turn   subdivided   in   9  

identical   four-­‐sided   sub   regions.   Again,   a   linear   microphone   array   was  

sequentially  placed  at  equidistant  positions  to  form  a  uniform  analysis  grid  that  

  31  
was  used  separately  for  each  subdivision.  However,  given  the  acoustic  qualities  

of   the   instrument,   there   was   no   adequate   method   to   repeatedly   and   equally  

excite   it.   As   such,   a   clever   workaround   solution   involving   gravity   as   a   uniform  

and   constant   force   was   detected   and   implemented,   and   the   results   were   once  

again  displayed  in  two-­‐dimensional  plots  simulating  the  position  of  the  grid  with  

respect  to  each  one  of  the  subdivisions  of  the  hitting  surface.  An  extra  dimension  

was   added   to   the   plots   in   the   form   of   color-­‐coding   representing   differences   in  

intensity   for   the   selected   frequencies.   Useful   information   for   both   audio  

engineers  and  musicians  can  be  extracted  from  the  resulting  plots  and  analysis.    

 
Figure  3.8:  Example  of  diagrams  used  to  show  the  radiation  pattern  of  the  peruvian  cajón  at  a  specific  
frequency  band  and  for  3  of  the  subdivisions  (Lucar,  2011,  pg.  45).  

  32  
  
 
 
 
 
3.4  ON  MICROPHONE  PLACEMENT  
 

The   information   extracted   from   a   sound   radiation   study   can   be   directly  

transferred   to   microphone   placement   procedures   with   respect   to   the   studied  

instrument.  The  procedures  generally  applied  to  the  Tiple   are  not  consequential  

of  any  objective  findings  specific  to  the  instrument,  but  rather  mere  imitations  of  

those   applied   to   the   classical   guitar.   Given   the   similarity   between   both  

instruments,  it  is  deemed  appropriate  to  present  the  general  guidelines  used  for  

recording  or  amplifying  an  acoustic  guitar.    

                     The  process  of  positioning  a  microphone  to  record  or  amplify  an  acoustic  

guitar   is   most   commonly   one   of   intuitive   nature.   There   is   no   such   thing   as   a  

manual  with  precise  indications  as  to  where  the  microphone  should  be  located  if  

this  or  that  sound  is  desired.  The  absence  of  such  guides  could  be  attributed  to  

the  fact  that  not  all  acoustic  guitars  are  identical  copies  of  an  original  model,  so  

slight   modifications   in   design   can   have   a   drastic   effect   in   the   acoustical  

properties   of   each   instrument.   Nonetheless,   some   general   characteristics   are  

common   to   all   guitar   versions,   and   this   allows   having   some   general   guidelines   in  

terms   of   microphone   placement.   Bartlett   (1981)   mentions   some   general  

differences   in   the   perceived   tone   of   steel   string   guitars   (same   material   as   the  

  33  
Tiple’s   strings)   in   relation   to   microphone   position.   For   example,   if   the  

microphone   is   placed   on-­‐axis   to   the   sound   hole,   the   captured   sound   will   reveal   a  

boost   in   the   low   end   caused   by   the   Helmholtz   resonance   of   the   air   inside   the  

guitar’s   body,   which   is   generally   in   the   range   between   80Hz   and   100Hz.   When  

the   microphone   is   placed   close   to   the   bridge,   the   mid-­‐bass   frequencies   are  

emphasized  due  to  the  vibrations  of  the  top  plate,  which  are  mainly  in  that  part  

of  the  spectrum  (200Hz  and  above).  Other  experimented  positions  were  in  front  

of   the   neck   where   it   joins   the   body,   or   at   the   player’s   ear   height,   each   with   its  

own   spectral   implications.   The   different   microphone   positions   can   be   observed  

in  figure  3.9,  presented  below.  Generally  speaking,  those  are  the  main  positions  

in   which   guitar-­‐like   instruments   are   picked   up   by   microphones.   Any   other  

position  is  merely  a  combination  of  those  strategies.  

 
Figure  3.9:  Common  microphone  positions  for  guitar  and  respective  perceived  tone  quality.  

  34  
  
 
3.5  OTHER  REMARKS  
 
 
No   significant   literature   was   found   in   which   radiation   patterns   studies  

similar   to   the   ones   exposed   previously   were   performed   for   guitar-­‐like  

instruments   or   specifically   for   acoustic   guitars.   Some   studies   dealing   with   the  

vibrational  properties  of  the  guitar  body  were  found  (Bader,  2012),  but  they  are  

more  closely  related  with  the  first  type  of  sound  radiation  analyses  presented  in  

the   literature   review,   in   which   the   focus   is   placed   in   the   vibrational  

characteristics  of  the  physical  element  itself,  rather  than  on  the  behavior  of  the  

produced   sound   in   the   surrounding   space.   A   short   reference   to   the   radiation  

characteristics   of   the   guitar   is   found   in   The   Science   of   String   Instruments  

(Rossing,   2010).   In   Rossing’s   words   “Sound   radiation   from   a   guitar   varies   with  

direction   and   frequency.   Even   with   sinusoidal   excitation   at   a   single   point,   the  

radiated  soundfield  is  complicated  because  several  different  modes  of  vibration  

may  be  excited  at  the  same  time”.  It  is  precisely  the  goal  of  this  work  to  observe  

how   different   frequencies   behave   in   the   space   in   front   of   the   Tiple,   where  

microphones  are  logically  placed  in  most  cases.  

The   work   presented   in   this   thesis   is   built   upon   all   the   experiences   and  

lessons   extracted   from   the   reviewed   literature.   The   value   of   the   forthcoming  

material   is   not   rooted   on   the   novelty   of   a   procedural   approach   or   an   analysis  

methodology,   but   on   the   simple   fact   that   very   little   research   has   been   conducted  

  35  
on   a   musical   instrument   that   has   an   immeasurable   cultural   value   to   a   set   of  

individuals  (Colombians).      

  36  
  
 
4.  METHODOLOGY  
 

4.1  OVERVIEW  
 
 
Recordings  of  the  Tiple  were  made  at  the  James  L.  Dolan  studio  at  the  New  

York  University  Music  Technology  program.  Sixteen  Earthworks  M30  condenser  

measurement   microphones   with   a   documented   flat   frequency   response   on   all  

capsules   were   used   to   manually   build   a   square   microphone   array   that   was  

placed   in   front   of   the   instrument   and   the   player.   This   microphone   model   is  

specially   designed   for   acoustical   measurement   purposes,   and   it   features   a   flat  

frequency  response  from  5  Hz  to  30  KHz,  and  an  omnidirectional  pickup  pattern.      

The   technical   specifications   of   the   microphones   can   be   reviewed   in   the   figure  

presented   below.   The   player   was   asked   to   play   several   chords,   scales,   and  

musical   passages   that   well   represented   the   instrument’s   range   while   trying   to  

maintain   a   steady   position   with   respect   to   the   array   as   well   as   a   fairly   similar  

sound  level.  Three  takes  of  every  sound  event  were  recorded  so  that  they  could  

be   averaged   later   in   post   processing.   The   process   was   repeated   for   a   couple   of  

different  instrument-­‐array  distances.  

  37  
                                
Figure  4.1:  Technical  specifications  of  the  microphones  used  to  build  the  measurement  array.  Earthworks  
M30,  High  Definition  Microphones.  Retrieved  October  20,  2014,  from:  
http://www.earthworksaudio.com/microphones/m-­‐series/m30/  

4.2  ON  THE  SPECIFICS  OF  THE  METHODOLOGY  

 
 
The   decision   of   using   this   specific   configuration   was   made   after   careful  

considering  of  various  other  options.  One  of  such  alternatives  implied  a  greater  

recording   density   with   capsules   separated   by   as   little   as   1.2   inches   in   custom-­‐

built   line   microphone   arrays   built   by   Sennheiser.   It   was   decided   that   given   the  

dimensions  of  the  instrument’s  radiating  surface,  a  lesser  density  would  still  be  a  

good   approach   to   the  Tiple’s  sound  radiation  study.  Additionally,  by  rejecting  the  

use  of  a  linear  microphone  array,  what  would  have  been  a  crucial  methodological  

deficiency   could   be   avoided.   This   is   because   in   almost   all   of   the   two-­‐dimensional  

  38  
comparable   studies   mentioned   in   the   literature   review   (Lucar,   2011;   Madden,  

2012;  Roginska  et  al.,  2013),  the  instrument  that  was  being  subjected  to  studies  

was   always   in   a   fixed   position   with   respect   to   the   microphone   “array”.   The  

quotation   marks   are   used   here   to   signify   that   such   a   two-­‐dimensional   array  

never  existed  in  reality,  but  was  built  by  sequentially  re-­‐positioning  a  line  array  

in   the   corresponding   locations   to   build   the   desired   grid   over   time.   When   using  

this   approach,   one   has   to   guarantee   that   for   the   different   line   array   positions   the  

instrument   is   identically   excited   each   time,   so   as   to   ensure   the   validity   of   the  

results.  In  the  case  of  the  Tiple,  due  to  the  inherent  complexities  of  the  manner  in  

which   a   string   instrument   is   played,   creating   a   functional   and   constant   source   of  

excitation  would  have  probably  required  the  design  of  a  robotic  arm.  Therefore,  

for  simplicity  purposes,  and  taking  into  account  that  a  lesser  density  would  not  

be  detrimental  to  the  quality  of  the  work,  the  choice  was  to  create  a  16-­‐capsule  

array  that  could  capture  the  instrument’s  excitation  in  a  single  take.  Each  capsule  

in   the   resulting   square   array   was   set   at   a   4-­‐inch   distance   from   one   another,   both  

in  the  horizontal  and  vertical  planes.  

The   microphone   array   was   built   using   four   extended   mic   stands   and  

sixteen  adjustable  mic  holder  clamps  that  were  attached  to  the  outermost  arm  of  

each   stand   (see   figure   4.2).   The   utilized   strategy   was   an   efficient   way   of  

minimizing  the  equipment  bulk  that  would  have  resulted  from  using  a  separate  

mic   stand   for   each   microphone.   Despite   the   efforts,   the   final   appearance   of   the  

array   was   still   quite   voluminous,   but   given   the   circumstances,   the   solution   was  

considered  optimal.  In  order  to  ensure  that  the  capsules  were  perfectly  aligned  

and  separated  by  the  pre-­‐established  distance  (4  inches),  a  paper  grid  with  holes  
  39  
sized   to   match   the   capsules   diameter   was   prefabricated   and   employed   (see  

figure  4.3).  Additionally,  iOS  leveling  applications  were  used  to  align  the  capsules  

both  horizontally  and  vertically  and  to  make  sure  the  whole  array  was  perfectly  

perpendicular  to  the  floor  (see  figure  4.4).  This  portion  of  the  microphone  array  

building  process  proved  to  be  one  of  the  most  challenging.  The  weight  inflicted  

by   each   column   of   microphones   on   their   respective   mic   stand   caused   the   stands’  

arms   to   tilt   forward,   forcing   the   microphones   to   face   slightly   to   the   floor.  

Sandbags   had   to   be   employed   in   the   backside   of   the   stands   to   carefully  

compensate   and   counteract   the   effect   of   the   capsules’   weight   (see   figure   4.5).  

Through   repeated   repositioning   and   testing   with   a   combination   of   an   iOS  

leveling  application  and  a  flat  surface  (ruler),  it  could  be  assured  that  all  capsules  

were  perfectly  aligned  and  parallel  to  the  floor.  

  40  
  
                                   Figure  4.2:  Mic  stands  and  holder  clamps  were  used  to  build  the  microphone  array.  

 
                                                                     Figure  4.3:  Pre-­‐fabricated  paper  grid  used  to  help  align  the  microphone  capsules.  

 
  41  
  
Figure  4.4:  A  ruler  and  an  iOS  leveling  application  were  used  in  combination  to  ensure  the  array  
was  perpendicular  to  the  floor.  

 
Figure  4.5:  Sandbags  were  used  to  prevent  the  array  from  tilting  forward.  

  42  
  

4.3  EQUIPMENT  CALIBRATION  

 

The  set  of  microphones  used  for  the  recordings  were  checked  prior  to  the  

recording   session   to   ensure   equal   frequency   response   and   that   such   response  

was  as  close  to  flat  as  possible.  The  frequency  response  calibration  process  was  

performed   at   the   Music   Technology   program’s   research   lab,   at   New   York  

University.   Pink   noise   was   output   from   a   Genelec   8030B   speaker   at   a   constant  

level,  and  each  capsule  was  sequentially  positioned  at  a  1-­‐meter  distance  on-­‐axis  

to  the  speaker.  Using  the  Blue  Cat  Audio  frequency  spectrum  analyzer  plugin  in  

ProTools,  the  spectrum  of  each  one  of  the  microphones  was  obtained,  saved,  and  

compared   with   that   of   the   first   one   tested,   which   acted   as   the   reference.   No  

substantial  differences  in  the  performance  of  the  16  capsules  were  observed.  The  

fact  that  the  responses  didn’t  look  perfectly  flat  can  be  attributed  to  the  effect  of  

the  acoustics  of  the  space  in  which  the  measurements  were  made,  as  well  as  to  

the   response   of   the   speaker   itself.   Based   on   the   observed   results,   no   deviation  

compensation   or   equalization   strategy   was   deemed   necessary.   The   obtained  

frequency   response   of   microphone   number   1   is   displayed   in   Figure   4.6.   The   x-­‐

axis  represents  frequency  in  a  logarithmic  scale  from  10  Hz  to  22  KHz.  The  y-­‐axis  

displays  the  level  in  DBFS  with  -­‐10  DBFS  increments,  where  the  topmost  position  

stands   for   0   DBFS,   or   what   is   the   same,   the   highest   possible   value   with   the  

available  bit-­‐depth.  

  43  
  
Figure  4.6:  Frequency  response  graph  obtained  for  the  reference  microphone  during  the  calibration  
process.  

Apart   from   the   frequency   response   calibration   described   above,   an   input  

level   calibration   of   the   capsules   was   also   implemented.   This   time,   the   process  

took   place   immediately   before   the   recordings   were   made,   using   the   same  

equipment   used   for   the   recordings   and   in   the   same   physical   location,   specifically  

the   James   L.   Dolan   studio   main   room.   A   Genelec   8250a   was   used   this   time   to  

output  a  pink  noise  signal  sent  through  ProTools  at  a  constant  level  of  -­‐22DBFS.  

Microphone  number  1  was  placed  on-­‐axis  to  the  speaker  at  a  distance  of  1  meter,  

and   an   optimal   signal   level   was   set   for   the   first   recording   channel.   Using   the  

Waves   WLM   level   meter   plugin,   an   input   level   target   of   -­‐17   LUFS     (Loudness  

Units   relative   to   Full   Scale)   was   set.   The   remaining   15   microphones   were  

successively   placed   at   the   same   position   and   were   matched   to   the   target   input    

  44  
(Within  +/-­‐  0.1  LUFS)  level  by  adjusting  the  corresponding  preamp  as  necessary.  

The  setup  for  the  calibration  process  can  be  examined  in  the  picture  below.  

                                         

4.4  OTHER  EQUIPMENT  AND  SIGNAL  FLOW  

 
 
The   recording   session   took   place   on   October   6th,   2014.   After   proper  

calibration,   all   the   microphones   were   placed   in   their   corresponding   position  

within   the   array.   Microphones   were   numbered   1   through   16,   and   in   that   same  

order   they   were   calibrated   and   located   in   the   grid.   Microphones   were   serially  

assigned   positions   in   the   grid.   That   means   that   microphones   1   through   4   formed  

the  first  row  of  the  array,  mics  5  through  8  the  second  row,  and  so  forth  until  the  

4x4   grid   was   completed.   All   microphones   were   connected   to   the   wall   XLR   inputs  

in   the   studio’s   main   room,   and   they   were   patched   to   channels   1-­‐16   of   the   SSL  

Duality   analog   console.   This   set   of   console   channels   uses   the   same   A/D  

converters  (Avid  I/O),  which  allowed  keeping  the  signal  path  conditions  uniform  

for  all  the  microphones.  Phantom  power  was  provided  to  each  individual  capsule  

for   proper   operation.   Recordings   were   made   using   ProTools   HDX   system   at   a  

sampling  rate  of  48KHz  and  with  a  24-­‐bit  bit-­‐depth.  Gobos  and  absorptive  panels  

were  placed  around  the  main  room  in  an  effort  to  limit  the  effect  of  reflections  as  

much   as   possible.   Finally,   a   piano   chair   was   used   as   the   seating   device   for   the  

Tiple  player,  and  the  chair,  rather  than  the  microphone  array  itself,  was  moved  

backwards  to  make  the  recordings  at  the  second  designated  distance.  

  45  
  
Figure  4.7:  Photo  of  the  recording  session.  

  46  
  

5.  TIPLE’S  SOUND  RADIATION    

 
 

5.1  DATA  SELECTION  

 
 
As   mentioned   in   the   methodology   section,   several   different   sound   events  

were   recorded   during   the   session.   Such   recordings   included   a   selected   chord  

played   in   different   ranges   (E   minor   7th   played   in   the   low,   middle,   and   high  

section  of  the  fret  board)  and  different  techniques  (strummed  and  pulsed),  a  G-­‐

Scale   played   in   different   positions,   and   a   musical   passage   that   covered   a  

representative  part  of  the  instrument’s  range.  For  the  following  analysis,  some  of  

the   recorded   sound   events   were   discarded   for   time   constraints,   namely   the  

scales   and   the   musical   passages.   Specific   frequencies   corresponding   to   a   single  

string  type  (either  an  “entorchado”  or  a  pair  of  “Requintillos”),  and  which  were  

known  to  be  present  in  the  performed  chords  were  selected  for  the  analysis.  The  

frequency   selection   process   was   made   such   that   every   variable   was   selected   at  

least  one  time  as  to  make  the  sample  more  comprehensive.  The  variables  were:  

type   of   string   (“Entorchado”   or   “Requintillo”),   chord   position   (low,   mid,   or   high),  

and   string   course   number   (1st   course,   2nd,   3rd   or   4th).   The   following   ten  

frequencies   and   its   three   first   harmonics   were   selected   for   analysis:   146.83   Hz  

(D3),   196   Hz   (G3),   293.66   Hz   (D4),   329.63   Hz   (E4),   392   Hz   (G4),   493.88   Hz   (B4),  

587.33   Hz   (D5),   659.25   (E5),   783.99   (G5),   987.77   (B5).   The   first   and   last  

frequencies   of   the   subset   correspond   to   the   lowest   and   highest   fundamental  

frequencies  recorded  during  the  session.    

  47  
  
 

5.2  ANALYSIS  TOOLS  

   
After   all   the   recordings   were   made   and   properly   edited   (remove  

unnecessary   audio   portions,   set   proper   filenames,   make   different   takes   of   all  

sound   events   of   equal   length),   the   following   step   was   to   analyze   the   collected  

data  and  present  it  in  a  clear  way  that  results  useful  and  easy  to  understand  for  

both   the   academic   and   the   audio   engineering   communities.   For   this   purpose,   the  

data   analysis   and   visualization   software   Matlab   was   used   to   optimize   and  

improve  upon  a  function  originally  developed  by  Andrew  Madden  for  the  study  

of   sound   radiation   patterns   for   previous   works   at   New   York   University.   With   the  

assistance  and  programming  knowledge  of  Kunal  Kiran  Jathal,  master’s  student  

in  Music  Technology  at  New  York  University,  the  algorithm  was  modified  to  suit  

the   specific   needs   of   the   present   study.   The   updated   version   of   the   “radpat.m”  

function   reads   in   the   48   signals   per   sound   event   (16   microphones   x   3   takes)   and  

performs   a   Fourier   Transform   of   each   take   separately   with   an   fft   length   equal   or  

greater   to   the   signals’   sample   length.   Since   each   sound   file   was   essentially   a  

transient   signal   that   starts   with   silence   at   the   beginning   of   the   time   window,  

rises  to  some  maximum,  and  then  decays  again  to  silence  before  the  end  of  the  

time   window,   they   all   satisfy   the   signal’s   periodicity   assumption   of   the   fft,   which  

in   turn   meant   that   no   particular   windowing   function   was   necessary.  

Subsequently,  the  spectrums  of  the  different  takes  are  averaged  and  the  band  of  

interest   (Indicated   by   user   input)   is   extracted   for   plotting.   The   spectral   energy  

diagrams   are   computed   by   default   with   1/12th   of   an   octave   bands   of   the   input  

  48  
frequency  of  interest  or  center  frequency,  its  1st,  2nd,  and  3rd  harmonics  (both  the  

ratio  of  the  bandwidth  and  the  number  of  harmonics  can  be  easily  adjusted  in  the  

code).  The  algorithm  can  be  used  to  plot  the  absolute  dB  differences  between  the  

frequency  of  interest  and  its  first  three  harmonics,  and  it  can  also  be  used  to  plot  

the   relative   differences   in   the   behavior   of   the   fundamental   and   each   harmonic.  

The  latter  is  achieved  by  normalizing  each  frequency  with  respect  to  its  highest  

retrieved  value  post  Fourier  Transform  and  takes  averaging.    

The  resulting  plots  display  the  spectral  energy  at  the  selected  frequencies  

in   a   square-­‐shaped   diagram   that   emulates   the   shape   of   the   microphone   array,  

allowing   the   readers   to   see   a   “sound   photograph”   of   the   frequencies’   behavior   in  

the   sampled   space.   For   ease   of   applicability,   the   graphs   were   flipped   over   the  

vertical   axis   to   be   displayed   as   viewed   from   the   array’s   perspective.   This   is   to  

say,   as   if   one   were   looking   at   the   player   from   the   array’s   position.   In   the  

methodology  section  4.4,  it  was  described  how  the  microphones  were  placed  in  

such   a   manner   that   rows   of   four   microphones   were   filled   serially   and  

microphones   were   numbered   accordingly.   From   the   Tiple   player’s   perspective  

and/or  any  person  standing  in  front  of  the  array,  microphone  number  1  would  

be  located  at  the  top  left  corner  of  the  square  array.  However,  given  the  intended  

application   of   the   information   provided   by   this   work   (sound   engineers   testing  

microphone   placement),   it   is   more   meaningful   to   adopt   the   perspective   of   the  

microphone  array  itself,  as  if  one  were  standing  behind  the  array  looking  at  the  

person   playing   the   instrument.   In   this   case,   microphone   number   1   would   be  

located  in  the  top  right  position  of  the  square,  followed  to  the  left  by  microphone  

number   2   and   so   forth.   Microphone   number   16   is   located   in   the   bottom   left  

  49  
corner   of   the   array   and   of   the   corresponding   plots.   Apart   from   the   sound  

radiation  patterns  themselves,  the  graphs  also  provide  information  regarding  the  

exact  location  (specific  microphone  capsule)  of  the  maximum  and  minimum  dB  

magnitude  values  found  for  each  center  frequency  and  its  harmonics,  as  well  as  

the   absolute   difference   between   those   two   values.   The   color   scale   used   for   the  

whole   set   of   plots   goes   from   -­‐7   dB   to   26   dB,   which   were   respectively   the  

minimum   and   maximum   values   found   for   the   analyzed   frequencies.   It   is  

important  to  emphasize  that  due  to  the  inherent  limitations  of  the  experimental  

setup,   the   patterns’   distribution   with   respect   to   the   instrument’s   front   face   are  

only   generalized   and   not   exact   coordinates.   The   fact   that   the   instrument   might  

have   moved   during   the   recordings   by   small   amounts   on   every   direction   is  

responsible  for  such  limitations  in  precision.  

5.3  OBSERVATIONS  AND  PRACTICAL  IMPLICATIONS  

                     For   the   purpose   of   readily   communicating   the   observations   of   the   Tiple’s  

sound  radiation  plots  presented   in  the  appendix;  the  reader  should  imagine  that  

they   are   divided   in   four   equal   sections   to   which   we   will   refer   as   related   to   the  

cardinal   points.   As   such,   there   will   be   four   quadrants,   each   consisting   of   four  

microphone   capsules   referred   to   as   NW   (North-­‐West),   SW   (South-­‐West),   NE  

(North-­‐East),  and  SE  (South-­‐East).  Each  one  of  these  quadrants  is  associated  with  

its   respective   section   of   the   instrument’s   top   plate   (see   figure   5.1).   Plots   are  

displayed   in   groups   of   4   graphs   corresponding   to   one   of   the   selected  

fundamental  frequencies  and  its  first  3  harmonics  for  a  given  playing  technique  
  50  
(strummed  or  pulsed).  Each  graph  shows  the  spatial  energy  distribution  for  the  

respective  frequency,  and  it  indicates  the  location  of  the  maximum  and  minimum  

found   dB   values,   as   well   as   the   absolute   difference   between   them.   Different  

Intensity   values   are   denoted   by   the   color   bar   presented   below   each   plot.   The   x  

and  y  axis  show  the  length  of  the  array  in  inches  both  horizontally  and  vertically.  

 
Figure  5.1:  Graph  corresponding  to  the  third  harmonic  of  196  Hz  (G3),  divided  in  4  equal  subsections  
referred  to  as  related  to  the  cardinal  points.  

The  very  first  interesting  thing  to  observe  about  the  radiation  plots  is  how  

immediately   apparent   it   is   that   there   is   no   uniformity   in   the   patterns   for   all  

frequencies  and  their  respective  harmonics.  While  some  of  the  patterns  suggest  

the   convergence   of   energy   in   a   single   spot   (see   figure   5.1,   extracted   from  

appendix   figures   A.7(3),   A.3(3)),   some   other   show   the   exact   opposite   behavior  

with  the  higher  concentrations  of  energy  seeming  to  diverge  from  a  given  point  

(see  figure  5.1,  extracted  from  appendix  figures  A.18(3),  A.33(3))  This  suggests  

straight   away   the   complexity   of   the   Tiple’s   radiation   pattern   at   different  

frequencies   and   tangentially   validates   the   work   done.   In   general,   at   lower  

frequencies  or  in  the  fundamental  range  zone  (up  to  1  KHz)  it  is  more  common  to  

  51  
see   patterns   that   imitate   the   behavior   of   a   monopole   radiator   (e.g.   A.11(1),  

A.12(1),  A.15(1,2),  etc.),  with  their  centers  not  always  coinciding  with  the  array’s  

center.  As  frequencies  get  higher,  patterns  are  less  uniform,  and  other  shapes  are  

observed.  

 
Figure  5.2:  Patterns  to  the  right  show  the  convergence  of  energy  while  those  to  the  right  show  divergence  
of  energy.  

Within   the   whole   set   of   analyzed   frequencies   (considering   only  

measurements  at  the  first  distance),  the  highest  levels  of  energy  are  achieved  for  

the  196  Hz  fundamental  frequency,  which  corresponds  to  the  note  of  G3  played  

  52  
on  the  “Entorchado”  of  the  third  course  for  the  strummed  case  (Figure  A.3(1)).  It  

reaches   its   maximum   value   of   26   dB   at   microphone   number   3,   or   what   is   the  

same  the  microphone  located  in  row  1,  column  3.  Up  to  frequencies  in  the  400  Hz  

region  (Both  fundamentals  and  harmonics),  the  maximum  spectral  energy  points  

at  both  distances  are  confined  to  the  upper  or  Northern  portion  of  the  sampled  

space;   that   is,   to   the   top   two   rows   of   microphones   in   the   array.   This   behavior  

starts   to   be   less   predictable   as   frequencies   start   to   go   beyond   this   apparent  

threshold.   Such   conduct   seems   to   insinuate   that   if   seeking   for   a   better   low  

register   then   the   upper   portion   of   the   top   plate   should   be   targeted   when   miking.  

Similarly,   for   frequencies   above   1   KHz   (harmonics   area   of   the   spectrum)   the  

focus   appears   to   shift   to   the   southern   portion   of   the   plots,   which   could   very   well  

serve   as   an   indication   that   to   achieve   a   sound   richer   in   harmonic   content   then  

the  lower  portion  of  the  top  plate  of  the  Tiple  should  be  targeted.  

The   minimum   value   for   a   fundamental   frequency   within   the   set   (Again,  

only  considering  measurements  at  the  first  distance)  was  the  4  dB  displayed  in  

the   plot   for   587.33   Hz   (D5)   (Figure   A.14(1)),   now   corresponding   to   the  

“requintillos”   of   the   third   course   of   strings.   Its   position   corresponds   to  

microphone   number   4,   or   the   most   NW   portion   of   the   graph.   The   overall  

minimum  value  for  the  analyzed  data  was  found  simultaneously  in  various  cases,  

but   only   once   for   the   plots   corresponding   to   the   first   distance.   Plots   for   the  

second  distance  are  not  as  relevant  in  this  sense  because  distance  is  an  obvious  

factor  in  level  drops.  The  level  of  -­‐7  dB  was  present  for  the  second  harmonic  of  

the   587.33   Hz   (D5)   fundamental   frequency   for   the   pulsed   type,   or   what   is   the  

  53  
same,   to   a   frequency   of   1761.99   Hz   (Figure   A.14(3)).   The   location   of   this   value   is  

in  the  NW  portion  of  the  plot,  specifically  at  row  2,  column  4.  

Interestingly,   in   various   cases   the   third   harmonic   of   a   given   fundamental  

frequency  shows  higher  maximum  and  minimum  values  than  those  of  the  second  

harmonic.  This  can  be  clearly  observed  in  the  group  of  plots  corresponding  to  the  

high  range  strummed  chord  centered  at  493.88  Hz,  for  the  first  distance  (Figure  

A.11(3,   4)).   It   could   be   attributed   to   the   fact   that   the   third   harmonic   is   two  

octaves   above   the   fundamental   played   in   the   “requintillos”,   and   three   octaves  

above  the  fundamental  of  the  “entorchado”,  and  thus  it  is  more  reinforced.  Also,  

from   the   total   of   160   plots   presented,   47   locate   the   minimum   value   at  

microphone   number   13,   at   row   4,   column   1   (South-­‐Eastern   most   point   in   the  

plots).  This  tendency  could  be  explained  by  the  fact  that  the  player  used  his  right  

leg   pointing   to   his   left   hand   side   to   support   the   instrument,   and   in   doing   so   he  

created   an   obstruction   for   the   sound   reaching   the   microphone   at   that   position.  

This  is  however  the  natural  circumstances  in  which  Tiple  players  perform,  and  as  

such  it  is  not  considered  an  error,  but  rather  a  close  approximation  to  practical  

circumstances   that   should   be   considered   by   any   professional   when   putting   a  

microphone   to   the   instrument.   Nonetheless,   microphone   number   13   or   the   most  

SE   point   of   the   plots   is   not   exclusively   associated   with   the   minimum   value.   In  

some   cases   the   maximum   value   for   a   given   frequency   is   mapped   to   this   location,  

as  it  is  the  case  for  the  third  harmonic  of  the  plot  for  the  high  range  pulsed  chord  

centered   at   493.88   Hz   (B4)   (Figure   A.32(4)).   There   are   a   total   of   7   such  

occurrences  out  of  160  possible  cases  (all  of  them  in  the  harmonic  range  above  1  

  54  
KHz),   which   is   not   a   statistically   significant   amount   (4.3%),   but   it   still   presents  

some  contrast  to  the  obstruction  effect.  

In  terms  of  absolute  difference  between  the  maximum  and  minimum  values  

within   the   same   plot,   the   maximum   value   for   this   parameter   was   8   dB.   However,  

for   100%   of   the   cases   where   this   value   was   encountered,   the   minimum   value  

was   found   at   microphone   number   13,   which   again   alludes   to   the   obstruction  

peculiarity   previously   described.   Nonetheless,   for   the   cases   where   the   absolute  

difference   is   less   than   8   dB   but   still   in   the   high   value   range,   the   percentages   of  

cases   where   the   minimum   value   corresponds   to   microphone   number   13   starts  

diminishing.   For   an   absolute   difference   of   7   dB   the   percentage   is   already   50%,  

and  for  a  difference  of  6  dB  it  goes  down  to  47.8%.  What  this  shows  is  that  still  

within   the   range   of   the   highest   found   absolute   differences,   not   all   can   be  

explained  by  the  obstruction  factor.  

When  comparing  the  two  types  of  recorded  playing  styles  (Strummed  –vs-­‐  

Pulsed),   the   radiation   patterns   are   widely   similar,   with   variations   mainly  

consisting  in  absolute  levels.  Pulsed  chords  consistently  display  lower  levels  than  

those  of  their  strummed  counterparts  for  corresponding  frequencies.  Still,  there  

is  a  68.7%  rate  of  coincidence  in  the  microphone  location  of  the  maximum  and  

minimum   found   levels   along   the   80   graphs   that   pertain   to   the   first   measured  

distance   (40   graphs   per   type   of   chord).   There   is   no   detectable   pattern   in   the  

coincidence   percentage   in   relation   to   frequency.   As   fundamental   frequencies  

rise,  the  percentage  oscillates  above  and  below  70%,  as  can  be  seen  in  Table  1.  

On   the   other   hand,   for   the   case   of   the   second   measured   distance   an   appealing  
  55  
pattern   is   observed.   The   percentage   of   location   match   drops   pronouncedly   as  

frequency  rises.  For  the  first  measured  frequency  (146.83)  the  match  percentage  

starts   at   75%,   and   from   there   on,   a   steady   drop   is   observed   as   the   analyzed  

frequency   rises,   reaching   a   low   42.5%.   This   behavior   can   be   seen   in   Table   2.   It   is  

only  an  insinuation  that  the  further  away  from  the  instrument  a  microphone  is  

placed,   the   greater   the   variability   in   radiation   patterns   as   a   function   of   the  

playing   style   and   frequency.   It   cannot   be   generalized   though,   because   two  

sampled  distances  are  not  enough  to  make  such  claims,  but  it  is  certainly  worth  

pointing  out.  

Table  1:  Distance  1  (12  Inches)  Maximum  and  Minimum  Locations  

Match  Percentage  Between  Strummed  and  Pulsed  Chords  
Frequency   Cumulative  Ratio  of   Percentage  
Matches  –vs-­‐  Total  
146.83  Hz   6/8   75%  
196  Hz   10/16   62.5%  
293.66  Hz   16/24   66.6%  
329.63  Hz   23/32   71.8%  
392  Hz   30/40   75%  
493.88  Hz   34/48   70.8%  
587.33  Hz   39/56   69.6%  
659.25  Hz   45/64   70.3%  
783.99  Hz   52/72   72.2%  
987.77  Hz   55/80   68.7%  
 

  56  
  

Table  2:  Distance  2  (24  Inches)  Maximum  and  Minimum  Locations  

Match  Percentage  Between  Strummed  and  Pulsed  Chords  
Frequency   Cumulative  Ratio  of   Percentage  
Matches  –vs-­‐  Total    
146.83  Hz   6/8   75%  
196  Hz   12/16   75%  
293.66  Hz   15/24   62.5%  
329.63  Hz   19/32   59.3%  
392  Hz   23/40   57.5%  
493.88  Hz   25/48   52%  
587.33  Hz   29/56   51.8%  
659.25  Hz   32/64   50%  
783.99  Hz   34/72   47.2%  
987.77  Hz   34/80   42.5%  
 

It   is   important   to   note   that   some   of   the   pattern   shapes   appear   more   than  

once  identically  in  the  collection  of  plots.  This  is  due  to  the  octaved  tuning  nature  

of   the   instrument,   which   results   in   the   graphs   for   some   frequencies   that  

originally   were   displayed   as   the   harmonics   of   one   of   the   “entorchados”,   being  

replicated   as   the   fundamental   or   lower   order   harmonic   of   a   “requintillo”   (e.g.  

Figures  A.1(4)  and  A.5(2)).  

   

 Finally,   Table   3   presents   the   distribution   of   the   maximum   found   value  

among   the   16   microphones   that   formed   the   array   along   with   their   percentage  

value,   in   order   from   highest   to   lowest.   Additionally   a   pie   chart   presentation   of  

  57  
the  data  is  provided.  Worth  noticing  is  the  fact  that  only  one  capsule  was  never  

assigned  the  maximum  value  within  the  set  of  160  plots,  specifically  microphone  

number  15,  located  at  row  4,  column  3,  in  the  SW  portion  of  the  graphs.  Unlike  

what   would   have   been   expected   from   what   was   exposed   before,   the   microphone  

affected  by  the  leg  obstruction  was  not  last  in  this  particular  statistic  presented  

in  Table  3.  A  closer  look  to  the  data  provided  by  the  table  shows  how  almost  all  

of  the  microphones  with  highest  percentages  are  located  in  the  West  side  of  the  

plots,   or   more   precisely,   in   the   North-­‐Western   portion.   This   suggests   that   the  

region   located   to   the   Northwest   of   the   instrument’s   bridge   might   be   a   good  

location  for  microphone  placement  

Table  3:  Distribution  Of  The  Maximum  Found  dB  Values  Along  The  
Microphones  Forming  The  Array  
Microphone  Number   Number  of  Occurrences   Percentage  

Mic  4   24   15%  
Mic  8   24   15%  
Mic  3   19   12%  
Mic  11   16   10%  
Mic  7   12   8%  
Mic  12   11   7%  
Mic  16   11   7%  
Mic  6   8   5%  
Mic  9   8   5%  
Mic  10   7   4%  
Mic  13   7   4%  
Mic  1   4   3%  
Mic  14   4   3%  
Mic  5   3   2%  
Mic  2   2   1%  
Mic  15   0   0%  
 
  58  
 Maximum  dB  Value  Distribution  

Mic  15  
Mic  2  
0%  
1%  
Mic  14   Mic  1  
Mic  16  
3%   3%  
7%  
Mic  3  
Mic  13   12%  
4%  

Mic  12  
7%  

Mic  4  
15%  
Mic  11  
10%  

Mic  10   Mic  5  

4%   2%  
Mic  6  
5%  
Mic  9  
5%  
Mic  7  
8%  
Mic  8  
15%  

                     The   information   presented   in   this   sub-­‐section   provides   a   number   of  

general   guidelines   for   sound   engineers   working   with   the   Tiple   than   can   help  

them  make  informed  decisions  regarding  microphone  placement.  Since  the  goal  

of   this   work   was   not   to   supply   absolute   microphone   position   coordinates,   the  

results   exposed   above   are   considered   valuable   input,   as   they   provide   easy   to  

  59  
access  and  readily  available  information  about  the  spatial  energy  distribution  at  

different  frequencies  for  the  sampled  space.  

  60  
  

 
6.  CONCLUSIONS  AND  FUTURE  WORK  
 
6.1  CONCLUSIONS  
                     
 
The  Colombian  national  instrument  Tiple  has  been  subjected  to  a  study  of  

its   sound   radiation   patterns   using   a   custom   built   two-­‐dimensional   microphone  

array   consisting   of   16   omnidirectional   condenser   microphones.   An   E   minor   7th  

chord   (E-­‐G-­‐B-­‐D   that   corresponds   to   the   Tiple’s   open   strings)   was   played   by   a  

Tiple   instrumentalist   in   three   different   fret   positions   (ranges),   two   different  

playing  styles  (strummed  and  pulsed),  and  at  two  different  instrument-­‐to-­‐array  

distances  (12  inches  and  24  inches).  The  recorded  material  was  edited  to  remove  

unnecessary   data   and   to   make   it   uniform   for   post   processing   and   analysis.   A  

matlab  code  was  implemented  to  process  the  edited  audio  clips  and  output  the  

Tiple’s   sound   radiation   plots.   Useful   information   for   the   sound   engineering  

community  has  been  extracted  from  the  resulting  plots.    

The   methodology   used   to   achieve   the   presented   results   proved   to   be  

successful   to   a   certain   degree,   given   the   exposed   limitations.   The   plots   of   the  

radiation   patterns   of   the   Tiple   are   highly   revealing   by   themselves   and   can   be  

used  by  any  person  interested  in  amplifying  or  recording  the  instrument  to  gain  

some   immediate   knowledge   on   the   behavior   of   different   frequencies   in   the  

surrounding  space,  specifically  the  front.    

 
  61  
 A  closer  inspection  of  the  collected  the  information  allowed  the  extraction  

of   some   interesting   information   and   patterns   such   as   the   apparent   differences   in  

radiation  behavior  depending  on  the  playing  style  (Strummed  –vs-­‐  Pulsed)  as  a  

function   of   frequency   and   distance.   Results   suggest   that  at  a  greater   instrument-­‐

to-­‐microphone   distance   pattern   variability   increases   as   a   function   of   rising  

frequency.   Although   generalizations   cannot   yet   be   made   due   to   the   limited  

amount  of  sampled  distances,  it  is  an  insinuation  worth  pointing  out.  

In   relation   to   microphone   placement,   two   main   conclusions   can   be  

mentioned.   First,   if   a   sound   richer   in   harmonic   content   is   desired   (as   is   the  

express  wish  of  several  Tiple  players),  results  seem  to  suggest  that  the  lower  half  

of   the   instrument’s   top   plate   should   be   targeted   when   miking.   On   the   contrary,   if  

a  sound  with  more  lower  frequency  content  is  desired,  the  upper  half  of  the  top  

plate  should  be  targeted  for  miking  purposes.  Second,  if  sound  coloration  is  not  

the   priority   but   sound   level   is   instead,   the   NW   portion   of   the   instrument’s   top  

plate  seems  to  be  the  region  that  concentrates  the  greatest  energy  levels  overall.  

Even   though   the   analysis   was   performed   only   for   an   arbitrarily   subset   of  

frequencies   due   to   time   constraints,   the   developed   analysis   tool   can   be   used   to  

dig   for   any   other   frequency   of   interest,   regardless   of   its   presence   or   not   in   the  

played  chords.  Naturally,  the  results  of  such  an  experiment  are  likely  to  be  less  

informative,  although  the  door  is  kept  open  for  unexpected  discoveries.  

Personally   it   was   immensely   satisfying   to   complete   a   project   that   at   its  

initial   stages   seemed   out   of   my   possibilities.   The   hope   remains   that   this   initial  
  62  
approach   to   the   acoustics   of   the   Colombian  Tiple   will   serve   as   a   springboard   to  

many  more  works  of  added  complexity  and  accuracy,  and  that  the  distribution  of  

this   document   will   encourage   both   musicians   and   audio   engineers   to   be   more  

conscious  about  the  specific  acoustic  qualities  of  our  beloved  instrument.    

6.2  FUTURE  WORK  

 
In   the   future,   this   work   could   be   further   complemented   in   multiple   ways.  

First,  it  would  be  interesting  to  find  a  solution  to  the  problem  of  the  instrument  

movement.   It   would   be   necessary   to   design   a   very   complex   robot   capable   of  

exciting   the   instrument   in   a   constant   fashion   while   at   the   same   time   emulating  

the  human  characteristics  of  the  interactions,  so  as  to  not  end  up  with  a  dataset  

that  is  accurate  in  terms  of  excitation  homogeneity  but  not  representative  of  the  

real   human   touch.   This   would   also   allow   for   the   use   of   sequentially   placed   linear  

microphone   arrays,   which   in   turn   could   provide   more   resolution   for   the  

displayed  radiation  plots.  

Also,  the  study  of  the  Tiple’s  sound  radiation  pattern  needs  not  to  be  limited  

to   the   front   section   or   to   a   bi-­‐dimensional   approach.   As   presented   in   the  

literature   review,   three-­‐dimensional   sound   radiation   patterns   studies   are   also  

possible.   With   such   an   approach,   interesting   data   could   be   provided   regarding  

other   zones   that   could   be   potential   good   spots   for   amplification   or   recordings  

purposes   of   the   Tiple,   especially   around   the   edges   of   the   top   plate,   where   it  

connects  with  the  ribs.  

  63  
 It   would   also   be   interesting   to   make   a   study   that   directly   compares   the  

Tiple   to   the   Classical   Guitar.   If   both   instruments   are   subjected   to   the   same  

measurement  tools  and  conditions  then  their  relative  differences  can  be  pointed  

out  more  clearly.  

Additionally,   a   wider   sample   of   chords   and   notes   could   be   subjected   to  

study   in   order   to   gain   more   insight   about   the   instrument’s   full   spectrum  

behavior.  The  frequencies  selected  for  this  study  were  picked  to  make  the  work  

as   comprehensive   as   possible,   but   some   frequencies   of   interest   could   not   be  

included  in  the  analysis.  

Finally,  the  work  that  has  been  performed  for  the  Tiple  could  be  extended  

to   other   typical   instruments   like   the   Bandola   or   the   Tiple   Requinto,   which   are  

commonly   joined   by   the   Tiple   in   Colombian   music   ensembles.   This   could  

potentially   help   achieve   a   better   balance   between   the   instruments   for   either   live  

sound  or  recording  scenarios.  

  64  
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  67  
 APPENDIX  
 SOUND  RADIATION  PLOTS  
 
DISTANCE  1  (12  Inches)  
Center  Frequency  146.83  Hz  &  Harmonics  
 
 

 
Figure  A.1:  Radiation  Plot  for  146.83  Hz  (D3)  –  Type  “Strummed”  –  Distance  1  (12  Inches)  
 

 
Figure  A.2:  Radiation  Plot  for  146.83  Hz  (D3)  –  Type  “Pulsed”  –  Distance  1  (12  Inches)  
 

  68  
  

 
 
 
DISTANCE  1  (12  Inches)  
Center  Frequency  196  Hz  &  Harmonics  
 
 
 
 

 
Figure  A.3:  Radiation  Plot  for  196  Hz  (G3)  –  Type  “Strummed”  –  Distance  1  (12  Inches)  
 
 

 
Figure  A.4:  Radiation  Plot  for  196  Hz  (G3)  –  Type  “Pulsed”  –  Distance  1  (12  Inches)  
 

  69  
  
 
 
DISTANCE  1  (12  Inches)  
Center  Frequency  293.66  Hz  &  Harmonics  
 
 
 

 
Figure  A.5:  Radiation  Plot  for  293.66  Hz  (D4)  –  Type  “Strummed”  –  Distance  1  (12  Inches)  

 
Figure  A.6:  Radiation  Plot  for  293.66  Hz  (D4)  –  Type  “Pulsed”  –  Distance  1  (12  Inches)  

  70  
  
 
DISTANCE  1  (12  Inches)  
Center  Frequency  329.63  Hz  &  Harmonics  
 
 
 

 
Figure  A.7:  Radiation  Plot  for  329.63  Hz  (E4)  –  Type  “Strummed”  –  Distance  1  (12  Inches)  

 
Figure  A.8:  Radiation  Plot  for  329.63  Hz  (E4)  –  Type  “Pulsed”  –  Distance  1  (12  Inches)  

  71  
  
 
DISTANCE  1  (12  Inches)  
Center  Frequency  392  Hz  &  Harmonics  
 
 
 

 
Figure  A.9:  Radiation  Plot  for  392  Hz  (G4)  –  Type  “Strummed”  –  Distance  1  (12  Inches)  

 
Figure  A.10:  Radiation  Plot  for  392  Hz  (G4)  –  Type  “Pulsed”  –  Distance  1  (12  Inches)  

  72  
  

 
DISTANCE  1  (12  Inches)  
Center  Frequency  493.88  Hz  &  Harmonics  
 
 
 

 
Figure  A.11:  Radiation  Plot  for  493.88  Hz  (B4)  –  Type  “Strummed”  –  Distance  1  (12  Inches)  

 
Figure  A.12:  Radiation  Plot  for  493.88  Hz  (B4)  –  Type  “Pulsed”  –  Distance  1  (12  Inches)  

  73  
  
 
DISTANCE  1  (12  Inches)  
Center  Frequency  587.33  Hz  &  Harmonics  
 
 
 

 
Figure  A.13:  Radiation  Plot  for  587.33  Hz  (D5)  –  Type  “Strummed”  –  Distance  1  (12  Inches)  

 
Figure  A.14:  Radiation  Plot  for  587.33  Hz  (D5)  –  Type  “Pulsed”  –  Distance  1  (12  Inches)  

  74  
  
 
 
DISTANCE  1  (12  Inches)  
Center  Frequency  659.25  Hz  &  Harmonics  
 
 
 

 
Figure  A.15:  Radiation  Plot  for  659.25  Hz  (E5)  –  Type  “Strummed”  –  Distance  1  (12  Inches)  

 
Figure  A.16:  Radiation  Plot  for  659.25  Hz  (E5)  –  Type  “Pulsed”  –  Distance  1  (12  Inches)  

  75  
  
 
 
DISTANCE  1  (12  Inches)  
Center  Frequency  783.99  Hz  &  Harmonics  
 
 
 

 
Figure  A.17:  Radiation  Plot  for  783.99  Hz  (G5)  –  Type  “Strummed”  –  Distance  1  (12  Inches)  

 
Figure  A.18:  Radiation  Plot  for  783.99  Hz  (G5)  –  Type  “Pulsed”  –  Distance  1  (12  Inches)  

  76  
  
 
DISTANCE  1  (12  Inches)  
Center  Frequency  987.77  Hz  &  Harmonics  
 
 
 

 
Figure  A.19:  Radiation  Plot  for  987.77  Hz  (B5)  –  Type  “Strummed”  –  Distance  1  (12  Inches)  

 
Figure  A.20:  Radiation  Plot  for  987.77  Hz  (B5)  –  Type  “Pulsed”  –  Distance  1  (12  Inches)  

  77  
  
 
 
DISTANCE  2  (24  Inches)  
Center  Frequency  146  Hz  &  Harmonics  
 
 
 

 
Figure  A.21:  Radiation  Plot  for  146.83  Hz  (D3)  –  Type  “Strummed”  –  Distance  2  (24  Inches)  

 
Figure  A.22:  Radiation  Plot  for  146.83  Hz  (D3)  –  Type  “Pulsed”  –  Distance  2  (24  Inches)  

  78  
  
 
 
DISTANCE  2  (24  Inches)  
Center  Frequency  196  Hz  &  Harmonics  
 
 
 

 
Figure  A.23:  Radiation  Plot  for  196  Hz  (G3)  –  Type  “Strummed”  –  Distance  2  (24  Inches)  

 
Figure  A.24:  Radiation  Plot  for  196  Hz  (G3)  –  Type  “Pulsed”  –  Distance  2  (24  Inches)  

  79  
  
 
 
DISTANCE  2  (24  Inches)  
Center  Frequency  293.66  Hz  &  Harmonics  
 
 
 

 
Figure  A.25:  Radiation  Plot  for  293.66  Hz  (D4)  –  Type  “Strummed”  –  Distance  2  (24  Inches)  

 
Figure  A.26:  Radiation  Plot  for  293.66  Hz  (D4)  –  Type  “Pulsed”  –  Distance  2  (24  Inches)  

  80  
  
 
 
DISTANCE  2  (24  Inches)  
Center  Frequency  329.63  Hz  &  Harmonics  
 
 
 

 
Figure  A.27:  Radiation  Plot  for  329.63  Hz  (E4)  –  Type  “Strummed”  –  Distance  2  (24  Inches)  

 
Figure  A.28:  Radiation  Plot  for  329.63  Hz  (E4)  –  Type  “Pulsed”  –  Distance  2  (24  Inches)  

  81  
  
 
 
DISTANCE  2  (24  Inches)  
Center  Frequency  392  Hz  &  Harmonics  
 
 
 

 
Figure  A.29:  Radiation  Plot  for  392  Hz  (G4)  –  Type  “Strummed”  –  Distance  2  (24  Inches)  

 
Figure  A.30:  Radiation  Plot  for  392  Hz  (G4)  –  Type  “Pulsed”  –  Distance  2  (24  Inches)  

  82  
  
 
 
DISTANCE  2  (24  Inches)  
Center  Frequency  493.88  Hz  &  Harmonics  
 
 
 

 
Figure  A.31:  Radiation  Plot  for  493.88  Hz  (B4)  –  Type  “Strummed”  –  Distance  2  (24  Inches)  

 
Figure  A.32:  Radiation  Plot  for  493.88  Hz  (B4)  –  Type  “Pulsed”  –  Distance  2  (24  Inches)  

  83  
  
 
 
DISTANCE  2  (24  Inches)  
Center  Frequency  587.33  Hz  &  Harmonics  
 
 
 

 
Figure  A.33:  Radiation  Plot  for  587.33  Hz  (D5)  –  Type  “Strummed”  –  Distance  2  (24  Inches)  

 
Figure  A.34:  Radiation  Plot  for  587.33  Hz  (D5)  –  Type  “Pulsed”  –  Distance  2  (24  Inches)  

  84  
  
 
 
DISTANCE  2  (24  Inches)  
Center  Frequency  659.25  Hz  &  Harmonics  
 
 
 

 
Figure  A.35:  Radiation  Plot  for  659.25  Hz  (E5)  –  Type  “Strummed”  –  Distance  2  (24  Inches)  

 
Figure  A.36:  Radiation  Plot  for  659.25  Hz  (E5)  –  Type  “Pulsed”  –  Distance  2  (24  Inches)  

  85  
  
 
 
DISTANCE  2  (24  Inches)  
Center  Frequency  783.99  Hz  &  Harmonics  
 
 
 

 
Figure  A.37:  Radiation  Plot  for  783.99  Hz  (G5)  –  Type  “Strummed”  –  Distance  2  (24  Inches)  

 
Figure  A.38:  Radiation  Plot  for  783.99  Hz  (G5)  –  Type  “Pulsed”  –  Distance  2  (24  Inches)  

  86  
  
 
 
DISTANCE  2  (24  Inches)  
Center  Frequency  987.77  Hz  &  Harmonics  
 
 
 

 
Figure  A.39:  Radiation  Plot  for  987.77  Hz  (B5)  –  Type  “Strummed”  –  Distance  2  (24  Inches)  

 
Figure  A.40:  Radiation  Plot  for  987.77  Hz  (B5)  –  Type  “Pulsed”  –  Distance  2  (24  Inches)  

  87