TUTORIAL An Introduction to Porosity Jeffrey R. Hook! In principle porosity isa very simple concept but because of the many different ways in which it may be determined it n, in detail, mean many subtly different things. In the vast majority of eases the differences are probably not signifi- cant but the competent petrophysterst needs to be aware ot the differences and when they are important. Frequently the same term is used to mean different things; often dependent ‘on the technical discipline of the user. In particular, the term effective porosity is in widespread use but means different things to different people. This tutorial is intended to provide fan introduction to the basic concepts of porosity. It also reflects the author's opinion as to the most common usages of terms and highlights the differences. A suggestion is made fora terminology that could help to resolve the differences, This discussion of porosity starts by considering the theoretical aspects of porosity for an idealized rock and the differences ina real rock. This is followed by a brief exami- nation of how the porosity of real racks can be measured ‘These aspects will be covered in much greater detail in other tutorials in this series. Fssentially porosity can he deter= ‘mined! in twa ways~ from core analy sary to understand the differences in the techniques and to be aware of the meanings applied to each term as used in each technique sis or lags Tris neces: IDFALIZED ROCKS Porosity is defined as the ratio af the volume of voids (the spaces between the grains) ina rock to the bulk volume (the overall volume of the voids plus the grains) of that rock (Amys et al., 1960) rp 7 where 9 is porosity, Fis void space or pore volume, Vs is bulk volume, and Wis grain volume During deposition a sediment will be laid down with porosity. This is known as primary porosity. For uniform spherical grains there are five idealized arrangements of grains that may be formed—each with a theoretical value of porosity. These arrangements are known as simple cubic, orthorhombic, double nested, face-centered cubic and rhombohedral Figure I shows a cubic packing of uniform spheres of radius,» together with a unit cell for this arrangement, The Fig. 1 Cubic packing of uniform spheres. Manuscript received by the Editor February 18, 2003 and revised manuscript received April 29 2003. 'Molix RDS. A log in this document means a downhole measurement irrespective of the method of conveyance, ©2003 Society of Professional Well Lox Analysts. Al rights reserved. May-June 2008 PETROPHYSICS 208‘unit cell isa cube with sides equal to 2y and hence bulk vol- ume Ory =8r° Within the unit cell as depicted in Figure 1 there are cight (1/8) spheres. in other words a single sphere, so that the grain volume, The porosity is independent of the grain size. Figure 2 shows a rhombohedral packing of uniform spheres that is the mast compact packing. arrangement According to Fraser and Graton (1035) the porosity of this ‘arrangement i 0.260, again independent of the radius of the uuifvian yplrete, For all the idealized arrangements, in this very simple and unrealistic case of uniform spherical grains, porosity is independent of the size of the grains. In real rocks there will be a range of particle sizes and also the grain shape and angularity will vary. When there is 4 range of grain sizes the smaller grains ean fit in the pore Fig. 2 Rhombonedral packina of uniform grains. 206 PETROPHYSICS, spaces between the larger grains and thus reduce the poros- ity as shown in Figure 3 For non-spherical grains the packing will be very differ- ent to those shawn ahowve and, in general, the packing, will bbe much denser and the porosity will be reduced. ‘The idealized packing arrangements considered above ae uo Tikely «9 be present int veal packings eALEpL UE! « localized volume. As burial of the sediment progresses, overburden pressure inereases and the grains will be rear- ranged to a more dense packing thereby reducing porosity Consequently, in real rocks, the arrangement of the igraine will differ considerably from the simple cases di cussed above which may be considered as upper limits on the possible porosity for intergranular rocks. Conversely. higher porosities can be observed in cerain rare eireum- stances where grain bridging occurs or vugs contribute large proportion of the porosity Also, during the process of lithification, porosity will be further reduced by the development of cement and the ‘growth of clay minerals in the pore space. Following depa- sition and during lithification various processes, chemical and physical, will modify this initial porosity. Eventually, as burial continues and the overburden stress imereases, the gram shapes will be altered by pressue disso- lution atthe grain interfaces leading to a reduction in poros- ity. The dissolved material may then be re-deposited within the pore space reducing porasity firther Porosity that is created by these processes, such as disso- lution of feldspar grains oF through dolomitization of ear bomates or fracturing, is known ay secondary putusity Factors controlling porosity are 1) grain shape, 2) grain size distribution (sorting), 3) compaction, 4) cementation, 5) clay, 6) dissolution of grains and 7) fracturing. Fig. 3 Effect of range of grain sizes on pore volume, MaysJone 2009Tutoril: Am Introduction to Porusity RESERVOIR ROCKS, In the evaluation ofa reservoir the pore volume required {or the definition of reserves is that which is available for the storage of oil, gas and water. This volume must be con- nected so that hydrocarbons can flow through the rock and bbe produced (it must also be connected so that the hydrocar- bons could access the pore space in the first place) ‘Connected pore space Diagenetic processes, or the particular morphology of the constituent grains, can cause some pore space to be discon- nected from the majority ofthe pore space. These pores cannot then be accemed by hydrocarbons migrating into a reservoir. The porosity which comprises the whole of the pore space, whether connected or not, is referred to as total porosity. The connected pore space is often referred to as the effective porosity although it may be better described as connected porosity. By definition, this effective porosity ‘must be less than the total porosity. For the majority of reservoirs, particularly sandstone, the difference between this effective (connected) and total porosity is emall. However, in those containing significant quantities of sponge spicules, dolomitised carbonates in which much of the porosity may be composed of vugs, oF oomoldie limestones, the di ences can be large. Connected porosity’ is not necessarily very efficient at transmitting fluids through the formation. For example, vugs can be eonnevted but the eonneeting pore throats may be so small that flow from or through the vug will be difficult, Porosity then can be large but permeability low, Also dead-end pores, ie, pores with a single entry throat such as sponge spicules or ooids, will contribute significant porosity but may be by-passed by flowing fluids ome formations, auch a3 Non-clay pore space Figure 4 shows a representation of a “real” reservoir rock {in whien the matrix is composed ot non-spherical grains composed of. say. quartz and feldspar, and where theve is no nnon-connected pore space. Some of the original pore space 's occupied by clay mineral particles and the remainder 1s filled with water and hydrocarbon. There are thre: of pore water. 1. Associated with the clay particles is an amount of elec. trochemically-bound water (clay-bound water) that is ‘not mobile. he amount of clay bound water held by the clay particles is « function of the salinity of the pore ‘water and the type of clay. with, for example. montmoril- lonite holding considerably more water than kaolinite. Additional waters held in the small pores aud onthe sur= face of the matrix grains by capillary forces. May-June 2008 3. The remainder of the water is free to move. Following the definitions of total and elective porosity as given ahave nnder connected pore space, the class of the pore water is not relevant. However, the electrochemically bound clay water cannot really be considered to be occupy- ing pore space (defined as non-solid material) that comld be available for storage of hydrocarbons. Consequently, when ‘attempting to determine the storage capacity of a reservoir the clay bound water volume should be excluded. This pore volume (total, of, sometimes, connected, porosity less the clay bound water porusity) is alo often referred 10 as “elective porosity.” Producible fluid pore space Furthermore the term “effective porosity” is also some times used to describe the pore volume containing “iree flu- ads.” This excludes capillary held water from the pore vol- hime and the porosity hecomes a property not of the rock alone but also that rock’s height above the hydrocarbon- water contact within the reservoir. MEASUREMENT OF POROSITY Although porosity is a very important parameter in the evaluation of a formation it cannot be measured directly. All the measurcment techniques determine sume ullier (Capillary bound water Free water Fig. 4 typical "teal" reservoir rock PETROPHYSICS. 207Hoa property, whieh then must be converted to reservoir poros- neastirements determine sample volumes in an environment that is not the same as the reservoir. Logs record some property of the formation such as bulk density, which is then related to porosity by some model of too! response, ‘The indirect nature of Une measureanenty eal ty many of the problems with comparisons of porosity When considering the techniques used to determine res- ervoir porosity the inclusion or exclusion of clay bound ‘water volume becomes important as the different measure- ‘ment methods treat it in different ways. ity Core Porosity in eore analysis Measurement of porosity in the core analysis laboratory’ essentially consists of taking @ sample from the core, extracting the Suds fram the eam sand the determining ‘hwo out of the pore volume, grain volume and bulk volume of the sample, The detailed laboratory techniques used will determine exactly what porosity is measured. When examining a core analysis report, itis unlikely that any term other than simply porosity will be encountered. In the world of care analyse the tothe pore space that can be contacted in the particular tech- nique being used (typically gas injection porosity or fluid re-saturation), Unless the sample is disaggregated this will exclude unconnected pores, If pressed te "core analyst will uefet 0 this porosity as effective porosity. When the torm total porosity is used i will be insolation tea rechniqne in which the core sample has been disagereated before its porosity was measured. Then all normally unconnected pores will be included. Note, however, that there isno refer= ence to the amount of élay bound water retained by any clay minerals in the pose space. ‘Tho amount of elay bound water retained depends on the detailed sample preparation techniques, in particular the method of drying the samples. Ifsimple oven drying at em- peratures above 100°C is used then itis considered that all clay bound water will be removed and porosity sncludes all pore space. If, however, humidity coutiolled drying at low {emporatures is used then it is possible that atleast some of the clay water will remain, thereby reducing the measured porosity: The precise amount of clay bound water retained, is uncertain and whether the condition of the clays in the ‘sample in the aboratary matches that ofthe elays in the res- ervolr Is a mauer for conjecue. Hence, alysis, porosity may of may not include some eleetrochemically hound clay water The detailed analysis technique necds to be considered to understand the results rm parasity normally refers Core porosity techniques Further details of these laboratory measurement tech= 08 PETROPHYSICS rnigues can be found in the core analysis titarial in this series and in “Recommended Practices for Core Analysis (1998). Gas injection porosity “This technique is also referred to as gas expansion pores ity. Alknown quantity (volume and pressure) of gas, usally helium. is injected into the pore space of a clean. dry core plug ina sample holder. From the final pressure ofthe gas the grain volume or pore volume can be estimated. Since the gas flows into the sample pore space this technique must measure ‘effective (connected) porosity burt the hydration state of any ‘lay mincrals will depend on the drying techniques. Fluid vesaturation porosity A clean, dry sample of known weight is saturated with a Auid of known density (usually kerosene or brine). ‘The increase in weight gives the pore volume. This measure~ 1s the cfiestive (connected) porosity sines the Mid flows into the pore space, Whether clay bound water is included in the measured porosity depends on the hydration state ofthe clays when the dry sample is weighed Summation of fluids porostey This measurement is performed on core as received in the laboratory not on clean, dry samples Two care pines are used in the test procedure. The bulk volume of the first piece is measured and then a measured volume of mercury is injected to give the gas volume in the sample, The second piece of core is crushed and the water and oil in the pores 1s extracted by distillation. The volumes of gas, water and wil ave telated to the weights of the samples and added to give the pore volume and hence porosity. Porosity as determined in this way must be a combination of total and effective (connected) porosity since one core piece is disaggregated and the other is not Porosity in tog, The simplified view of a “real” reservoir tock given in Figure 4, in which the clay particles ean be regarded a Ucing dispersed throughout the rock leads to the 4-component (matrix, clay, water and hydracarban) model depicted in Figure 5. In this figure: Frgy Volume of matrix grains View volume of dry clay (an idealized version of the clay “nw volume of clay bound water Vi volume of wet clay (Vier-+ Venu) Veo volume of capillary bound water ¥;, volume of free water May-June 2008Tutorial Vins volume of hydrocarbon Vp. total pore volume Voe effective pore volume (excluding clay-bound water) Fy bulk volume of rock. In thiy model all the pore space is ueated ay a sinle entity with no consideration given as to whether the pores. Thoreare several logging tools that estimate porosity and they all work by putting energy into the formation from a {rancmitier andl measuring the effect of the formation om the signal detected at a receiver. The effect is determined by some physical property of the formation that is not porosity’ but is something related to it, for example the velocity of sound in the ease of the soni tool. This is an indirect approach to estimating porosity ‘The way in which each of the components in Figure $ affects the total response of the logging tool depends on the, detailed physical nature of the measurement but, tor sim- plicity, is often assumed to be a volume-weighted average of the constituent pars, Exfective porosity The tool response equation for logging toot which measures a volume-weighted average of the formation property. is Big =n Fa ta Ki HM, Spa Bis Vig + XK $I Be Sue + IgG = Sye) It chould be noted that the volumes of the various compo nents sum to unity in this equation, Yau HV HK HV In this equation @, iy Une Tug analysis effective purusity ‘and is the volume thet is available for the storage of hydro carbon. In this ense the volume of water that is electra: chemically bound to the rock mineral surfaces is excluded from the pore space as discussed above under non-clay pore space Using the nomenclature in F fhe is given by Total porosits The response equation can also be written in terms ofthe total porosity as: ng $ 5, Var 45, Ue tng Fag # NaH ay Fe Say +X BAI ‘Total porosity, is the ratio of the total volume of pores, to the bulk volume of the material regardless of the nature of ‘May-June 2003 troduction to Porosity the fluid contained in them. Thus, included in the pore space are hydrocarbons, ree water, capillary held water and chemically bound water attached to clay minerals, With the nomenclature given in Figure 5, «ul porosity. @. is iver by In neither of these definitions is there any reference tothe need for the porosity to be connected. Generally where porosity is derived from logs alone then itis log analysis effective porosity that is estimated. To use the equations given above i 1s necessary to estimate values for Ke and x.,10 give g., oF Fad x10 give @, Since logs ae micayuring the whole ruck ay it iy insitu and without any control of the experimental conditions, the wet clay proper- ties ean be estimated more easily than dry clay properties by using log data alone and so gis normally determined. Nuclear porosity logs Both the density and neutron loging: tools essentially respond to all the pore space contained within a volume of rock, Since gamma rays and neutrons passthrough the rock material, including grains, independently of any flow paths, these logs do not recognize the difference between con- nected and unconnected pores. The density tool responds to the electron density of the formation, which is closely related to the bulk density. which in turn can be related to cither toral or effective porosity, as explained above. The neutron tool responds to the hydrogen index of the formation. -again closely related to either total or effect porosity but alsa influenced by clay type and other Factors Sonic, or acoustic, porosity log The sonic logging tool measures the velocity of an . v . Fig. 5 4-componont potrophysical mode! of rock. PETROPHYSICS m0Hak acoustic wave that propastates through the rock. Straightfor- ‘ward relationships are used to estimate either total or effec tive porosity. Ilowever, since the measurcmentis based on a propagating wave, the response is not necessarily a simple volume-weighted average of the components, although the frequently used Wyllie time-average equation is. It is thought that the wave bypasses random events stch as wugs, and therefore measures a property that is closer to 0 nected porosity than total porosity. NMR porosity fogs Current generations of NMR logging tools measure the signal decay curve due to spin-spin relaxation, The initial signal amplitude i related to the number of protons in the ppores and 1s thought to measure a porosity that is close to a tol porosity. The porusity measured is & fumetion of the shortest 7, the deeay constant duc to spin-spin relaxation he detected hy the tool snd this, in turn, depends on spacing, Modern tools that can detect a 7> as short ely 0.3 ms are thought to include most of the clay bound water in their measurement leading to a porosity that matches reasonably well to helium core porosity. The ‘older tools, whch detected 7; only as low as approximately 3 ms are thought to meaaure an effective porosity Neither generation of tools, as conventionally run, dis- tinguishes explicitly between connected and non-connected pores. Further details of the physical principles of the logging tools can be found in the other articles in this series or in human (1980). INTEGRATION OF CORE AND LOG POROS ry All the logging tools described above as determining porosity actually measure something that is not porosity ‘The density tool responds to the formation electron density he neutiun two! wo te hydhugen index aud dhe sonic wl ore porosity 6) Density (alee) Fic. 6 Calibration of density log with core data. 20 PETROPH) the velocity of sound, These responses are converted into porosity by applying a suitable model or by calibration Iuyproved estimates will result if several logs are cumibined and these logs are in turn integrated with other methods of dotermining, porosity sich as care analysis Combining log measurements reduces the effect of measurement errors in the logs and reduces errors caused by uncertainties in the matrix properties. Also, in some cases, such as gas, the effect on two logs will be opposite and combining the meas- urements compensates for these effects, Gerverally, because the experimental conditions ean be well controlled und the experiment ean be repeuted ifnece: sary, core parasity gives the hest estimate of “true” porosity and is regarded as the ground truth to which log measure- ments shonld he ealibated Core calibration of logs Por the density lug thete is « youd, predictable, linea relation between density and porosity. Whether “total” or “effective” porosity is derived from the logs depends on the details of the parameters used to convert the log reading to porosity. This relation can be derived from the general tool response equation given above so that, fora clean sand (ara component fluid-matrix mix in whieh any clay ean be riled as matrix), Pi = Bus 1-0) + Poh lo estimate values for a and ¢, or py and pa near fit «can be applied wo a crosspiot of core porosity and log density data as in Figure 6, The formation is miodeled as a homoxe- neous entity and constant values of matrix density and fluid donsity ate assnmed to he able 16 represent the farmation A histozram of core sample grain density. shown in Figure 7 can be used to give a value of matrix density... In this particular case a value of 2.64 g em * was selected for Pr, ‘This was haced on the modal value ofthe histograms that was considered to best represent the formation. A rock with zero porosity has a bulk density equal to the matrix density so cone point on the relationship between porosity and dens an be defined as the paint Gina, 0) A eegress through this point and the density-core porosity data pairs uill define the luc density forthe formation as the density at 100% porosity. In this case fluid density. ap, was esti- mated to be 0.93 2 em * IVSICS. May-June 2008TARLE 1 Summary of terms Porosity twpe Pore volume Primary porosity Secondary porosity Total porosity (not necessarily connected) pore volume. Effective porosity (connected) "Effective porosity (log analysis) Total void volume, Clay bound water is included in Void volume contactable by fluids (connected), Clay bound water is included in pore volume, Void volume available for storage of hydrocarbons. Clay bound water is excluded from pore volume. Measurement technique Void volume af a sediment when it was deposited. Void volume that is ereated by diagenetic processes Core analysis (disaggregated sample) density, neutron, NMR logs if dry clay parameters used 10 derive porosity. Core analysis (competent simple). Possibly sonic log. Porosity logging tools if wet clay parameters used to derive porosity Unconnected pore volume not necessarily excluded from pore volume. Depends on measurement techni Effetive porosity usually in reservoir simulations) Void volume available for storage of producible Muids, Clay bound water is excluded from pore volume, Capillary held water is also excluded from pore volume. No direct technique to measure this. This definition implies that the effective porosity ‘ofa rock isa function ofits location within a Similar techniques could be applied to the other porosity logs although a more complex nonlinear relationship may be necessary. SUMMARY From the above discussion, it can be seen that, although the term porosity has a simple theoretical definition, there are many different meanings attached to the term that arc in ‘common use in the oil and gas industry. These meanings are dependent on the method used to determine porosity and the use to which it may be put. A summary ofthe terms used For the types of porosity discussed in this article and the tech~ niques used to measure them is given in Table 1. There are many other types of porosity that have not been discussed in this tutorial, sueh as + fracture porosity: porosity resulting from natural frac~ tures in the rock + mictoporosity: porosity resident in small pores, com- monly associated with detrital and authigenic clays ot within carhanate grains + intragranular porosity: pore rook grains. Clearly there is scope for confusion, principally from the extensive use ofthe term “effective porosity” and the differ- ent meanings attributed to it ‘To attempt to reduce the vagueness of the terminology thin the ty due to voids used in practice in the hydrocarbon industry itis suggested that the following definitions should be used (Table 2). In this terminology the “log” total and effective porosities are attempts to measure the desired rock properties - total and effective porosity respectively. REFERENCES. Amys, FW, Rass, DM, and Whiting, RT. 1960, Petrolonm Reservoir Engineering, McGraw-Hill Book Compan. Grain density (alec) Fic. 7 Grain density histogram for dala irom Figure 6. PrTROPHYSICS, 2TABLE 2 Proposed terminology. Total porosity Connected porosity Effective porosity ‘Log” total porosity “Log” effective porosity Includes all pore volume, ineluding clay bound water. A property of the rock. Includes only pore volume that ean be contacted by Aids at the present time. Clay bound ‘water is included in the pore volume. A property of the rock. Includes only pore volume that has the potential to store hydrocarbons. Clay bound water is excluded from the pore volume. A property of the rock. “log” should be replaced with the particular measurement technique used. (not confined to a downhole measurement). Pore volume includes all yoid volume including elay hovind water log” should be replaced with the particular measurement technique used, (not confined to a downhole measurement). Pore volunie includes unly pores available w store hydrocarbons and excludes clay bound water. Measurement conditions of the log need to be considered. eg. F.cutoll for NMR log Fraser, HJ. and Graton, L C,, 1935, Systematic packing ot ABOUT THE AUTHOR spheres ~ with particular relation to porosity and permeability Journal of Geot0g):, Val. 43, p. 18-9, Recommended Practices for Core Analysis, 1998, American Peiraeum tnssiure RP 40 ‘Titman, J, 1986, Geophysical Well Logeing: London (Academic eff Hook js currently a Consultant Petrophysivist with Helin RDS. Hisprevious experience includes various petophysical roles ‘with Enterprise Oil and Mobil North Sea Lisl in Loudou au with BNOCBritoiVBP. His initial experience in the oil industry was Press} a 8 core analysis service laboratory where he was scaponsible for the development of analytical techniques and quality assurance ‘of both special and conventional core analysis laboratories, Sine joining the operating sector of the industry he has gained ‘experience inal acpects ofthe application of petrophysies ranging from design of data acquisition programmes through single well evaluation to field studies and ewuity re-detcrminations, He has authored papers on core analysis, facies and permeability prediction and application of NMR logs and his current interests include applications of NMR logs and integration of petrophsical ‘and geophysical data, He has played an active pat in the activities of the London Peirophysical Society (a chapter of SPWLA) for ‘many year, and has served as Prosident, Treasurer and V-P Membership. He is currently a Regional Director for SPWLA (Europe Position 1), PETROPHYSICS Maystne 200%