Geochemical Training

23rd-26th July 2007, Vientiane, Laos

For

Prepared by
ioGlobal

Introduction
© ioGlobal Pty Ltd
 Guide to the Program
Day 1 am Overview – “The Role of Geochemistry”

Primary geochemistry of selected deposit styles (primary dispersion,

alteration). Secondary Dispersion with reference to Au and associated
pathfinder elements

pm Exploratory Data Analysis (EDA) 1

Importance of data validation
Summary stats
Univariate and bivariate graphical techniques
Probability plots – THE geochemists tool
Interactive: Start working through Oxiana data

Day 2 am Analytical Chemistry – what happens at the lab? Review of assaying

techniques
Laboratory auditing – what should I be looking for in a good laboratory?

EDA – further interactive interpretive work on Oxiana data to reinforce Day 1

pm
pm Fit for purpose QC1
Sampling and analytical protocols
Data recording and data flow
Sampling strategies
Rationale for QC, reporting requirements
Bias, accuracy and precision

Interactive: Analysis of Oxiana QC data

Introduction
© ioGlobal Pty Ltd
 Guide to the Program
Day 3 am Exploratory Data Analysis 2

Displaying geochemical data in map space - gridding, imaging, grid

manipulation
Robustness, outliers and anomalies
pm Discussion of partial leach geochemistry - Why use it? Sites and mechanisms
for hosting anomalies, analytical challenges, how anomalies MAY form through
overburden

Levelling geochemical data

Work through Oxiana case study

Day 4 am Fit for purpose QC 2
How good is good enough?
Advanced plots
Oxiana case study: Work through example data, full sampling tree, apportion
errors to difference parts of the sampling process, what could be improved?
pm Exploratory Data Analysis 3
Lithogeochemistry for classification and quantification of alteration

Interpreting stream sediment data in a catchment context. Multivariate methods

Allow ½ a session to look at and discuss any data that individuals may have
brought along (encouraged to do so).

Re-cap any points, Q&A, extract opinions from the presenters.

Introduction
© ioGlobal Pty Ltd
 Comments

Bring any data you like (along with map data) during the week, eg any
field duplicate data & lab dup data from a soil program

In te ra c tio n is k e y . W e w ill e n d e a v o u r to a p p ly a ll th e E D A te c h n iq u e s

using MapInfo/Discover, ioGAS, & Excel

The emphasis can change depending on specific interest once

underway

Much of the training is equally relevant to mining and exploration

Today – Background on Exploration Geochemistry to set the context for

interpretation

Introduction
© ioGlobal Pty Ltd
 ioGlobal Overview

Established in 2000

Outsourced data management

and consulting

Geochemical consulting (2004)

15 to 20 technical staff

Operate globally

Offices in Perth, Melbourne and Brisbane

Introduction
© ioGlobal Pty Ltd
 ioGlobal Overview

ioHUB - Hosted data management

dPipeWeb - Implementation of automated data management systems

at client sites

ioGeochemistry - Geochemical consulting

ioDigital Consulting

ioBureau – GIS support

ioGAS – Exploratory Data Analysis Software

ioMobile – Field capture of data onto PDA devices

Introduction
© ioGlobal Pty Ltd
 Dr Dave Lawie

Dave is a graduate from the University of New England. Dave has extensive
international experience in exploration geochemistry. Prior to starting
ioGeochemistry, Dave was Chief Geochemist with Pasminco Exploration, then
joined Anglo American, initially as coordinator of multi-commodity geochemical
research conducted globally, then as Coordinator of Geochemistry based out
of Vancouver. One area that Dave has worked on extensively is the
application of robust multivariate techniques to the interpretation and
integration of geochemical data. Currently, Dave is the General Manager of
ioGeochemistry, a new geochemical consultancy division of ioGlobal. Dave is
responsible for the strategic development and daily operations of
ioGeochemistry. Dave is also a Director of ioGlobal, and has significant input
into the development of the ioDigital data management division.

Introduction
© ioGlobal Pty Ltd
 Dr Mike Whitbread

Michael Whitbread graduated from the University of Queensland with a

Bachelor of Science, Honours, in 1995. His undergraduate majors were
geology and chemistry. Michael worked for two years with Pasminco
Exploration in Cobar, searching for Zn-Pb-Ag sediment hosted deposits,
followed by over a year as a mining geologist at Pasminco Rosebery mine.
He has since completed a PhD in the use of lithogeochemistry in detecting
and quantifying alteration around the Century and Elura base metal deposits.
During and subsequent to his PhD, this expertise has been applied in a
variety of deposit types in varying geological settings. Examples include:
sediment hosted base metals, porphyry copper, Irish-style Pb-Zn, iron oxide
copper and manto deposits. Michael currently works for ioGeochemistry as a
geochemical consultant, and also is undertaking a part-time research project
with Cliff Stanley out of Acadia University, Canada.

Introduction
© ioGlobal Pty Ltd
 Mr Steve Sugden

Steve is an exploration geologist with 25 years experience, exploring for a

wide variety of commodities including Gold, Base Metals, Uranium, Iron Ore
and Diamonds, through out Australia, PNG and New Zealand, in projects
ranging from conceptual grass roots exploration through to mining
operations. During his career he has worked for a number of Companies
including CRA Exploration, Plutonic, Homestake and Harmony Gold.
Since 1996 he has worked mainly in the Yilgarn Block of Western Australia
exploring for Orogenic Gold Deposits and has instrumental in a number of
discoveries both personally and as a team leader.
He has extensive experience in the design, and implementation of
geochemical exploration programs and the interpretation of geochemical
data. He is also a Fellow of the Society of Economic Geologists and a
Member of the Aus.I.M.M, AIG and GSA.

Introduction
© ioGlobal Pty Ltd
 Dr Nigel Brand

Nigel worked for WMC Resources for eleven years until 1999. During his
time at WMC he worked throughout the Norsman-Wiluna Greenstone belt on
various regional Au & Ni exploration programs and at WMC operations at
Norseman, Kambalda, Kalgoorlie, Leinster and Mt Keith. He completed his
PhD in 1997 on discriminating weathered mineralized from barren komatiites
and has published widely on the subject. After leaving WMC, Nigel joined
Anglo American for four and a half years as their geochemist in the Asian-
Pacific region, including India. Philippines and Australia exploring for Zn, Ni
and Cu-Au deposits. In July 2004, Nigel and Dr David Lawie co-founded
ioGeochemistry, a global independent geochemical consulting group based
in Perth, Western Australia.

Introduction
© ioGlobal Pty Ltd
 Example 12 month’s Activity

Campbell
Musselwhite Timan
Toronto

Shandong
Iran

Mexico
Vancouver
Eskay Creek Surigao
Mount Milligan
North Mara
Reno
Cortez Brisbane
Getchell Indee
Turquoise Ridge Johannesburg
Bald Mountain
Lima Perth
Goiana Kalgoorlie
Murrin Murrin

Santiago
Olympic Dam

Melbourne

Sams Creek

Recent ioDigital Projects (does not include ioGeochemistry)

Introduction
© ioGlobal Pty Ltd
 Global Experience - Geochemistry

Worked in: Australia, Brazil, Burkina Faso, Canada, Chile, China, Cote D’lvoire,
Cuba, Eritrea, India, Indonesia, Ireland, Mongolia, Namibia, New Caledonia, Peru,
Philippines, Russia, South Aftica, UK.

Worked on Data: Ethiopia, Finland, Ghana, Laos, Liberia, Mexico, PNG, Sweden,
Tanzania, Thailand, USA, Vietnam

Introduction
© ioGlobal Pty Ltd
ioGeochemistry – Clients (post-July 2004)
Geoinformatics Exploration Pioneer Nickel Gold Fields
Western Nickel Titan Resources Vital Metals
Anglo American Polaris Metals Barrick
(London, Perth, Philippines, Canada) Red 5 Newcrest
BHPB (Aust & Canada) Gryphon Minerals Queensland Ores
Zinifex SXR Uranium 1 Harmony
Sir Samuel Mines Falconbridge
Mincor Goldstar
Minara Resources Asia Gold
Oceana
Mawson Resources
Analytical Solutions
Teckcominco
St Barbara Mines
Breakaway Resources
CRC-LEME
Falcon Minerals

Introduction
© ioGlobal Pty Ltd
 ioGeochemistry – Research Partners

Stable isotopes, MC & HR –ICP-MS, CL-ICP-MS

Statistics – especially robust multivariate techniques

Image Tech
International

Semi-commercial analytical technique development

Commercialisation of R&D

Introduction
© ioGlobal Pty Ltd
 General Overview of Exploration Geochemistry

The Role of
Geochemistry in
Mineral Exploration

Thoughts on Strategy

Will cover how to create the

various outputs in
subsequent training

Introduction
© ioGlobal Pty Ltd
 Key Roles
Design & implementation of programs
Conduct & evaluate orientation work
Establish sampling & QAQC protocols
Initiate data compilations & appraisals
Processing and interpretation for targeting
R&D evaluation and implementation
Technical ‘filter’, disaster mitigation (esp. case for blind
deposits)
Training of staff
Provide informed opinion on all things geochemical!

Introduction
© ioGlobal Pty Ltd
 Program design, procedures and QAQC
Varying requirements whether surface sampling or drilling
Spatial arrangement of sampling
Sample prep protocols (Au nugget effect)
How to analyse it; ‘total’, aqua regia, ?partial leach
What lab?
The range of elements (fixed suites preferred)
QAQC protocol – ‘fit for purpose’
How to store the data for subsequent retrieval

Baseline work for the Geochemist/Geologist

Where most problems start
Easier to do it right the first time

Introduction
© ioGlobal Pty Ltd
 “The Role” – Facilitate this process

Collection Measurement Data Analysis

Information
Facts (Design) (What? How?) (Storage, (Interpretation,
Retrieval) Presentation)
QC QC

Theoretical Knowledge
Lithogeochemistry
Regolith Processes
Previous Work
Orientation
Data Integration
Geochemical Decisions
Information +ve and -ve

GIS
Magnetics Etc.

Structure Lithology

Introduction
© ioGlobal Pty Ltd
 Sampling, QAQC and
analytical best practice
Ensure sampling, sub-sampling, sample
preparation and the quality and appropriateness
of the assay and laboratory procedures meet
your company and stock exchange reporting
requirements.

1 2
O O

1a 1b 2a 2b 1a 1b 2a 2b 1 2
A A A A B B B B O O
A - First split B - Second split O - Current protocol

20

18

16 Coarse
TARGET
% Relative Difference

14 Pulps

12
1kg split
10
1kg split
8 1kg split
1kg split
6 Tot Pulv

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Percent of Samples Introduction
© ioGlobal Pty Ltd
 QAQC and Certified Reference
Materials
Ensure that your quality control program
is cost effective and 'fit for purpose'.
Arrange commercial and mine
laboratory auditing. Round robin
assessment of in-house and
commercial laboratories.

Introduction
© ioGlobal Pty Ltd
 Splitting

Chute widths/numbers
even?

Chute feeding
suitable?

General
contamination risk

Introduction
© ioGlobal Pty Ltd
Examples of poor
quality equipment

Introduction
© ioGlobal Pty Ltd
 Introduction
© ioGlobal Pty Ltd
 Modelling Standards
to cover dynamic
range of data
from exploration
to mine

Selection of
target grades
for Matrix-
Matched
CRMs

Introduction
© ioGlobal Pty Ltd
 Precision
Benchmarks

JBM Benchmarks

50
45
Absolute Relative Difference

40
35
30
25
Field Duplicates 20% ARD for 90% of population
20
Course Rejects 15% ARD for 90% of population
15
Pulp Duplicates 10% ARD for 90% of population
10
Lab Duplicates and CRM's 5% ARD for 90% of population
5
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Percentage of Samples

Introduction
© ioGlobal Pty Ltd
 Method Comparison
(Bottle Roll CN Au 300g-1000g)

Quantile-Quantile Plot
Au(1000g) - Au(300g)
Au Method Comparison 5
5

4
4

Au_ppm_1000g
Au_ppm_1000g

3
3

2
2

1
1

0
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
0 1 2 3 4 5

Au_ppm_300g Au_ppm_300g

Introduction
© ioGlobal Pty Ltd
Quantity Formula Formula Formula 1 sd relative error
(CV) equivalent*
(simple) (per pair) (average)

Coefficient of x −x x −x CV
CV = s CV =
2 1 2
CV =
2 N
∑ ( + )
1 2
Variation
(usually times 100 for %)
x 2 (x + x )
1 2
N 2 1
x x1 2

Precision 4 x −x x −x CV2
P = 2s P= 1 2
P=
4 N
∑ ( + ) 1 2

2 (x + x )
(usually times 100 for %)
1
x 1 2 N 2 x x 1 2

Relative****
RV = s
2
(x1− x2) 2
2 N
RV = ∑1
(x1− x2) 2
(CV)2
Variance x
2 RV = 2
(x1+ x2) 2 N (x1+ x2) 2

(x − x ) ( − )
Rel. NOT RELEVANT CV√2
Diff = Diff = 2 x x (note absolute
(x + x )
1 2 1 2
Difference X differences cancel on
*if absolute
1 2
(usually times 100 for %)
summation**)

HARD x −x x −x CV√2/2
1 x −x HARD = HARD =
1 N
∑ 1 2

(x + x )
1 2
HARD =
(x + x )
1 2

(Half abs. Rel. Diff.) 2 X N 1 1 2

1 2
(usually times 100 for %)

* multiply CV by [factor] to obtain quantity ** Useful for studying bias in other applications
Introduction
* Bongarcon
© ioGlobal Pty Ltd- Parameters that are NOT additive – Use RMS
 R&D: New Plot type for testing sampling error

Introduction
© ioGlobal Pty Ltd
 S2 = relative variance

S2samp = S2samp + S2crush+ S2pulp

S2crush = S2crush+ S2pulp

S2 samp only= S2samp - S2crush

½ core ½ core
S2 crush only = S2crush - S2pulp

S2pulp = S2pulp
<2mm <2mm <2mm
Pulp & Analytic al

Pulp Pulp Pulp Pulp Coars e Crus h

Sampling <2mm Pulp +

error crush error analytical Sam pling
error
S2samp S2crush S2pulp
Introduction
© ioGlobal Pty Ltd
 Compilation of existing data for belt-
wide targeting and area selection
More and more regional geochem data are becoming available at
belt, province and county scale at relatively low cost or no cost

The regional data provides information on structure, rock-type

and metal endowment – useful even though not direct target
generation

Should always be first step

Get out of the ‘postage stamp’ survey – provides context

Provides the raw material for many of the techniques that follow

Introduction
© ioGlobal Pty Ltd
 Data Compilation

ZOOM 2
ZOOM 1
Levelled Cu Data – Nth America

Introduction
© ioGlobal Pty Ltd
 Data Compilations –
Ni in lake sediment

Southern Ontario

1500Km wide field of view

Introduction
© ioGlobal Pty Ltd
Data Compilations - NURE Stream Sediments
500Km wide field of view

Image of

Ag, As, Au, Cd, Mo, Pb,

(Zn)
association

(derived from PCA)

Introduction
© ioGlobal Pty Ltd
Geochemical Data Compilations – CSIRO, GSWA + Open File
Cu Ni

Introduction
© ioGlobal Pty Ltd
 Ni Residuals – 80th, 90th, 96th percentiles

Introduction
© ioGlobal Pty Ltd
 RGB Thresholded Images

90th Percentile

Fast efficient interpretation!!

Introduction
© ioGlobal Pty Ltd
 Data Analysis & Interpretation
Required to deal with large volumes of geochemical and supporting
data
Must be competent with a variety of statistical, imaging, and GIS
tools

Requires knowledge of a range of

statistical methods for data
reduction, interpretation and
presentation

Must incorporate regolith influences

Integrate with other geoscience

datasets for final targeting

Introduction
© ioGlobal Pty Ltd
 What is an Outlier/Anomaly

Various Definitions
Rare events, deviant objects and exceptions
Outliers are atypical observations that are
“well” separated from the bulk of the data
An outlier is a sample which differs
sufficiently from a great majority of the
other samples
In the exploration context – usually the
result we are looking for (comment model
background better as well)

Introduction
© ioGlobal Pty Ltd
 2D - OUTLIERS

Red points may not be

considered outliers in a
univariate sense,
however a bivariate plot
reveals they are
anomalies – not related
to the main bulk of the
data

Introduction
© ioGlobal Pty Ltd
 Exploratory Data Analysis

Introduction
© ioGlobal Pty Ltd
Advanced Data Processing - Canonical Variate Analysis
0.20

0.25

Pb Pb
Mo Pb
Mo Mo
0.30 Au Pb
Se
Bi
Au
Se
Bi
Au
Se
Mo
Au
Pb
Mo Pb Elements most diagnostic
Group Separation

As Bi Se Au Mo Pb
0.35 As
Cu
Li
Mn
Cu
Li
As
Cu
Li
Bi
Rb
As
Se
Bi
Te
Au
Se
Bi
Mo
Au
Se
Pb
Mo
of groups
0.40 Mn Au
Te
Pb
0.45 Mo

0.50

0.55
Pb

0.60
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Number of Elelements in Each Subset Tested

All Ferruginous
Samples
Cu
K PC Mo
W oA As
Ba gN UZ
i n
Automated Allocation
Non-Gossans Gossans
into Groups
Au
Cu

Cu Mo Bi Ba P
Bi

(Low W Co)
) (L Se
Mo P Ag ow P
Zn W
b Ba Zn M
o P) Co
P bS K Bi
Mn Ba Ag
ow M
(L o

High style
BHT Bimba
Introduction Stratiform Stratabound Epigenetic
© ioGlobal Pty Ltd
 Advanced Data Processing

Epigenetic Association BS Gossans

0.8 Saltbush Sg.

Cu Min. Occ. Goss's
Co Min. Fe Fm.
Bi
Mo
BH Projection of
Variable
Ag
0.6 Se Au
W Ni samples and
Common Group elements on to
U
0.4
As
the same graph
for interpretation
RQ1

Sb
0.2 Mn

Zn
Pb

Fe
0.0 P

K
Ba

-0.2 Strataform/bound
Syngenetic

-0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8

RQ2

Introduction
© ioGlobal Pty Ltd
 Analysis & Interpretation
Often regolith maps need work to make them most useful for exploration

MOOLEULOOLOO Aeolian

Transported

High Density Lag

STRATHEARN Low Density Lag

Outcrop

Simplified Regolith
Landform Map
KALABITY With
Emphasis on Suitability
For Surface Sampling
TRIANGLE HILL BOOLCOOMATA

Introduction
© ioGlobal Pty Ltd
 Data Analysis & Interpretation
(Allocate samples to catchments they plot within)

Automatically generated catchments Catchments may then be themed

on digital elevation
Introduction
© ioGlobal Pty Ltd
 Element versus Catchment Area - Point Density

Introduction
© ioGlobal Pty Ltd
 Catchment analysis & Interpretation – Modelling Anomaly
Dilution in Stream Sediments
(Allocate catchments to samples - better)

Catchments shown in yellow

and < 50km2. Why?

CmAm = (Cc-C0)Ac

Assume:
Anomaly is 100m by 500m
Am = 0.05 km2
Cm = 10,000ppm Zn
C0 = 43ppm (median)
Substitution gives
Cc = 500/Ac + 43
ie if the catchment is
50km2 the anomaly will be
53ppm, background is
43ppm!!

Introduction
© ioGlobal Pty Ltd
 Catchment analysis – Modelling Anomaly Dilution

Catchments thematiced by
productivity (P), ie, outlet
concentration weighted by
catchment size and
expected background (only
catchments < 50km2)
P = (Cc-C0)Ac
Ac from GIS
Cc from data
C0 = 43ppm (median)

High Productivity Good

Introduction
© ioGlobal Pty Ltd
 Analysis & Interpretation
Cosmos: Ni & Cu Cross section in relation to a regolith model

Redox Front & Mg Disconformity

Weathering
Front

Ni Cu

Introduction
© ioGlobal Pty Ltd
 Levelling Geochemical Data
Effects to level to;

Geology
Regolith
Analytical method
Sample type (soil rock, ssed, till, moss mats)
Map sheet

Whatever is a source of variation that you are not interested in

Introduction
© ioGlobal Pty Ltd
 Data Analysis – Strategy - Levelling data for Targeting
Co – Raw Data – Note Level shift – due to analytical method

Introduction
© ioGlobal Pty Ltd
 Data Analysis – Strategy - Levelling data for Targeting
Co – Levelled – Analytical method effect removed

Introduction
© ioGlobal Pty Ltd
Data Analysis – Levelling for Orientation Evaluation
6000

5000
Cu Aqua Regia
Cu Partial Leach

4000
Proportion Recovered (partial leach/aqua regia)
100%
3000
90%
Cu ppm

80% 120

2000
Proportion 70% Cu Aqua regia
60%
100 Cu Partial leach
1000

50%
80

Response Ratio (/median)

0 40%
30%
60
-1000
20%
10% 40

0%
Zn Ni Bi Cu
Ag La Au U Pb Ce Co Cd Cu Zn As Th
20

-20

Introduction
© ioGlobal Pty Ltd
 Data Analysis – Strategy - Levelling data for Targeting

“ANOVA” Levelling

Each geology/regolith combination

G1 G2 G3
can be used to form a 2 by 2 table
R1 with the mean or median of each
combination in the cell.
R2
Simple residuals from this value for
the individual samples that occur in
R3 the cell provide a levelled data set
R3,G2

Levelled data are in original units

NOTE: one method of many that

will be covered later

Introduction
© ioGlobal Pty Ltd
 Data Analysis – Strategy - Levelling data for Targeting

Double levelled to a combination of

Raw Data geology and regolith
Background Suppression

Introduction
© ioGlobal Pty Ltd
Lithogeochemistry

10 km
– Element Mapping Ni

Imaged Drillhole Cosmos Deeps

data
Cosmos

Anomaly 1

Zoom – 3D
Prospero

Introduction
© ioGlobalData
Pty Ltd
from Jubilee Mines NL 2.5 km
Data Analysis - Lithogeochemistry – Classification
Jenson Cation Plot

Molecular formulation
Provides a classification
scheme for subalkaline
volcanic rocks
Particularly useful for
komatiites
Resistant to alkali loss
Source Rollinson (1993)
and Rickwood (1989)

Introduction
© ioGlobal Pty Ltd
 Data Analysis - Lithogeochemistry - Classification
Winchester and Floyd Plot

‘Immobile’ trace element

formulation
Classification scheme for volcanic
rocks
More robust than TAS against
mobility of alkalis
Zr/Ti is a proxy for Si, Nb/Y is a
proxy for total alkalis
Ratioed, so no closure effects
Boundary positions debatable
Introduction Original source Winchester and
© ioGlobal Pty Ltd Floyd (1977)
 Data Analysis - Lithogeochemistry – Classification
Wood (1980) Plot

Relatively immobile trace element

formulation
Good detection limits required to use
this diagram
Particularly useful for picking MORB
types
Transitional boundary overlays
available
Can be applied to intermediate and
silicic lavas, not just basalts.
Th mobility unknown in altered
glasses, beware.
Magnetite accumulations concentrate
Ta
WPB and E-Morbs can’t be
distinguised (use Ti-Zr-Hf)
Source Wood (1980) and Rollinson
(1993)

Introduction
© ioGlobal Pty Ltd
 Data Analysis - Lithogeochemistry –
Classification

None of these diagrams can be used in ‘dumb’ mode. The

processes that have led to their derivation should preferable by
understood. Different diagrams can give different classification
results for the same sample

Things to watch out for: weathering, alteration, plotting

irrelevant rock types on the diagram, closure effects of tri-
plots, inappropriate data quality (eg, 4 acid vs fusion for
Zr), adequate precision (esp. for divisors) and data not too
near dl.

Introduction
© ioGlobal Pty Ltd
Data Analysis - Lithogeochemistry - Fertility

Global Ni-MgO
Anomalous? Background

Average Ni content for

0.5 % MgO interval

Data: literature and internet

Introduction
© ioGlobal Pty Ltd
Data Analysis - Lithogeochemistry - Fertility

Sudbury

Data: literature and internet

Introduction
© ioGlobal Pty Ltd
 Fertility
Assessment
-
Model/Process
Driven http://www.ga.gov.au/ausgeonews/ausgeonews200509/gold.jsp

Such diagrams are useful

for rapidly assessing
fertility of large areas, but
‘zones’ on such diagrams
commonly vary greatly for
different terrains

Source: The Ishihara Symposium: Granites and

Associated Metallogenesis

IntroductionPalaeozoic Granite Metallogenesis of Easter Australia

© ioGlobal Pty Ltd – Phil Blevin (@ Geoscience Australia, 2004)
 Isotopes – Fertility Assessment

Application of
Sulphur Isotopes to
assessing Fertility of
‘Sulphide’
Discoveries

Simple to apply,
robust IF adequate
orientation carried
out

Poster: IGES 2005 - “Application of sulphur isotopes to discriminate Cu-Zn VHMS mineralization from barren Fe sulphide
mineralization in the greenschist to granulite facies Flin Flon – Snow Lake – Hargrave River region, Manitoba, Canada.” by Paul
Polito1,2, Kurt Kyser1, David Lawie3, Steven Cook4, Chris Oates5

Introduction
© ioGlobal Pty Ltd
 δ34S values in Sulfides
710
9

9 Paloma (prospect 10
8
6 km N of MV)
8 HEMATITE Pirula (Mt and
7
5 MAGNETITE ASSOCIATEDCalcite)
7 MEAN: 5‰Berta (Cu-Au Vein
6 ASSOCIATED
MEAN: +0.7‰ δ34SFluid= +25 deposit)
‰
FREQUENCY

6
Frequency

4
δ34SFluid= +1 ‰ (evaporites) Palmira (Hematite
Frequency

5
5 (magmatic) Breccia) Py
Hematite
34 Cpy
Magnetite
Cerro Negro
4 (Hematite Breccia)
3
2 Manto Verde
3
(Hematite Breccia)
2
1
2 Manto Verde
(Magnetite)
1
1
0
00-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
-7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2
34 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
δ
-7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 34 4 5
δ 34SS(‰,
6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
‰CDT)
δ S, ‰(CDT)
(CDT)
At a regional
Manto
Sulfides with aascale,
Verde: heavy
wide range heavyinisotopic
isotopic isotopic
composition values are are
composition associated
associated
from -6‰ with up with
S tage
to
hematite
+12‰.
III, specular in economically
Processes hematiteof fluid andmixingimportant could deposits
Cu mineralization. cause such (i.e.
Calculated
a wide Manto 34S Verde,
δcompositional
values
Cerro
variation.
indicate Negro)
© ioGlobal the
Pty Ltd incursion
Slide courtesyof evaporite
Kurt Kyser -sourced
Introduction
Queens University, sulfur.
from a PhD Project by Jorge Benevides, sponsored by Anglo American
 17.0
Other Ironstones
16.8
(derived from the weathering
of unmineralised rocks.)
16.6

16.4
Pb207/204

16.2

16.0

15.8

15.6
Gossanous Ironstones
15.4 (Derived from the weathering of
base metal sulphide mineralisation)
15.2
14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30

Pb206/204

Discrimination of gossanous ironstones formed from the

weathering of base metal sulphides mineralisation from
other, non-gossanous ironstones.

Introduction
© ioGlobal Pty Ltd
 Data Analysis – Lithogeochemistry - Alteration
• completely • partly • entirely
• mostly • relatively • wholly
• partially • kind of • extreme
Why Quantify
• none • sort of • severe metasomatic
• intense • reminiscent of • feeble
• strong • somewhat • patchy effects??
• moderate • persistent • speckled
• weak utterly • mottled
• pervasive • totally • dappled
• incipient • fully • flooded
• absent • absolutely 5 • salt &
peppered spotted • unaltered •
fresh
4

Sericitization Intensity (0 - 5)
A
B

Normal situation!
3 C
D
E
2 F
M
S

0
2 1 1 5 OQ 1 O 2 1 2 3 3 5 5 3 3 2 5 1 1 5 1 OQOO 1 OS S 2 Q 1 O 5 1
Data: Cliff Stanley Lithology

Introduction
© ioGlobal Pty Ltd
 Lithogeochemistry – Alteration Modelling
Separate chemical variations due to
fractionation from those due to
alteration

Avoid closure
Pearce Element Ratio Plot - Displacement Vectors

14

12
K Bearing Phases with no Al
EXAMPLE GER DIAGRAM
Potassic and Structural Water Controls 10
1.0 K-Feldspar Control Line
K-Feldspar Biotite
8
K/Ti

0.8 Muscovite Control

6
Illite Control
0.6 4

Al Bearing Phases with no K

K/Al

2
0.4 Goethite (vector)

Muscovite
0
0 4 8 12 16 20 24
0.2
Al/Ti
Chlorite (4,0)
Albite, Anorthite Kaolinte
0.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
OH/Al

Introduction
© ioGlobal Pty Ltd
 EXAMPLE GER DIAGRAM
Potassic and Structural Water Controls
1.0
K-Feldspar Biotite

0.8

0.6
K/Al

0.4 Goethite (vector)

Muscovite

0.2

Chlorite (4,0)
Albite, Anorthite Kaolinte
0.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
OH/Al

Introduction
© ioGlobal Pty Ltd
 Trace element pathfinders can be overlain on lithogeochemical diagrams to
further refine ranking of samples, or to assess mineral hosts (next slide)

Introduction
© ioGlobal Pty Ltd
 Introduction
© ioGlobal Pty Ltd
 Trace element pathfinders can be overlain on lithogeochemical diagrams to
further refine ranking of samples, or to assess mineral hosts (next slide)

Introduction
© ioGlobal Pty Ltd
 Lithogeochemistry –
Quantification of Alteration

2.5
Clinochlore
[0,5/2]
2.0
(Fe+Mg)/Al (molar)

1.5

1.0 Muscovite
[1/3,0]

0.5 Alkali
Feldspar
[1,0]
0.0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0

(Na+K)/Al (molar)

Slide donor wishes to remain anonymous

Introduction
© ioGlobal Pty Ltd
 Spatial Context - Alteration

Every major alteration

centre clearly identified
with sampling spacing @ 1
sample per sq Km.

Felsic and mafic alteration indices

both scaled from 0-100% hydrolytic
alteration, to be displayed on the
same map

Slide courtesy Kurt Kyser Queens University, from a PhD Project by

Esteban Urqueta, sponsored by Anglo American

Introduction
© ioGlobal Pty Ltd
Application of Geochemistry – Thoughts on Strategy
Geochemisty’s role in the search for the ‘undercover method”…

Some alternative approaches

Groundwater
Biogeochemistry
Soil Gas
Varieties of partial leach geochemistry
Geochemistry at the end of a drill rig

Introduction
© ioGlobal Pty Ltd
 Financials of Undercover Exploration

Question

What does it cost to obtain at least one sample in

the target area with a 90% probability of success

Target at surface, then at 100m, 200m and 300m

depth

Introduction
© ioGlobal Pty Ltd
Assumptions
Target: 400m long, ratio of long to short axis of 0.2 i.e. flattened
ellipse
Search area: 10 by 5 km, i.e. 50,000,000 squ. m, contiguous or not
Grid: triangular
Angle of target to grid – assume not known
Assay cost: $20/sample
Sampling cost: $10/sample @ surface
Drilling costs RC: $65/m, DDH $130/m
Depths tested: surface, 100m, 200m, 300m
Probability of hitting target: 90%

Note: If a sample is collected in the target area there is a 100%

probability of correct identification

Introduction
© ioGlobal Pty Ltd
 Assumptions

From:, Gerlach, R.W., Nocerino, J.M., 2003. Guidance

for Obtaining Representative Laboratory Analytical
Subsamples from Particulate Laboratory Samples
EPA/600/R-03/027

100% probability of
correct identification

Introduction
© ioGlobal Pty Ltd
 Key Results

Per Sample
Depth (m)
Cost
One sample per location, including drilling
Surface 20 costs for samples at depth
100 6,500
200 13,000
300 19,500

Sample
Long Size of Number of
Spacing
Axis (m) Target Samples …required to have at least one
(m)
sample in the target zone with a
400 25000m2 136 3030 90% probability
1260 250000m2 430 305
2500 980000m2 850 78

Introduction
© ioGlobal Pty Ltd
 Costs

Grid Assumptions Costs Triangluar

Depth Orientation Prob of Hit L axis Size of target Assay Fixed Sampling Spacing Number Cost('000)
Surface random 90% 400 25000m2 20 5000 20 136 3030 96
100 random 90% 400 25000m2 20 5000 6,500 136 3030 19,767
200 random 90% 400 25000m2 20 5000 13,000 136 3030 39,468
300 random 90% 400 25000m2 20 5000 19,500 136 3030 59,170
Surface random 90% 1260 250000m2 20 5000 20 430 305 17
100 random 90% 1260 250000m2 20 5000 6,500 430 305 1,993
200 random 90% 1260 250000m2 20 5000 13,000 430 305 3,976
300 random 90% 1260 250000m2 20 5000 19,500 430 305 5,958
Surface random 90% 2500 980000m2 20 5000 20 850 78 8
100 random 90% 2500 980000m2 20 5000 6,500 850 78 513
200 random 90% 2500 980000m2 20 5000 13,000 850 78 1,020
300 random 90% 2500 980000m2 20 5000 19,500 850 78 1,527

Introduction
© ioGlobal Pty Ltd
 The number of samples required and sampling costs combine to produce the total
costs shown here..

Size of target: 25000m2

$50,000 Size of target: 250000m2
Size of target: 980000m2

$5,000
Cost ('000$)

1 Million Dollars
$500

$50

$5
0 100 200 300

© ioGlobal Pty Ltd

Depth(m) Introduction
 Therefore…

Any method that can,

1 - increase the size of the target or

2 - reduce the size of the search area

Is a good thing!

Plus, you need to be able to identify a hit!

Introduction
© ioGlobal Pty Ltd
 Geochemistry at the End of a Drill Rig
Enlarging the size of the target by quantitatively measuring alteration and/or
searching for palaeo-dispersion at the cover - host-rock uc, ie interface sampling

With sensible use of the above, drill spacing can be enlarged to the extent that
many undercover areas can be prospected with a sufficient degree of reliability

cover
+ve Traces +ve Traces +ve
indications
ORE Bulk alt +ve Bulk alt -ve
in scout
drilling
gw? uc

ORE
n
Alteratio
Veins, Fractures etc.

Alteration Vector
Introduction
© ioGlobal Pty Ltd
Sampling…not just soils, stream seds, rock chips
etc…
Well
For example:
Open feed channel
Well water (in India)

Pump
(ox) Manual Pump

Pump handle
Outlet

Bucket

Introduction
© ioGlobal Pty Ltd
 Suggested Ref: Carey, M., et al, 2003.Groundwater flow in playa lake environments: impact on gold and
pathfinder element distributions in groundwaters surrounding mesothermal gold deposits, St. Ives area,
Eastern Goldfields, Western Australia. GEEA, Volume 3, Number 1, 2003, pp. 57-71(15)

Introduction
© ioGlobal Pty Ltd
 Groundwater Geochemistry Challenges
Sampling protocol
Filter or not, acidify in field or lab, hardware, contamination

Analysis
Good quality data essential (but hard to get)

Interpretation
Take into account controlling parameters (pH, Eh, aquifer, host
materials)

Introduction
© ioGlobal Pty Ltd
 Biogeochemistry
Sophisticated abilities to select elements that they
need
Tolerate other metals
Store those they don’t need (often in extremities such
as bark and twig ends and tree tops)
Can be used for:
•Delineating stratigraphy
•Delineating structure/faulting
•Outlining concealed mineralization

Courtesy Colin Dunn

Introduction
© ioGlobal Pty Ltd
 Biogeochemistry: Gold within bark

Courtesy Colin Dunn

Introduction
© ioGlobal Pty Ltd
 SOUTH AMERICA – Mo in leaves - Cu/Mo/Au porphyry
Foliage - Species A
MOLYBDENUM
on topographic contours

60500
1.4 17.5 9.8 65.4 3.9 13.9 Mo (ppm)
130
60000 120
7.8 11.1 4.3 10.9 0.3 0.2 110
9.6 50.0
14.3 100
90
59500
7.8 39.0 137.6 1.5
1.4 0.4 0.8 80
70
60
59000 0.5 50
2.1 44.8 36.9 2.7 3.1 0.7 40
30
58500 20
10
0
58000
1.2 0.3 0.1 0.1
metres 0.3
Courtesy Colin Dunn 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
Introduction
© ioGlobal Pty Ltd
 Biogeochemistry: Treetop sampling

Introduction
© ioGlobal Pty Ltd
 Biogeochemistry: Treetop sampling

Courtesy Colin Dunn

Introduction
© ioGlobal Pty Ltd
 NICKEL in Spruce Tops
Ni ppm
in ash
Max.1730 ppm
75th-98th
percentiles

431

274

ROTTENSTONE 193
DEPOSIT

132
5 kms
0
Courtesy Colin Dunn 0 5000 10000
Introduction
© ioGlobal Pty Ltd
 Biogeochemistry: Sap sampling

Introduction
© ioGlobal Pty Ltd
 Biogeochemistry
There are situations where it is advantageous

But, limited by: seasonal factors, availability of same species over the
survey area, lack of data etc

Systematic use in Australia needs further work!

Anomalies in vegetation should be anomalies in soil

May be key to understanding dispersion through cover

Introduction
© ioGlobal Pty Ltd
Termite Mounds

Introduction
© ioGlobal Pty Ltd
Termite Mounds

Introduction
© ioGlobal Pty Ltd
 Soil Gas (SDP)

Separates clay fraction from soil

Heats to de-sorb gases

Species identified

Can be directly related to the products of an

oxidising in-situ sulphide body

Introduction
© ioGlobal Pty Ltd
 Re-visiting Old Data
Opportunity for re-interpretation – Commonly after identification of 2nd and
3rd order anomalies e.g. the surface expression of a larger but more subtle
footprint

• Old data may be value added by

− Levelling

− Identification of subtle expressions of alteration

− Provides context to collect new data or interpret newly acquired data

However, although there is upside to compiling old data, the quality

usually limits its usefulness….

Collection of new data is potentially an Exploration Opportunity in

‘mature’ districts

Introduction
© ioGlobal Pty Ltd
 Various ‘Reliable’ Methods Available to
Exploration
Methods commonly used to reduce the search area:
‘Fertility’ and endowment filters
Isotopic screening
Use of historic data

Methods able to increase the size of the target:

Lithogeochemistry/alteration modeling (critical!)
Alteration mineralogy (e.g. spectral work)
Groundwater geochemistry
Isotopes (combined with other methods)

Methods for enhanced detection of mineralisation:

Better interpretation
Collection of high quality (sampling and analytical) data

Introduction
© ioGlobal Pty Ltd
 Impediments
• The method must be ‘known’ to be used (ignorance is not bliss!)
• Data of insufficient quality (analyses of trace elements to their
crustal abundance – you can’t define an anomaly unless you
measure background)
• Not enough samples collected to properly test the concept e.g.
not enough background or lack of 3D constraints in drilled
prospects
• Inappropriate sample collection protocols (of concern in many
historical compilations)
• Constantly changing analytical suites
• Lack of good orientation work
• Lack of systematic approach
• Lack of a track record – circular argument
Introduction
© ioGlobal Pty Ltd
 Geochemistry is best applied in combination with other methods!

Introduction
© ioGlobal Pty Ltd