Modul HPGD2203 Educational Management - Esept2021 (CS)

HPGD2203
Educational Management
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

HPGD2203
EDUCATIONAL
MANAGEMENT
Dr Abdul Wahab Abdul Ghani
Teh Lai Ling

Fourth edition 2021 (CS)
Third edition 2020
Second edition 2018
First edition 2011
Developed by Centre for Instructional Design and Technology, OUM.

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM), HPGD2203
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form or by any means without
the written permission of the President of Open University Malaysia (OUM).
www.oum.edu.my

Table of Contents
Course Guide xi–xvi
Topic 1 Management Concepts and Process 1

1.1 Professionals versus Management 2
1.2 Managing Principles 2
1.2.1 Henry FayolÊs Principles of Management 3
1.2.2 The Four Main Functions in Management 4
1.3 School Management Aspects 5
1.3.1 The Management of Teaching and Learning 5
(Curriculum)
1.3.2 Management of Co-curriculum (Sports, Clubs, 8
Associations and Uniform Bodies)
1.3.3 Management of Students Affairs (Security, Welfare, 10
Health and Student Information System)
1.3.4 Office and Financial Administration, Infrastucture and 11
Staff Development
1.3.5 Management of Community Relations 11
Summary 12
Key Terms 13
References 13
Topic 2 Management and Leadership Functions 14

2.1 Effective Management 15
2.2 Supervision and Staff Development 16
2.3 Evaluation and Supervision of the Teachers 18
2.4 The Teaching Staff 20
2.5 A Conducive Atmosphere 21
2.5.1 Family Influence 21
2.5.2 School Infrastructure and Atmosphere 22
2.6 Resource Management 22
2.7 Quality Control 23
2.8 HeadmasterÊs Roles and Responsibilities 24
2.8.1 Coordinators 25
2.8.2 Problem Solvers 25
2.8.3 Administrators and Managers 25

iv  TABLE OF CONTENTS
2.9 Leadership 26
2.9.1 Leader and Leadership 27
2.9.2 Theories of Leadership 33
2.9.3 Styles of Leadership and Measurement of Leadership 44
Summary 55
Key Terms 56
References 56
Topic 3 Educational Planning 59

3.1 Meaning and Nature of Educational Planning 60
3.2 Approaches to Educational Planning 65
3.3 Characteristics of Educational Planning 67
3.4 Educational Planning Dimensions 68
3.5 Educational Planning Process 69
3.6 Educational Planning Activity 71
Summary 74
Key Terms 74
References 74
Topic 4 Budgeting 76
4.1 Definitions and Functions of a Budget 77
4.2 Approaches to Budgeting 84
4.2.1 Site-based Budget 85
4.2.2 Limited Plan Budget 86
4.2.3 Zero Budgeting 88
4.2.4 Programme Budgeting 88
4.2.5 Pragmatic Budget 90
4.2.6 Incremental Budget 90
4.3 Budget Preparation 91
4.4 Budget Cycle 94
4.5 Budget Implementation 96
4.5.1 Distribution of Funds to the School Site 97
4.5.2 Technology 97
4.5.3 Maintenance and Operations 97
4.5.4 Risk Management 97
4.5.5 Food Services 98
4.5.6 Purchasing 98
4.6 Evaluation of Budget 98
Summary 100
Key Terms 101
References 101

TABLE OF CONTENTS  v
Topic 5 School as a Place for Teaching and Learning 103

5.1 Definition of Learning 104
5.2 Behaviourist Approach in Learning 104
5.2.1 Effect 105
5.2.2 Reinforcement 105
5.2.3 Punishment 106
5.3 Application of the Behaviourist Approach in the Classroom 106
5.3.1 Learning Objectives 107
5.3.2 Mastery Learning 107
5.3.3 Direct Teaching 107
5.4 Cognitive Approach in Learning 108
5.4.1 Information Processing Model 109
5.4.2 Recalling Information from Long-term Memory 110
5.5 Application of Teaching and Learning from the Cognitive 112
Approach
5.6 Constructivist Approach 113
5.7 Application of the Constructivist Approach 115
Summary 116
Key Terms 116
References 117
Topic 6 Organisational Culture and Climate 118

6.1 School Culture 119
6.2 School Climate 121
6.2.1 Types of Climate 122
6.2.2 Importance of Climate 123
6.3 Change in School Climate and Culture 124
6.4 Students Control 126
6.5 Organisational Dynamics 129
6.5.1 Organisational Change Concept 129
6.5.2 Types of Change in Schools 133
6.5.3 Theories and Models of Change 135
6.5.4 Challenges to Organisational Change 139
6.5.5 Factors Contributing to the Need for Organisational 141
Change
Summary 142
Key Terms 143
References 143

vi  TABLE OF CONTENTS
Topic 7 Communication in School 145

7.1 Definition of Communication 146
7.2 Communication Process 147
7.3 Purpose and Implication of Communication 147
7.4 Communication Obstacles and Ways of Overcoming Them 150
7.4.1 Semantic Obstacles 151
7.4.2 Psychological Obstacles 152
7.4.3 Physiological Obstacles 152
7.4.4 Physical Obstacles 153
7.5 Effective Communication Skills 153
7.6 Communication in Staff Management and Team Formation 156
7.7 Research Findings On Communication 159
Summary 160
Key Terms 160
References 161
Topic 8 Classroom Management 163

8.1 Enhancing Teaching Effectiveness 164
8.2 Classroom Management or Elements 165
8.3 Effective Teaching Techniques for Motivating Students 167
8.4 TeacherÊs Evaluation 171
8.4.1 Summative and Formative Evaluation 167
8.4.2 Understanding the Supervision Process 172
8.4.3 Supervision Framework 174
8.4.4 Supervision Model 179
8.4.5 Observation Record 183
8.4.6 Supervision: When and Where 184
8.4.7 Language Used in a Supervision Discussion 185
Summary 188
Key Terms 188
References 189
Topic 9 Quality Management in Education 190

9.1 Quality In Education 191
9.1.1 Definition of Quality 191
9.1.2 Characteristics of Quality 192
9.1.3 Elements of Quality 193
9.2 Strategy to Promote Quality in Education 195
Summary 199
Key Terms 200
References 200

TABLE OF CONTENTS  vii
Topic 10 Schools and the Future 202

10.1 Environmental Influence 202
10.2 Planning for Change 206
10.3 Curriculum Change to Face Future Challenges 208
10.4 The Principal as a Change Agent 210
10.4.1 Paradigm Shift for Successful Change 211
10.4.2 Current Approaches to Change 215
Summary 217
Key Terms 217
References 217

viii  TABLE OF CONTENTS

COURSE GUIDE

COURSE GUIDE  xi
COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION

You must read this Course Guide carefully from the beginning to the end. It tells
you briefly what the course is about and how you can work your way through
the course materials. It also suggests the amount of time you are likely to spend
in order to complete the course successfully. Please keep on referring to the
Course Guide as you go through the course materials as it will help you to
clarify important study components or points that you might miss or overlook.
INTRODUCTION
HPGD2203 Educational Management is one of the courses offered at
Open University Malaysia (OUM). This course is worth 3 credit hours and should
be covered over 8 to 15 weeks.
COURSE AUDIENCE
This course is offered to learners taking the Postgraduate Diploma in Teaching
programme. The main aim of the course is to provide learners with a strong
foundation of school managerial leadership and various teaching and learning
theories that will guide education professionals in the efficient and effective
delivery of education.
As an open and distance learner, you should be able to learn independently

and optimise the learning modes and environment available to you. Before you
begin this course, please ensure that you have the correct course materials,
understand the course requirements, and know how the course is conducted.

xii  COURSE GUIDE
STUDY SCHEDULE
It is a standard OUM practice that learners accumulate 40 study hours for
every credit hour. As such, for a 3 credit hour course, you are expected to
spend 120 study hours. Figure 1 shows the student learning time (SLT).
Figure 1: Student Learning Time
COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of this course, you should be able to do the following:
1. Propose appropriate solutions to problem related to management and
administration in educational institution.
2. Outline the management and finance process in education administration.
3. Perform proper supervision and evaluation for teachers.

COURSE GUIDE  xiii
COURSE SYNOPSIS
This course is divided into 10 topics. The synopsis for each topic is listed
as follows:
Topic 1 discusses the important concepts and principles in management. It also

highlights the processes involved in managing an educational organisation,
especially schools.
Topic 2 emphasises the importance of leadership skills and the application of

leadership theories in managing an educational organisation.
Topic 3 focuses on the importance of planning in education. The approaches,

characteristics and processes in educational planning are discussed for
effectiveness of planning.
Topic 4 discusses the important elements in budgeting. Approaches, preparation

and implementation of budget in an organisation are presented.
Topic 5 discusses the importance of developing a safe and conducive place for
teaching and learning. This topic also discusses relevant approaches in teaching
and learning.
Topic 6 examines the school climate and culture and how the school can
implement change effectively.
Topic 7 discusses the communication process as well as challenges in

communication. It also highlights the importance of having effective
communication skills.
Topic 8 discusses the procedures and exemplary classroom practices.
Topic 9 focuses on the characteristics and basic elements in quality. It also

discusses the strategies to enhance quality in education.
Topic 10 highlights the environmental influences and challenges in school. It also

discusses the curriculum change and why schools need to change according to
what is happening outside schools that would impact school operations.

xiv  COURSE GUIDE
TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE

Before you go through this module, it is important that you note the text
arrangement. Understanding the text arrangement will help you to organise your
study of this course in a more objective and effective way. Generally, the text
arrangement for each topic is as follows:
Learning Outcomes: This section refers to what you should achieve after you
have completely covered a topic. As you go through each topic, you should
frequently refer to these learning outcomes. By doing this, you can continuously
gauge your understanding of the topic.
Self-Check: This component of the module is included in strategic locations

throughout the module. It may be located after one subtopic or a few subtopics.
It usually comes in the form of a question. When you come across this component,
reflect on what you have already learnt thus far. By attempting to answer the
question, you should be able to gauge how well you have understood the
subtopic(s). Most of the time, the answers to the questions can be found directly
in the module itself.
Activity: Similar to Self-Check, the Activity component is also placed at various

locations or junctures throughout the module. This component may require you to
answer questions, explore short case studies or conduct an observation or research.
It may even require you to evaluate a given scenario. When you come across an
Activity, you should try to reflect on what you have gathered from the module
and apply it to real situations. You should, at the same time, engage in Higher
Order Thinking skills (HOTs) i.e. analysing, synthesising and evaluating instead
of only recalling and defining.
Summary: You will find this component at the end of each topic. It summarises
various important parts of each topic and helps you to recap the whole topic.
By going through the summary, you should be able to gauge your knowledge
retention level. Should you find points in the summary that you do not fully
understand, it would be a good idea for you to revisit the details in the module.
Key Terms: This component can be found at the end of each topic. You should
go through this component to remind yourself of important terms or jargon used
throughout the module. Should you find terms here that you are not able to
explain, you should look for the terms in the module.

COURSE GUIDE  xv
References: A list of relevant and useful textbooks, journals, articles, electronic

contents and sources can be found in this section. The list may appear in a few
locations such as in the Course Guide (in the References section), at the end of
every topic or at the back of the module. You are encouraged to read or refer to
the suggested references to obtain additional information and enhance your
overall understanding of the course.
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE
No prior knowledge required.
ASSESSMENT METHOD
Please refer to myINSPIRE.
REFERENCES
Main References
Hoy, W. K., Miskel, C. G. & Tarter, C. J. (2013). Education administration

(9th ed.). McGraw-Hill.
Seyfarth, J. T. (2005). Human resources management for effective schools. Pearson

Education.
Additional References
Cangelosi, J. S. (2014). Classroom management strategies: Gaining and

maintaining students' cooperation (7th ed.). Wiley & Sons.
Day, C., Sammons, P. & Leithwood, K. (2011) Successful school leadership. Open
University Press.
Mukhopadhyay, M. (2005). Total quality management in education (2nd ed.). Sage.
Ubben, G. C., Hughes, L. W. & Norris, C. J. (2011). The principal: creative

leadership for excellence in schools (7th ed.). Pearson.

xvi  COURSE GUIDE
TAN SRI DR ABDULLAH SANUSI (TSDAS)

DIGITAL LIBRARY
The TSDAS Digital Library has a wide range of print and online resources
for learners. This comprehensive digital library, which is accessible through the
OUM portal, provides access to more than 30 online databases and several of
them are shown in Figure 2. As an OUM learner, you are encouraged to make
full use of the resources available through this library.
Figure 2: Among the Online Databases Available at TSDAS Digital Library

Topic  Management
Concepts and
1 Process
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Define management;
2. Describe the concept of school management;
3. Explain the four management principal processes of management;
and
4. Identify some of the responsibilities in managing school curriculum

and co-curriculum.
 INTRODUCTION
Before we study the aspects of management in depth, we must first understand
what management is. Management is „the process of working with and through
others to achieve organisational objectives in a changing environment. Central to
this process is the effective and efficient use of limited resources‰ (Kreitner, 2005).
Management is both an art and a science in making people more efficient and
effective. The art aspect is about creating effectiveness among people without
being there while they are working. The science aspect is about how you do this
using the four pillars of management, namely, planning, organising, leading and
controlling, that is, P-O-L-C for short.
Imagine six workers producing six units of products without you. Then, imagine
you are hired as a manager in the enterprise, but the workers continue to work the
same way and produce the same number of units. What is the value of you as the
manager? The same analogy applies to any kind of work, including teaching.

2  TOPIC 1 MANAGEMENT CONCEPTS AND PROCESS
Can you make your teachers more productive with you or without you? Can the
school become more effective with you or without you? These are important
questions that need to be considered.
1.1 PROFESSIONALS VERSUS MANAGEMENT

Let us look at the difference between professionals and management. Doctors,
accountants, engineers, architects, lawyers, etc. are good examples of the former
category. As an example, a doctor treats patients using his ability and expertise.
He will not direct another person to perform his job functions on his behalf.
A nurse acts as the doctorÊs assistant. She does not have the same qualifications
and abilities as the doctor to carry out his job. So, she only assists him in examining
patients. In short, the doctor cannot assign his job to the nurse or any other
assistant. The same applies to other professionals.
Professionals are indeed very different from management. Management, in a

nutshell, means the directing of people to perform tasks efficiently and effectively.
In other words, management means ensuring that a job is carried out well until
completion. This means a manager does not necessarily need to know how to
perform a specific job but needs to act as a co-ordinator to ensure that the task is
carried out smoothly.
For example, the manager of a shoe factory does not necessarily have to know the
details of how to make shoes but he needs to ensure that all resources allocated to
him including human resources, that is, the employees under him, function
satisfactorily and that the objectives set by the organisation are achieved.
Furthermore, the manager needs to make sure that the objectives are achieved
efficiently and effectively. Let us now look at management principles more closely.
1.2 PRINCIPLES OF MANAGEMENT

There are certain principles in management that you, as a teacher, should take into
account. Thus, in this subtopic, we are going to read further on the principles that
cover the concepts and characteristics of good management.

TOPIC 1 MANAGEMENT CONCEPTS AND PROCESS  3
1.2.1 Henry Fayol’s Principles of Management

In 1916, Henri Fayol, an engineer by profession and widely acknowledged as a
founder of modern management, developed what he considered to be the 14 most
important principles of management to explain how managers should organise
and interact with staff.
Fayol's „14 Principles‰ was one of the earliest theories of management to be

created, and remains one of the most comprehensive. FayolÊs principles are listed
as follows:
(a) Division of work ă When employees are specialised, output can increase
because they become increasingly skilled and efficient.
(b) Authority ă Managers must have the authority to give orders, but they must
also keep in mind that with authority comes responsibility.
(c) Discipline ă Discipline must be enforced in organisations, but methods for

doing so can vary.
(d) Unity of command ă Employees should have only one direct supervisor.
(e) Unity of direction ă Teams with the same objective should be working under
the direction of one manager, using one plan. This will ensure that actions
are properly coordinated.
(f) Subordination of individual interests to the general interest ă The interests

of one employee should not be allowed to become more important than those
of the group. This includes managers.
(g) Remuneration ă Employee satisfaction depends on fair remuneration for

everyone. This includes financial and non-financial compensation.
(h) Centralisation ă This principle refers to how close employees are to the
decision-making process. It is important to aim for an appropriate balance.
(i) Scalar chain ă Employees should be aware of where they stand in the
organisation's hierarchy, or chain of command.
(j) Order ă The workplace facilities must be clean, tidy and safe for employees.
Everything should have its place.
(k) Equity ă Managers should be fair to staff at all times, both maintaining
discipline as necessary and acting with kindness where appropriate.

(l) Stability of tenure of personnel ă Managers should strive to minimise

employee turnover. Personnel planning should be a priority.
(m) Initiative ă Employees should be given the necessary level of freedom to

create and carry out plans.
(n) Esprit de corps ă Organisations should strive to promote team spirit and unity.
1.2.2 The Four Main Functions in Management

In the mid-1950s, the framework of management that comprises „planning‰,
„organising‰, „staffing‰, „directing‰ and „controlling‰ became widely known and
subscribed to. This model still provides a very useful way of classifying managerial
activities in an attempt to achieve organisational goals (Lamond, 2004). As the
management functions are interrelated and interdependent, scholars such as
Robbins and DeCenzo (2005) provide a slightly different model as depicted in
Figure 1.1 as follows:
Figure 1.1: Management process activities

Source: Robbins & DeCenzo (2005)

Today, most successful managers working in any organisation regardless of its

complexity, are known to perform the basic four managerial functions: planning,
organising, leading and controlling. Therefore, the following four processes of
management principles are interrelated and interdependent:
(a) Planning ă encompasses defining an organisationÊs goals, establishing an

overall strategy for achieving those goals and developing a comprehensive
hierarchy of plans to integrate and coordinate activities.
(b) Organising ă includes determining what tasks to be done, who needs to do

them, how the tasks are to be grouped, who reports to whom and what
decisions are to be made.
(c) Controlling ă the process of monitoring performance, comparing it with

goals and correcting any significant deviations.
(d) Leading ă includes motivating employees, directing the activites of others,

selecting the most effective communication channel and resolving conflicts.
SELF-CHECK 1.1
Identify and explain four principal process of management.
1.3 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT ASPECTS

The school principal is responsible for the following school management aspects:
teaching and learning (curriculum), co-curriculum (sports, clubs, associations,
uniform bodies), students affairs (security, welfare, health and student
information system), office administration and finance, infrastructure
development, staff development as well as community relations.
1.3.1 The Management of Teaching and Learning

(Curriculum)
In formal education, a curriculum is the set of courses and their content, offered at
a school or university. Curriculum means two things:
(a) The range of courses from which students choose what subject matters to
study; and
(b) A specific learning programme.
In the latter case, the curriculum collectively describes the teaching, learning and
assessment materials available for a given course of study.
The management of curriculum/teaching-learning in school is important for the

following purposes:
(a) To ensure the implementation of school syllabus;
(b) To coordinate teaching and learning activities by delegating the tasks to all
school teachers;
(c) To ensure the implementation and practising of daily, weekly and semesterly
lesson plans;
(d) To ensure the functions of a subject coordinator (panitia mata pelajaran);
(e) To direct the usage of educational technological tools and resources;
(f) To study and take actions on all reports relating to the curriculum;
(g) To coordinate all management of enrichment and remedial class activities;
(h) To coordinate all tests, examinations and assessment schedules; and
(i) To coordinate all curriculum programmes organised by the school, the
District Education Department, State Education Department and the
Ministry of Education.
Let us look at Figure 1.2 for an example of school curriculum management

activities.

1. Curriculum Committee
(a) Curriculum committee will be headed by the School Principal.
(b) Vice Principal 1, Vice Principal of Students Affairs, and Vice Principal of
Co-curriculum and the Afternoon Supervisor will be the Secretariat.
(c) Head of Departments, Excellent Teachers, Textbook Committee
Teachers and Librarians will be permanent members.
(d) Committee members will be all Subject Coordinators and the assistants
for all subjects from the removal class to Form six.
2. Curriculum Committee Meeting
(a) Curriculum committee meetings will be held four times in a year.
(b) The date of the meeting will be included in the school calendar.
(c) Minutes of the meeting will be distributed through the pigeon hole.
3. Assessment and Examination
(a) EXAMINATION MARKS-LOWER AND UPPER SECONDARY
LOWER SECONDARY HIGHER SECONDARY
GRADE MARKS GRADE MARKS
A1 75ă100
A 80ă100
A2 70ă74
B3 65ă69
B 70ă79
B4 60ă64
C5 55ă59
C 60ă69
C6 50ă54
P7 45ă49
D 40ă59
P8 40ă44
E 0ă39 G9 0ă39
(b) EXAMINATION MARKS ă FORM 6
FORM SIX
GRADE MARKS CGPA
A 80ă100 4.00
A- 75ă79 3.67
B+ 70ă74 3.33
B 65ă69 3.00
B- 60ă64 2.67
C+ 55ă59 2.33
C 50ă54 2.00
C- 45ă49 1.67
D+ 40ă44 1.33
D 35ă39 1.00
F 0ă34 0.00
Figure 1.2: Example of a school curriculum management activities
Source: sacredheart.demoportal.sekolah.edu.my/about/school-management

1.3.2 Management of Co-curriculum (Sports, Clubs,

Associations and Uniform Bodies)
Co-curriculum is also known as extra-curriculum or education for leisure or extra-
class activities (Mok, 2008). Co-curriculum activities involve clubs, sports and
uniform bodies activities which take place outside classrooms.
Co-curriculum activities include sports, arts and recreation, science and

technology as well as group and social activities. Figure 1.3 shows an example of
a co-curriculum organisational chart for co-curricular management.
Guidelines for co-curriculum activities are as follows:

(a) The contents and the organisations must be based on the National Education
Policy;
(b) The participation must be based on interest, talents and volunteering;
(c) Students play an important role in the co-curriculum activities. Teachers only
act as facilitators and advisors;
(d) The activities must be relevant with the development levels of students; and
(e) The activities must be suitable with the situation, environment,
socio-economic and cultural as well as the school background.
The management of the co-curriculum involves the following activities:

(a) Budget allocation for co-curriculum management;
(b) Supervising and coordinating the schoolÊs co-curriculum activities;
(c) Planning the annual co-curricular calendar that is inclusive of sports and
games;
(d) Choosing participants for sports, uniformed bodies or club competitions;
(e) Managing and supervising sports, uniformed bodies and club activities;
(f) Ensuring studentsÊ safety in co-curriculum activities;
(g) Managing co-curriculum courses and training for teachers and students; and
(h) Organisation of official trips involving students to localities outside the
schools.

Figure 1.3 shows an example of a school co-curriculum organisational chart:
Key
Pengetua = Principal
Pen. Kanan KK = Senior Assistant (Co-curriculum)
Penyelaras Badan Beruniform = Uniformed Body Coordinator
Penyelaras Kelab Perkhidmatan dan = Services and Welfare Club Coordinator
Kebajikan
= Subjects Club Coordinator
Penyelaras Kelab Mata Pelajaran
= Sports and Games Coordinator
Penyelaras Sukan dan Permainan
= Sports Secretary (Athletics)
Setiausaha Sukan (Olahraga)
= Advisory Teacher
Guru Penasihat
= Committee Member
AJK
Figure 1.3: Example of a school co-curriculum chart

Source: sacredheart.demoportal.sekolah.edu.my/about/school-management

1.3.3 Management of Students Affairs (Security,

Welfare, Health and Student Information System)
The following are the roles of the Students Affairs Department in educational
institutions:
(a) Coordinating and supervising the administration of students affairs;
(b) Managing and coordinating studentsÊs registration and records;
(c) Managing studentsÊ daily attendance records;
(d) Managing studentsÊ transfers;
(e) Managing the issuance of studentsÊ certificates;
(f) Checking studentsÊ assesesment record books and marks;
(g) Instilling accepted moral values;
(h) Ensuring the implementation of schools rules and regulations;
(i) Keeping disciplinary records and taking appropriate disciplinary actions;
(j) Planning and coordinating consultation and counselling programmes;
(k) Planning and coordinating welfare and orientation programmes for new
students;
(l) Implementing welfare activities such as food and milk supplement
programmes;
(m) Managing health programmes such as the management of kad rekod program
kesihatan sekolah (PKS cards);
(n) Coordinating the allocation of textbooks; and
(o) Coordinating the supervision of canteens and other food outlets.

1.3.4 Office and Financial Administration, Infrastucture

and Staff Development
The following are the tasks involved in the running of the office and financial
administration, infrastructure and staff development in educational institutions:
(a) Delegating tasks to teachers and support staff;
(b) Coordinating examinations, courses and training programmes for teachers and
support staff;
(c) Coordinating data collection and information;
(d) Planning, organising and coordinating activities in the annual school calendar;
(e) Coordinating work allocation among support staff;
(f) Preparation of the financial statement for auditing;
(g) Budget forecasting;
(h) Coordinating yearly fees collection;
(i) Staff discipline;
(j) Signing of school cheques; and
(k) Maintenance of school buildings and infrastructure.
1.3.5 Management of Community Relations

It is also important for schools to have a good relationship with the community
around them. Thus, it is good to develop effective two-way relations between
schools and external parties such as:
(a) Parents;
(b) Community;
(c) Non-governmental organisations;
(d) Other government agencies; and
(e) International organisations.

ACTIVITY 1.1
1. Identify some of the activities in managing school curriculum and
co-curriculum.
2. Why is it necessary for schools to develop effective two-way

relations with external parties?
Share your thoughts on these questions in myINSPIRE.
 Management involves directing other people to perform tasks most effectively

and in an efficient manner.
Ć Management is defined as „the art of getting things done through other

people‰, and the process of allocating resources effectively and efficiently to
achieve the goals of the organisation.
Ć There are four principal processes of management, namely, planning,

organising, controlling and leading.
Ć Careful planning is necessary to ensure the successful implementation of

school curriculum and co-curriculum activities. The school management plays
an important role in creating a conducive environment for academic
excellence.
Ć Principals and teachers need to understand and internalise the National

Education Policy, its aims and objectives and be able to integrate these into
curriculum and co-curriculum activities.
Ć Principals of schools are responsible for managing teaching and learning

(curriculum), co-curriculum (sports, clubs, associations, uniform bodies),
student affairs (security, welfare, health, students information system), office
and financial administration, infrastructure and staff development as well as
community relations.

Co-curriculum Management
Controlling Organising
Curriculum Planning
Leading
Carl A. R. (2001). FayolÊs 14 principles of management. Then and now: A framework

for managing todayÊs organisation effectively. Management Decision, 39 (10),
880ă889.
Kreitner, B. (2005) Foundations of management: Basics and best practices. Houghton

Mifflin.
Lamond, D. (2004). A Matter of Style: Reconciling Henri and Henry. Management

Decision, 42 (2), 330ă356.
Mok, S. S. (2008). Pengurusan aktiviti ko-kurikulum. Pengurusan Hal Ehwal Pelajar.

Penerbitan Multimedia.
Robbins, S. P., & DeCenzo, D. A. (2005). Fundamentals of management. Upper

Pearson.

Topic  Management
and Leadership
2 Functions
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. State the effective management techniques;
2. List the characteristics of a good and effective teacher;
3. Explain procedures of evaluation and supervision of teachers;
4. List the roles of leadership; and
5. Explain the concepts of leader and school leadership.
 INTRODUCTION
Successful schools are led by principals who are competent, and those who inspire
teachers and students. In facing current and future challenges, now more than
ever, schools in Malaysia need such principals who are adept in leadership and
managerial roles. Management is generally about doing things right, according to
the systems that are in place, while leadership is doing the right thing that
translates vision into reality (Bennis & Nanus, 1985). Effective school leaders act
skilfully within the management dimension of their job, and simultaneously excel
in leadership. The results of this combination is an increased quality in school
effectiveness and improvement.

TOPIC 2 MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIP FUNCTIONS  15
2.1 EFFECTIVE MANAGEMENT

In any organisation, managers focus on achieving organisational goals. In schools,
principals as managers achieve their goals by using resources such as finance,
materials, machines, time, space, and most importantly, human resource. Imagine
how impossible it would be for principals to function effectively without these
resources being made available to them. Management means utilisation of these
resources. However, not all organisations are able to maximise utilisation of
resources they have. Only competent and skilful managers productively utilise
and maximise scarce resources. You can imagine the impact on the organisation if
resources are not being provided or manipulated. In schools, this will surely affect
the quality of teaching and learning, and ultimately, academic achievement.
Did you know that the liberal and non-interference policy practised by the British
administration in the field of education resulted in the establishment of schools
which were entirely different from each other? These schools were:
(a) English schools;
(b) Religious schools;
(c) Chinese schools;
(d) Tamil schools; and
(e) Malay schools.
These schools were effectively managed by following the domains outlined as

follows:
(a) Planning
The process of planning is to determine the target of the organisation. In
planning, one has to consider the weaknesses and strengths of the
organisation.
(b) Organising
It is important to monitor the implementation of each activity carried as it must
be integrated and balanced. Wisdom and patience are two vital characteristics
in the process of organising. The focus of organising are as follows:
(i) Coordinate the activities so that there are no redundancies;
(ii) Identify the staff that are suitable for certain tasks based on their
expertise, level of tolerance and discretion. This is also important for
future undertakings; and

16  TOPIC 2 MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIP FUNCTIONS
(iii) Establish good relationship between the executives and their

subordinates. Good rapport will enhance the feeling of respect towards
one another.
(c) Leading or Directing

Direct staff members including giving advice and training. It is better if one
is able to motivate staff, for example, to provide leadership.
(d) Controlling
This is important in determining the current work performance. The work
quality needs to be controlled to evade low quality output. Controlling could
identify and rectify work performance which is lower than the expected
standard. An evaluation determines the success or failure of the
programmes. There are two types of evaluation, namely formative and
summative:
(i) A formative evaluation is to be done as soon as a task is completed; while
(ii) A summative evaluation is to be carried out after a certain time period, for
example, a month, a semester or end of the year.
2.2 SUPERVISION AND STAFF DEVELOPMENT

According to Duke (1987), instructional leadership focuses on key situations, for
example, actions that are carried out continuously by the headmaster to ensure
that the teaching and learning conducted by teachers are up to their standards and
of good quality. Among these key situations are as follows:
(a) The headmaster must monitor and supervise their teachers to gauge their
strengths and weaknesses;
(b) Teachers need to be exposed to the latest development in educational

innovations; and
(c) Staff development programmes have to be carried out throughout the year,
as a means to enhance the teachersÊ skills and knowledge. These
programmes can be conducted by their own colleagues and even by guest
experts.

As the teaching profession is considered a noble profession, teachers are

responsible to act as good role models for the students. Consequently, teachers
need to realise their important roles. Among these roles are as follows:
(a) Planners, Facilitators and Managers

Teachers need to plan and manage their teaching and learning process. In the
classroom, they are required to prepare the yearly, by semester, weekly and
daily plans for each subject. This involves planning the contents, based on
the syllabus which encompasses knowledge, skills and values. Furthermore,
they must also plan the teaching techniques and aids that they need to
employ for their teaching to be effective.
Besides that, a teacher needs to prepare learning activities for outside the
classroom, which is meant to support the learning in the classroom. A teacher
must also be able to plan and manage the environment to carry out activities
within a certain planned time period, control their studentsÊ discipline and
provide clear instructions for them to work on the activities.
Saedah (1996) mentioned that a teacherÊs role as a facilitator is to deliver

information to the students. Students are given opportunities to expand their
knowledge, revise and deliver new information. Last but not least, teachers
must also develop their students' talents and motivate them.
(b) Knowledge Disseminators

A teacher must provide adequate information as required by the syllabus.
Other than that, he must also teach effective study skills in order to motivate
the students to seek new information. By doing so, they will be dynamic and
master the study skills effectively.
(c) Enhancers and Reinforces of Skills

This is one of the important roles of a teacher. He must train the students to
acquire the intended skills and provide encouragement to practise them in
their daily life. Furthermore, a teacher also must motivate students to acquire
new skills.
(d) Instiller of Noble Values

A teacher indirectly instils noble values through teaching and learning
activities and also co-curriculum activities. Hence, these values will become
part of the studentsÊ characters.

(e) Guides
A teacher is also a guide to the students in the process of education. He
identifies and enhances studentsÊ potentials by taking into consideration
their differences in abilities, backgrounds and interests. It is easier for
effective guidance to be provided by teachers as they know the strengths and
weaknesses of their students.
(f) Role Models

As role models, teachers have to be competent, assertive and possess self-
confidence in their daily routines. A teacher has to show good character
whether in or out of the classroom. Among the characteristics that a teacher
must possess as a good role model are:
(i) Self-confidence;
(ii) Positive thinking;
(iii) A stable mind;
(iv) Dynamic;
(v) Imaginative;
(vi) Having an interesting daily routine;
(vii) Job satisfaction; and
(viii) Healthy and active.
ACTIVITY 2.1
As a curriculum manager, adopting an appropriate management

model will help you to perform your daily duties. Research the
management models and justify your selection. Share your findings
on myINSPIRE.
2.3 EVALUATION AND SUPERVISION OF THE

TEACHERS
The evaluation or supervision of teachers has to be done frequently. It can be
conducted either by monitoring the teaching methods employed or the exercises
given to the students. Teachers will have the opportunity to obtain guidance
directly from their headmasters through evaluation or supervision. In addition,

this will encourage them to be more prepared for any supervision and evaluation.
Also, evaluations will result in gathering more accurate information regarding the
teachersÂ performances. In relation to this, the Staff Development Committee
(SDC) of a school is established to ensure that teachers use effective teaching
methods in the classroom. The SDC is shown in Figure 2.1.
Figure 2.1: Typical composition of a Staff Development Committee (SDC)
The functions of the committee are to:

(a) Plan and coordinate staff development programmes;
(b) Motivate, guide and counsel;
(c) Enhance the competency of the resource management;
(d) Evaluate training programmes;
(e) Carry out follow-ups;
(f) Prepare documentations; and
(g) Provide training and exposure to newly appointed, transferred, change of
option and also non-trained teachers.

2.4 THE TEACHING STAFF

The teaching staff is an important factor that determines the success of curriculum
implementation. As teaching staff, teachers are required to:
(a) Internalise the National Education Policy

Teachers must fully understand and be clear about the National Education
Philosophy, which is to produce balanced and harmonious Malaysian
citizens who practise noble values, believe in God, possess high moral
standards and are responsible. Besides, he should be loyal to the nation and
be able to contribute towards the nationÊs development while inculcating
racial integration in a multiracial society.
(b) Be Trained
The Education Ministry always ensures that the teachers in Malaysia are
fully equipped with sufficient training. Among the steps taken to enhance
the quality of teachers are as follows:
(i) To raise the qualification standard of the teachers from certificate to
diploma and also first degree in the field of teaching;
(ii) To upgrade the teachersÊ training colleges to teaching institutes;
(iii) To conduct a systematic process of candidate selection for the teachersÊ
training programmes, for example, UKELP, which is a teachers training
qualification test;
(iv) To carry out interviews to select candidates for the TeachersÊ Training
programmes based on elements like ability, interest, attitude, dedication
and character;
(v) The syllabus of co-curriculum activities, known by its acronym
GERKO, is based on the current developments in education;
(vi) To enhance the infrastructure of the teaching institutes; and
(vii) To ensure quality in the selection system of the new lecturers.
(c) Be Interested, Creative and Innovative

Leonard, Yong and Biraimah (1996) states that teachers need to realise the
relationship between work commitments and their creativity to generate
new ideas in carrying out their duties. Creativity and innovation are a result
of interest and commitment to the job.

Teachers must also realise that the teaching profession is full of challenges,
and regardless of this, they should be able to perform their duties. They have
to persevere and be resilient in order to excel in their duties. What matters
most is that the teachers must be able to continuously improve their practises
by first accepting their own weaknesses, and then trying to overcome them.
Why is there always an inadequate supply of teachers? According to Omar

Hashim (1991), the supply of teachers is always inadequate due to the
following reasons:
(i) Increase in pupil population;
(ii) Retirement of teachers;
(iii) The upgrade of teacher-student ratio;
(iv) Teachers are seconded to other departments out of the Education
Ministry;
(v) Changes in policy;
(vi) Teachers are directed to attend courses; and
(vii) Commitment issues.
The commitment of the teachers is vital as they are considered as the agent
of change of the society. Therefore, teachers need to fulfil this additional role
in order to help produce citizens who are an asset to the society.
2.5 A CONDUCIVE ATMOSPHERE

Effective school management, in terms of student affairs and administration, can
surely contribute towards effective teaching and learning in the classroom. An
atmosphere that is conducive (clean, peaceful, orderly and well-managed) will
certainly contribute positively towards the studentsÊ discipline, and develop a
harmonious and controlled atmosphere in a school. Consequently, academic
activities can be carried out in the school effectively.
2.5.1 Family Influence

According to Howell and Brainard (1987), the environment of a schoolÊs location
and the studentÊs background are very important and worth analysing. This is vital
in planning an effective curriculum. They pointed out that family and peer groups
have a great influence on students.

Factors that influence the family will have a great impact on students. These
include the following:
(a) Family size;
(b) The studentÊs position in the family;
(c) Relationship of their parents; and
(d) The parentÊs perspective on education.
Peer group pressure certainly needs to be given due attention, as it has a major
influence on students. Relationships within a classroom are also very important
because these can influence their learning.
2.5.2 School Infrastructure and Atmosphere

The school infrastructure must be focused on the planning and management of an
effective curriculum. It can either be a significant obstacle or may assist in
determining the success of achieving excellence in a curriculum. The facilities and
buildings must also be analysed to ensure their optimal use.
The school atmosphere greatly influences every aspect of the curriculum, for
instance, the selection of the objectives, materials, method and evaluation. As the
atmosphere undergoes gradual changes, it is not easy to analyse; thus, it takes a
joint effort to analyse the atmosphere of a school.
2.6 RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

The school allocates a certain budget to prepare sufficient teaching aids for teachers to
teach effectively. Besides that, teachers have to be grouped according to their
specialisations, abilities, experiences and compatibilities. Staff are the most important
resource to ensure that the aim and objectives of the school can be achieved.
As curriculum leaders, headmasters must ensure that the budget is adequate for
the implementation of the curriculum and teaching. Among the actions needed to
be taken are as follows:
(a) Planning and preparing an expenditure estimate;
(b) Allocation based on priorities; and
(c) Expenditure based on proper financial procedures.

They also have to ensure that the teaching and learning materials are adequate and
updated so that the teaching and learning process goes on smoothly. In brief, the
following elements have to be considered for teaching and learning materials:
(a) Adequateness;
(b) Usability;
(c) Employment of the latest technology; and
(d) User friendliness.
2.7 QUALITY CONTROL

Continuous evaluation is vital to ensure that each activity performed is according
to the aim, needs, priorities and planned teaching standards. The output such as
examination results, can be a clear indicator of quality control. In addition, surveys
on customersÊ satisfaction that are carried out on parents, teaching staff, local
community and even the students can also give a clear picture of the effectiveness
of the school management. Quality control and continuous improvement can be
done based on the findings from interviews, questionnaires or surveys. They must
be done on people who are related to the school itself.
There are various challenges to the curriculum leadership in ensuring the

implementation of quality control measures. According to the Curriculum
Development Centre (Abdul Shukor Abdullah, 2004), some of the challenges are
as shown in Figure 2.2:

Figure 2.2: Challenges of curriculum leadership and management

Source: Abdul Shukor Abdullah (2004)
2.8 HEADMASTER’S ROLES AND

RESPONSIBILITIES
The headmaster position entails many roles and responsibilities. This subtopic
outlines some of these crucial roles and responsibilities.

2.8.1 Coordinators
Programmes, planning and implementation need to be coordinated parallel to and
compatible with the human resource aspect, such as the number and qualifications
of the teachers, time period, place, financial allocation, support services and
curriculum planning. Headmasters need to plan and implement activities
according to the strengths and abilities that their school possesses.
Every school is different in many aspects. This calls for proper coordination which
must be done indiscriminately from one school to the other. The analysis of
strengths and weaknesses is certainly helpful for the management to draw up an
effective plan.
2.8.2 Problem Solvers

Headmasters must be trouble-shooters who are able to solve problems that may
arise at any time especially in ensuring high quality teaching and learning
standards. Corrective action is needed to solve problems otherwise it may lead to
other problems. This is also important to satisfy the teachers. These key situations
demand that the headmasters possess skills and professional judgement.
The wisdom of headmasters is vital in each key situation that they deal with. The
key situations require the employment of different ways, methods, techniques and
approaches. They must also be far-sighted enabling them to see the big picture in
order to get accurate information and for immediate action to be taken in key
situations. Briefly, the key situations are the daily routines that the headmasters
have to prioritise.
2.8.3 Administrators and Managers

According to Omar Hashim (1991), headmasters who merely view their profession
as administrators will not succeed. An administrator normally emphasises heavily
on the bureaucratic characteristics, such as sitting alone in the office, calling the
subordinates, using a bell or the telephone, implementing strict rules and
regulations, having minimum face-to-face interactions with the teachers and other
staff. The priority of the administrator is power and control. The concern is to
enhance his power and to exert that on subordinates. The issue of teacher quality
will rarely be given due attention.

On the other hand, if headmasters consider themselves as managers, their views

will be based on a broader perspective. As managers they plan, coordinate and
consolidate every human effort under their leadership. A manager must give
importance to the following elements:
(a) Achievement of the school objectives;
(b) Reducing „red tape‰ and other obstacles that he faces;
(c) Frequent face-to-face interactions with the teachers and students to

overcome problems;
(d) Seek fresh approaches, techniques and new ways to develop the school; and
(e) Constantly seek beneficial leadership approaches that can synergise the
teachersÊ efforts towards achieving the objectives of the school.
2.9 LEADERSHIP
As an educator, how do you lead your students? In your opinion, do you have the
characteristics of a leader? Good school leadership will create an effective school.
This subtopic will explain the concept of school leadership, which is considered
important in the management and administration of a school. The subtopic begins
with the definition of a leader. This is subsequently followed by leadership
theories. Finally, your understanding of the concept of school leadership will be
further strengthened as you learn about the experience of researchers,
management members and organisational leaders.
Before you begin, read the quote below for a different perspective on leadership:
„A sense of humour is part of the art of leadership, of getting along with

people, getting things done‰.
(Dwight D. Eisenhower)

2.9.1 Leader and Leadership
ACTIVITY 2.2
Leaders and leadership are two distinctive matters. A leader is assessed

through his leadership. Does leadership originate from the environment
or can it be learnt? Discuss with your coursemates on myINSPIRE before
continuing to read this subtopic.
According to Abdul Shukor Abdullah (2004), the Education Ministry needs

leaders who possess different knowledge and skills at all levels, namely, from a
leader at the classroom level to the ministry level.
Leaders at the highest level are those involved in making decisions and policies.
Hence, they should have broad perspectives, knowledge and skills.
The diversity of leadership functions at the ministry demands three things:

(a) Development of career path;
(b) Development of a conducive organisational situation; and
(c) Development of reframing skills using multi-frame thinking.
Now, let us look at several aspects related to this subtopic.
(a) Definition of Leader and Leadership

There are various types of leaders – political leaders, leaders of an
organisation, leaders of a school or education, corporate leaders, leaders of
a small group, leaders of students, leaders of a community, etc. Before we
delve deeper, let us try to define a „leader‰ in a simple sentence:
A leader is someone who is acknowledged as possessing influence,

prestige and power, be it for a short or long term, in a certain situation,
by two individuals or more.
Most leaders are determined by the role they play. For example, someone
who is elected as a principal plays the role of a leader of an organisation as
well as education.

Figure 2.3 presents two more definitions of a „leader‰ that are relevant to the
topics discussed in this module:
Figure 2.3: Definition of leaders according to Fiedler and Stoner
Thus, a leader is an individual in a group who directs, coordinates and

supervises tasks related to the groupÊs activities.
As for the term „leadership,‰ various definitions have been given by

academicians and researchers in this field. Refer to Table 2.1.
Table 2.1: Definitions of Leadership
Figure Definition of Leadership

Hemphills & Coors, The behaviour of an individual when directing a group
(cited from Yuki, activity towards a shared goal.
1981)
Tannenbaum, The influence among individuals that is conducted in a
Weshlers & certain situation, under direction, through a
Maosarik, (cited communication process, towards the achievement of
from Yuki, 1981) goals or a specific goal.
Stogdill, 1974 Empowerment and handling of structures in
expectation and interaction.
Fiedler, 1967 The relationship between individuals that reveal the
unequal distribution of power and influence to the point
that the individual is able to direct and control the actions
of others, more than their control on the individual.

Bass, 1985 When a memberÊs goal, namely A, is to change the other

member, B, or when the change of behaviour in B provides
A with rewards or solidifies AÊs behaviour. AÊs attempt to
achieve the goal is leadership.
Rost, 1991 The influential relation between the leader and the
follower who desire change in order to achieve a shared
In short, leadership is the style of a leader in influencing the group

members to carry out activities towards achieving the shared goal.
The given definition explains that the goal will be attained when an
individual begins an action and follows up with work from other
individuals. This means that the distinction between the leader and followers
lies in two functions – giving orders and carrying out orders.
ACTIVITY 2.3
List down examples of goals which can be shared between a school

principal and teacher. Share your list on myINSPIRE.
(b) Function of Leadership

We will not be able to see the function of leadership clearly if we do not
observe the functions of the leader itself. What is the function of a leader?
Refer to Table 2.2.
Table 2.2: Roles of Leadership
Role Description
Executive A leader is a person who has the executive power to:
• Direct;
• Administer, coordinate activities;
• Make decisions, especially if there are disagreements;
• Distribute power (empowerment) to assistant officers
(subordinates); and
• Make assessments and changes.

Planner A leader is given the power to plan all of the activities of

the organisation.
Thus, the leader must be one who is:
• Visionary;
• Capable of determining the goal that is to be achieved;
• Capable of identifying a way to achieve the goal
through planned activities; and
• Capable of controlling the plans.
Policy Maker A policy refers to rules and guides which need to be followed
by all the members of an organisation while carrying out their
duties. These include:
• Manner of action;
• Management; and
• Performance of activities.
A policy is not necessarily made by one individual. It can
also be made collectively, namely, through cooperation of
leaders at a lower rank.
Specialist A leader is assumed to be a specialist in the field of leadership
and possess certain skills. Nonetheless, a leader needs to
obtain the views of leaders from the lower levels so that the
decisions and actions taken have a good impact on the
organisation and its members.
Group A leader is the spokesperson of the organisation when
Spokesperson describing the organisation to a certain group and to other
organisations. He is also responsible for giving reports to
higher-level authorities.
Internal A leader is responsible for the control of internal
Communication communication among members of the organisation,
Guard especially during the occurrence of tension or conflict.
Provider of A leader has full power to give or suggest names of
Rewards and individuals who qualify for rewards, praise, etc. In addition,
Punishment he has the full power to give advice, notice of warning and
punishment for certain cases.
Middle Man A leader plays the role of a judge or a peace adjudicator in
certain situations, especially when conflict arises among
members of a cases group.
Role Model A leader needs to have good characteristics to be a role model
to members of the organisation. Indirectly, this will encourage
members to observe the good behaviour shown and follow in
his footsteps.

Group Symbol When people see a leader, they know the organisationÊs
management pattern. Or if they see an organisation and its
members, they know that it is under the leadership of a
certain individual.
Ideologist A leader is always giving new ideas, be it either from a
management or human resource management aspect, which
is especially related to the local communityÊs values and
norms. This is quite beneficial as it deals with change of
behaviour among the members of the organisation.
Father Figure A leader is also like a father figure to those under his
leadership. He becomes a confidant and aids in resolving
both work-related and personal problems.
Overall, the functions of a leader can be divided into two levels – task function
and management function (Lassey & Sashkin, 1983) (see Figure 2.4).
Figure 2.4: Two levels leadership functions

The role of leaders is very important, based on three aspects (Bennis, 1989).
Refer to Figure 2.5.
Figure 2.5: Three reasons for the importance of leaders
What is your opinion on the post of a principal? Is a principal a leader or a

manager? Actually, a principal is both.
The important roles of a principal can be summed up as follows:
• As a manager who focuses on the use of resources.

• As an administrator who focuses on rules and regulations.
• As a leader who focuses on human emotions and thoughts.
• As a chief executive officer who focuses on the achievement of the
vision and mission.
• As a coordinator between the school, parents and society.
(c) Characteristics of a Respected Leader-Manager

To become a successful head of any organisation, a person has to possess
and practise excellent managerial and leadership skills together with
attractive personal characteristics in order to garner respect and recognition
from their subordinates. This would encourage the subordinates to do their
work well and be dedicated in achieving the organisationÊs goals.
By now, you would have already understood that management and leadership are
very much intertwined with each other, and both managerial and leadership skills
are prerequisites for success in school leadership. As you continue reading this
module you will understand more about the differences between a manager and a
leader, and what it means to be an educational leader, and how you could start
practising excellent leadership in your workplace.

ACTIVITY 2.3
1. Change and innovation in the national education system is
occurring at a rapid pace. In your opinion, what skills do principals
require to cope with this?
2. Leaders practise both executive powers and empowerment.

Describe how leaders carry out both these contradictory roles
effectively.
2.9.2 Theories of Leadership

What are the leadership theories that you have heard of?
There are six theories that will be discussed in this subtopic:
(a) Transactional Leadership
Transaction is defined as an exchange. Transactional leadership is a

leadership that is based more on exchanges. This means that the
workload given to workers is assessed through rewards, pay,
acknowledgement, promotion, etc.
It is believed that in transactional leadership when an employee is given

more pay or a promotion, then the employee will work with more dedication
or do anything asked of them. All employees will increase productivity so
that they will not be given a warning notice or be punished.
(b) Transformational Leadership
Transformational leadership is a leadership with authority in bringing

change to the organisation, which is changing from one situation to
another that is deemed better.
Leaders with the transformational leadership style believe they can

encourage others to change their attitude and values so that they will be
committed to the goals of the organisation.

In 1978, J. M. Burns proposed that there was a distinction between the

transactional style and the transformational style. His theory (see Figure 2.6)
is supported by many other researchers, including Bernard Bass, who
presented empirical evidence that supports BurnsÊ theory (Bass, 1985). Bass
invented a special equipment to measure the behaviour of fellow
transactional leaders and that of transformational leaders and found that the
transformational style is more effective compared to the transactional style.
Figure 2.6: BurnsÊ theory
Transformational leadership occurs when employees are willing to work to

achieve the aims and goals of the organisation. They are committed,
concerned and motivated. This is achieved by providing them with correct
information, support and encouragement. Consequently, they will use their
own initiative to think and act without waiting for directives from superiors.
Transformational leaders succeed in changing the attitude and values of

those whom they lead because they have succeeded in giving them a new
sense of awareness. This is done by encouraging them to seek moral values
such as social justice, harmony of society, emotional independence, peace
and humanity. By doing so, employees will forget negative attitudes such as
being selfish, having greedy desires, being jealous, and feeling hatred and
having vengeance. According to Burns and other experts who agree with
him, the development of society depends on the existence of a
transformational type of leader as these leaders will succeed in fostering the
spirit of sacrifice and the energy to fight for that society.

According to BassÊ study (Bass, 1985), transformational leaders are created

by the existence of three factors, as depicted in Figure 2.7.
Figure 2.7: Three factors that contribute to transformational leadership
The intellectual character of leaders could develop the capability to think

among those whom they lead and help them to increase their knowledge.
According to the Bernard BassÊ study, those who are led by a
transformational leader work harder, are more committed and are more
satisfied.
Other researchers that arrived at conclusions similar to Bass include

organisational communication psychologists Redding (1972) and Jablin and
Putnam (2001).
(c) Instructional Leadership
An instructional leader deals with planning and the implementation of

change actively, and at the same time encourages collaboration and
teamwork.
This leader focuses on the quality of teaching and learning, and has high
expectations of the staff and students in contributing their best towards a
shared goal.

Hopkins (2001), states that an instructional leader focuses on three domains,

Figure 2.8: Instructional leadership domains

Source: Hopkins (2001)
Lipham and Hoeh (1974) presented an alternate view of instructional

leadership:
A principal that is of teaching characteristics, is involved in the designing,

implementation and assessment of change.
(Lipham and Hoeh, 1974)
According to Krug (1993), managers need to carry out five actions in order
to be instructional leaders:
(i) First, the manager needs to explain the school mission to the teachers,
students and parents.
(ii) Second, the manager needs to manage the curriculum and the teaching
aspect. Effective leaders will prepare the information required by
teachers to plan their teaching. However, without a broad knowledge
of the curriculum, teaching will not occur.
(iii) Third, the manager needs to observe the teaching sessions. An
instructional leader emphasises clinical observation and staff
development.

(iv) Fourth, a manager needs to supervise the studentsÊ progress,

whereupon, instructional leaders need to possess an extensive
knowledge of ways to spur the studentsÊ achievement and ways of
measuring it.
(v) Fifth, a manager needs to enhance the learning environment. Krug
states that teaching in a classroom makes a school manager an
instructional leader.
In short, the five actions can be summed up in Figure 2.9.
Figure 2.9: Five factors that are required in an instructional leader
Thus, the real role of a principal is as an instructional leader, which is

more than just as an administrator. The principal is responsible in
setting the situation and level of school education achievement. It is the
principal who determines the quality of student performance in
national examinations.
An instructional leader uses two types of strategies:

(i) Direct Strategy – which deals with advising and visibility, for instance,
and teaching.
(ii) Indirect Strategy – through activities conducted by the principal to
influence learning.

This strategy can be grouped into eight main functions of a principal,

Figure 2.10: PrincipalsÊ strategies
A synthesised study of the role of principals in instructional leadership and

their influence on the student can be viewed in Figure 2.11 (Hussein
Mahmud, 1993).

Figure 2.11: Principal leadership in teaching or instruction
Instructional leadership is a complex variable which consists of various

functions and activities, or a mixture of activities (professional and
non-professional), direct or indirect.
(d) Situational Leadership
A leader who practises situational leadership is a person who could adapt

his leadership behaviour to fulfil the needs of his followers and specific
situations. Such leadership is not concerned with what is the best style but
rather, which style is more effective for a situation.

Based on the evidence presented through empirical research, there is no one

superior style of leading (normative). If a person wants to be effective while
managing, he needs to possess the skills to analyse their own leadership
behaviour in the context of the environment. When a leadership style suits
the environment, as measured from its results, it is said to be effective. On
the other hand, if a style is unsuitable for a certain environment, the leader
is deemed ineffective.
A combination of considerations and empowerment structures will produce

four styles, as shown in Figure 2.12. By determining the effectiveness, as
explained before, all four styles produced can become effective or
ineffective, depending on the environment.
Figure 2.12: Four styles of leadership

Adapted from: Graeff (1983)

There is a combination of two dimensions – consideration and empowerment

(see Table 2.3).
Table 2.3: Type of Leader Behaviour
Type of Leader
Explanation
Behaviour
Task Behaviour • Refers to the extent to which the leader organises
(empowerment) and defines the role of the members (followers).
• Explains what activities need to be done by each
person, including when, where and how the task is
to be conducted.
• Sets the organisational pattern, sets the
communication channel and sets ways in
conducting the work or task.
Relational • Refers to the extent to which the leader sustains
Behaviour personal ties among group members, namely, by
(consideration) opening channels of communication, providing
socioeconomic, psychological and behavioural
support. The first type of behaviour is similar to the
empowerment structure while the second is the
same as consideration. Both types of behaviour
create four styles of leadership.
• This situational theory proposes that there be only
one situational variable that influences the leaderÊs
effectiveness in behaviour, which is through the
followersÊ maturity. This is because in whatever
situation, the followers are important not only as
individuals as they also accept or reject leaders. It
is they who really determine what personal powers
they may possess.
(e) Credibility Based Leadership
A credible leadership has an assured capability that is true and

observed. It also becomes a measurement of the leaderÊs reputation
at the respective location.

Credibility is built by adopting the following practices:
(i) Individual Self

• Takes care of self appearance;
• Remembers names;
• Is happy;
• Makes jokes; and
• Entertains.
(ii) Staff
• Meet informally as much as possible;
• Fetes them;
• Very approachable; and
• Seen teaching as many classes as possible, etc.
(iii) Students
• Introduces interactive media resources, such as for mathematics,
science and geography, which make the school environment
learning oriented; and
• Joins them for meals and so on.
(iv) Parents
• Introduces programmes which involve their willing participation;
• Prepares regular times when parents can meet; and
• Solves studentsÊ problems immediately.
ACTIVITY 2.4
Is credibility important in a leader? Discuss this with your coursemates.

(f) Charismatic Leadership
A person with charismatic leadership possesses high management skills

and succeeds in causing a major or big change in the administration.
Charismatic leaders become the focus of loyal followers as they are able to
inspire them until they not only accept the needs of the leader, but also carry
out orders without any questions asked and without taking into
consideration personal benefits.
Among the world leaders seen as possessing charisma are Sukarno,

Mahatma Gandhi, John F. Kennedy and Ayatollah Khomeini. This is due to
their capability to make changes.
Leadership that is most distinctive in its meaning has been shown by

Prophet Muhammad. The effect of his influence is still strong even after his
demise. He not only gained strength from his personality but also from the
missions that he carried out. The charisma of most leaders is destroyed when
they are not able to show their qualification as a charismatic leader anymore.
However, the charisma of the prophet is sustained in his acts of faith
followed by Muslims, even though he is not around anymore to lead.
Weber (1968) defines charisma as the following: „Qualities of a certain

personality that is present in an individual, which causes him to stand
out from the ordinary person and be treated as one being bestowed with
power and supernatural qualities, ...‰ (1968c:48).
House (1977) says that with their personal capabilities, charismatic leaders
could have a deep and outstanding impact on their followers.

2.9.3 Styles of Leadership and Measurement of

Leadership
How can new leadership improve unsatisfactory school performance?
The focus of new leadership is to:

(a) Develop structures of ideas;
(b) Build shared loyalty; and
(c) Help the school to become a responsible community.
Leadership practices cannot be separated from the focus of the new leadership. It
needs to be normative (standard) and possess values. This normative nature does
not mean that the leadership lacks a stand or is not aggressive. It needs to be based
on the values held by the parents, students and teachers.
Each leader has his own stand especially on values. The strength of these values
can differentiate between one leader and another, especially in terms of teaching
and learning.

The meanings of values depicted in Figure 2.3 may help leaders to play their roles:
Figure 2.13: Meanings of values on leaders
The current issue that is always raised concerns leadership and change. An
effective leader is constantly questioning changes that has been done (in schools)
but not on the improvement of what is presently available.
Comparatively, which of the two is chosen, especially by the members of society

and school members?
(a) Managers who focus on operating the system of the organisation; or
(b) Leaders who focus on changing the system of the organisation.
According to Bennis and Nanus, 1985, „⁄ while managers do things right, leaders
do right things.‰

A strategy in managing the purpose of school leadership (such as academic

development and development of civic consciousness among teachers and
students) also requires changes, such as those obtained from approaches in the
form of mandates and rewards (tight control, fines, rewards that cause uniformity,
stifle creativity, focus on the minimum, stingy or minimal involvement and
increase of self importance) to approaches in the form of capacity building and the
involvement of the managerial roots.
This capacity building creates an intellectual model through emphasis on

knowledge development, efficiency and skill among parents, teachers and other
school members (smarter parents mean smarter students).
One of the features of an effective leader is efficiency. Efficiency means being

capable of allocating time and managing observation, meaning, mandates, self
management, paradox, effectiveness and commitment.
Let us read further and refer to Table 2.4.
Table 2.4: Efficiency of a Leader
Efficiency of a Leader Explanation
Management of • The capability to focus on matters related to values,

Observation ideas, aims and purposes in leadership.
• Explaining rationale - a source of power that will spread
honesty, consensus and commitment.
Management of • Capability of combining teachers, parents and students so

Meaning that their commitment will be more meaningful and more
appreciated.
Management of • Exists when there is the capability to observe greatness,
Mandates excellence and honesty. This will provide the opportunity
to appreciate the reasons why something is implemented,
especially in decision making.
Self-Management • The leader knows himself, knows who he is, his
capabilities and reasons for doing or implementing a
certain matter.
• Due to that, self-management is an art that should be
developed. It cannot be obtained with the element of practical
intelligence. Practical intelligence is the ability to know when
something occurs and how to do it.

Management of • The capability to gather and unify ideas that seem

Paradox contradictory to one another, but is resolved later on
through compromise (without sacrificing the professional
aspect).
• The leader looks towards ideas, values and visions as a
source of morality to the power that they hold or possess.
• They distribute power widely with the purpose to achieve
their goal(s). This is to control their followers.
• They feel successful when something good has happened,
no matter who was responsible for doing it.
Management of • Deals with the capability for development in schools to
Effectiveness improve performance from time to time.
• The key to effective management is based on how the
success of the school is understood and measured. The
success of the school involves learning (among its
members) and developing relationships.
Management of • Creating an overall framework leadership practice when
Commitment the other forms of efficiency mentioned have been
implemented. The cognitive factor (towards the idea) is
emphasised by pushing aside bureaucracy and personal
elements.
• Leadership that is based on ideas invite each individual,
teacher, parent and student to work together with the
leader in accepting any responsibility in the school.
Now, let us examine the motive behind leading, the actions that makes a leader
effective and the impact of such leadership. Consider the following points:
(a) Leading with a Vision

Being visionary deals with big ideas, specifically those which have been
programmed to achieve the vision through aims that have been set. These
big ideas are the possession of an individual or a group that are shared with
their members. The achievement of this vision mostly depends on how it is
inculcated in the management process, such as through dissemination of
power, consideration, being warm and friendly, building a conducive
working climate, being consistent and firm yet supportive.

However, there is evidence that although leaders do the same thing, the end
results are not similar. Success depends mostly on whether the leader has a
vision to present. It is this success that will shape the vision and achievement
of the aim (that is acknowledged by the community and those with power)
which will determine whether the person is an effective leader.
The leader needs to be capable of creating meaningful activities for the

subordinates as this will change their behaviours.
Gardner (1986, as cited in Sergiovanni, 2001) believed that effective leaders

not only know how to manage their daily responsibilities in school
operations but also know how to manage needs, aspirations and symbols.
The cultural and symbolic aspects of leadership cannot be neglected as these

contribute to the leadershipÊs effectiveness. These two aspects become more
influential when the context of leadership becomes more uncertain.
Leadership in schools actually provides many symbols that help parents,
students, teachers and other school members play their role in making the
school successful. These symbols are the keys to motivation.
The purpose of leadership is to create moral regulation which unites a leader

with his followers and others around them. When the leader intends to
elevate the quality of his practice, he emphasises symbols (cultural forms)
and meanings. The practices of a symbolic leader focus on observing the
extent to which members are aware of matters important to the school.
Some examples of practices of symbolic leaders are patrolling the school,

visiting classrooms, observing students and allocating time to be with them,
emphasising awareness on the importance of education (more than managerial
tasks, determining religious activities, official ceremonies and important
events) and generating the shared vision by their words and actions.
A symbolic leader becomes ineffective if the symbols are meaningless.
Meaningless symbols that have no backbone or content to state its purpose,

values and ideas cannot help to build strength and commitment among the
teachers, parents and various shareholders; such symbols cannot gear the
school towards success. Conversely, if the symbols are meaningful, it will
become „a set of ideas‰ that are successfully presented and enforced, which
will become a source of power in deciding what should be done and ways
of doing it. To observe leaders with vision, we need to focus on leadership
features that are based on ideas.

Figure 2.14 shows a comparison between a leader who holds bureaucratic

power with a leader who possesses personal authority:
Figure 2.14: Comparison between personal authority and bureaucratic power
Between these two types of leadership, personal authority still remains

popular. Nonetheless, in reality, followers are not that attracted to the leaderÊs
personality (for instance, he knows when motivation is required) or their
interpersonal skills. Teachers, for instance, abide easily to leaders who have
vision behind their actions (a person of substance), namely, principals who
base their practices on ideas. When the purpose of the school is clear and the
shared values have been sowed, then, one framework of idea will develop in
the school. Teachers will appreciate their responsibility that is translated into
their behaviour. All leadership theories stress on the relationship between
mankind, and between them and their work.
However, not all these theories stress on similar types of relationship. For
instance, theories such as The Pyramid, Railroad and High Performance, stress
on types of relationships that are contract-based and with the assumption that
human beings are motivated by self-importance. To ensure that work is done,
extrinsic or intrinsic rewards are traded to obtain compliance, and fines are
placed for non-compliance. Thus, the leadership formed is like a barter trade
between the leader and those who are being led.
In addition, many school leaders view schools as a moralistic community. A

moralistic community has two advantages over the three theories presented
earlier. It creates a moral relationship between teachers, supervisors,
students and other members of the school, and this in turn, can gear the

school towards self-management. A moralistic relationship is more powerful

than a relationship forged by rewards. A moralistic relationship is based
more on cultural norms in comparison to relationships that are based on
psychological needs.
(b) Leading the School Community Towards Accountability

Schools do not only need a community-based image but should also be
responsible. This is the best way to become an effective school. Ideas on the
nature of humankind and the organisational characteristics itself influence
our thoughts on the community. The best idea of a community is the theory
that is similar to the communitarian theory (Etzioni 1993, is one of the
founders of the communitarian theory).
A community is assumed as being ideal when there is a balance between

these two view points (see Figure 2.15):
Figure 2.15: Viewpoints according to communitarian theory
Equilibrium is reached when a formulation that comes from the top is

decided locally by the school communities. Accountability is achieved in the
form of validation (by examination or checking) by the members of the
school community and the other communities. It is further strengthened by
public acclaim. Hence, there is accountability that enables the central power
to decrease.
A community in this context is a moralistic phenomenon, that is, more than

a geographical or territorial entity. It is hard to develop a responsible
community. However, when it is constructed, it is the best substitute for a
bureaucratic leadership, even if the leadership is a personally-based
leadership.

Leadership in a responsible community contains power that is based on

appreciation, commitment, promises, obligations, in-depth studies,
respectable principals, standards that have been agreed upon, pure ideas
and so on. The ideas for leadership are based on morality that is contributed
by existing or formed norms, values, belief or faith, purpose, aims,
standards, hopes and dreams.
Figure 2.16 shows reasons for the importance of having a sense of

community in schools (Sergiovanni, 2001):
Figure 2.16: Importance of having a community in schools
Cultural relationships are important in building a community. Such ties help

us to understand studentsÊ needs in order to prevent anti-social behaviour
among students. Community development is also spiritual. It is based on
loyalty, purpose and sentiment that arise from understanding and
commitment, whether stated or not. This relationship may have elements of
bargaining but is still spiritual in nature.

The opposite of cultural relationships are rational relationships, which are

in the form of obvious bargaining. Material rewards are given for doing
something well and fines are meted for the opposite. Sergiovanni (2001)
stated that relationships that are cultural and contain a spiritual declaration
are the pillars of responsible communities. These relationships create a bond
of love and loyalty that forms the moralistic climate required. Concern for
studentsÊ well-being brings out the cooperative nature in them.
When a school develops into a responsible community, the central

authorities will have the confidence to allow the schoolÊs authorities to
practise school-based management. However, the central authorities usually
do not think the school authorities are ready and capable of practising high
standards.
According to Sergiovanni (2001), with scrutiny and public disclosure at the

local levels comes given mandates, and with given mandates comes more
local control. In other words, the existence of an effective community in
schools eases decentralisation.
(c) Leadership and Learning, Finding a Practical Theory

The focus of todayÊs school leadership (principal, teachers and students) is
organisational learning. Students and teachers also need to become
members of this learning community through its practices. Schools need to
provide this opportunity. This includes preparing the structure, pathway
and norms to encourage and elevate the learning of teachers. When teachers
are intellectual, it will breed organisational intelligence.
Indicators of organisational smartness, such as perception, memory, cause and

effect, imagination and also motivation can be used to observe a teacherÊs
intelligence. This moulds the leadership into being less principal-centred.
These signs of organisational intelligence can be developed by manipulating

organisational variables, namely, scope of control, conciseness of leadership,
time used to achieve aims and the level of participation in decision making.
This manipulation will influence the capability of human beings to learn.
Practices in leadership, such as observation, supervision, ways of making
decisions, distribution of power (empowerment), involvement of people,
interaction and communication will influence the school level and the
members towards the signs of intellectual organisation (assumptions,
memory sensory, cause and effect, imagination and motivation).

A study on perceptions towards a good leader conducted by John Mac Beath

and his associates Leif Moos, Pat Mahony and Jeeny Reeves in 1998, (in
Sergiovanni, 2001) identified six qualities of a good school leader and
leadership (see Figure 2.17):
Figure 2.17: Six qualities of a school leader and leadership
In this study, leaders are considered effective because of their vision and
their capability in presenting their vision and values with clarity.
(i) They disseminate power by developing a cooperative situation, and
then controlling it through an influential support group in the school
community.
(ii) They are „ahead of the game‰ with their wide and strategic views
(national) regarding any oncoming changes.
(iii) They manage themselves and have a sense of personal
professionalism.
(iv) They manage the tension that exists among those who are dependent
with those who have autonomy, those who are careful with those who
are brave, and between operation and development.
(v) They focus on the development of young staff as well as other staff.
They remain high spirited and committed to learning. Their strength
is evident in their lifelong hopes.
If schools focus on learning, then it is the main task of the leadership and
management to create a positive situation in order for individuals to learn. This
includes preparing effective teachers with interesting approaches and strategies,
as well as complete equipment.

ACTIVITY 2.5
1. The following is an excerpt of a newspaper article, dated 10
August 2005, which tells of a haze situation affecting schools.
What resolution can you think of?
School Can Be Closed in Critical Haze Situations, States

Hishammuddin
Kuala Lumpur, 9 August (Bernama) · Education Minister,
Datuk Seri Hishammuddin Tun Hussein stated that he is giving
power to principals and headmasters/headmistresses to make
the decision of closing schools for a while, namely, when a haze
situation becomes worse.
According to Datuk Seri Hishammuddin Tun Hussein, he will
support the decision to close affected schools for a while if the
school authorities have a solid reason, and convinces the
ministry as well as the parents.
„I leave it to the teachers and school leadership to determine the
best for their schools,‰ said Hishammuddin to reporters after
launching the Resource Centre for Sekolah Menengah
Pendidikan Khas (Cacat Penglihatan) in Setapak on Tuesday.
He stated that haze is an emergency situation that needs to be
handled rationally. However, he added that he cannot come out
with a directive that involves all schools throughout the country
as the haze situation is only occurring in the Klang Valley.
He then asked for school authorities to not hesitate in making a
decision if it involves the matter of health, safety and school
environment that can endanger students.
According to Hishammuddin, besides closing schools for a short
period, school authorities can also change the learning schedule
but need the approval of the ministry first.
2. What does the following statement mean to you?

„An effective leader creates an effective school.‰
Share your thoughts on the these questions. Post them on myINSPIRE.

SELF-CHECK 2.1
1. Compare transactional leadership with transformational

leadership.
2. Describe the main characteristics of a charismatic leader.
3. List three characteristics of a respected leader.
SELF-CHECK 2.2
1. List five roles of leadership.
2. Of the given listed, describe three roles of leadership.
3. As a principal, explain how you intend to implement the concept of

leadership by example.
• The four main domains of management are planning, organising, controlling

and leading.
• A good teacher has good knowledge of his own role.
• Regular supervision and evaluation done by headmasters would encourage

teachers to be better prepared to teach and help students learn.
• A learning atmosphere which is conducive, enriches the teaching and learning

activities in the classroom.
• The main challenge in curriculum leadership is to enhance teaching and

learning in schools.
• The headmaster needs to be skilful in and practice both managerial and

leadership skills to be successful
• The headmasters need to be problem solvers to deal with the various problems
that arise from time to time.

• Education is an agent of social change. Thus, in terms of the quality of

education, a leader is very important.
• It is through the behaviour of the principal or school leader that a certain

leadership style can be developed to create a conducive and friendly
atmosphere.
• A leader needs to be knowledgeable in the internal and external environments

and in employing the best practices in management. This includes the
empowerment of staff, especially of teachers.
• The strengths and weaknesses of leadership would have a direct impact on an

organisation. For example, if an organisation is managed overzealously, it
would dampen the spirit of its members. On the other hand, if it is managed
by a charismatic leader, it may cause the organisation to weaken when the
leader leaves the organisation.
• The progress and deterioration of performance in an organisation depends on

the effectiveness of leadership and management.
Conducive atmosphere Resource management

Head coordinator Teacher as a model
Leader TeachersÊ planning and evaluation
Leadership Vision
Leadership challenges
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NY: Free Press.

Bennis, W. (1989). On becoming a leader. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
Bennis, W., & Nanus, B. (1985) Leaders: The strategies for taking charge (2nd ed.).
New York, NY: HarperCollins.
Duke, D. (1987). School leadership and instructional improvement. New York, NY:
Random House.
Etzioni, A. (1993). The spirit of community: Rights, responsibilities and

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Fiedler. (1967). A theory of leadership effectiveness. New York, NY: McGraw Hill.
Graeff C. L. (1983). The situational leadership theory: A critical review. Academy

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Larson (Eds.) Leadership: The cutting edge (189-207). Carbondale, IL:
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climate improvement projects. Bloomington, Indiana: The Phi Delta Kappa
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Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.
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Topic  Educational
Planning
3
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain the concept of educational planning;
2. Elaborate on the three approaches of educational planning;
3. Describe the characteristics of a good educational plan;
4. Explain the dimensions of educational planning; and
5. Discuss the transitional and compound-based educational
planning processes.
 INTRODUCTION
Generally, educational planning is one of the basic elements in developing and
promoting the education system in the country. Quality education, which is
flexible, is the incarnation of educational planning that is carefully organised,
planned and able to meet current expectations. The definition of educational
planning includes the function of management.
The future of the education system lies in the hands of the Ministry of Education.
However, there maybe confusion due to the lack of understanding and differences
in the planning of the education system itself. This narrows the scope of
educational planning and its role to the whole.
Therefore, in this topic we clarify and discuss the concepts, theories, roles,
approaches, effects and human resource development in educational planning.
The discussion will begin with several concepts of educational planning and the

60  TOPIC 3 EDUCATIONAL PLANNING
important elements that provide a basis for educational planning. Several

approaches, the roles and its effects are also discussed so that you can understand
and explain the importance of educational planning in Malaysia.
In this topic, you will also be introduced to a few concepts of educational planning,
along with appropriate examples and its importance in general.
3.1 MEANING AND NATURE OF

EDUCATIONAL PLANNING
Before we begin, let us go through a quick overview of educational planning (see
Figure 3.1).
Figure 3.1: Overview of educational planning
To understand the concept of educational planning, the emphasis lies in two main
aspects which is the concept of planning and education. These two concepts must
be specifically understood to explain the process and the need of educational
planning in a more precise manner. These two concepts will not be explained from
the aspect of the phrase itself but they must be operational (can be measured or
where the difference can be seen) which facilitates us to have a discussion or an
explanation in general.
ACTIVITY 3.1
What are the things that you plan in education? Discuss with your
coursemates.
The concept of education from the aspect of etymology refers to a lesson which
explains ways of absorbing knowledge, values, culture and experience to help
form personality, and to bring out the hidden talent in someone. Education is also
seen as a process of developing capability, attitude, behaviour as well as
preparation towards the reality of life.
TOPIC 3 EDUCATIONAL PLANNING  61
As such, the concept of education has expanded because the nature of knowledge
also expands and is dynamic. As such, education has been conceptualised as a
process of receiving knowledge (knowledge or experience) for the purpose of
future livelihood objective and lifelong practices.
Education takes place through the process of socialisation, self-development,

thought, intellectuality, emotions and morality (Langgulung, 1990) contributing
towards the development of a country in general. Education is also considered a
process in developing mankindÊs capability of using his intellect and skills, as well
as being efficient in producing or developing something. Therefore, the aim of
education should reflect present demands like the need to learn new techniques,
formation of values towards the development and for the betterment of our future,
based on strong religious beliefs, etc. (Robiah, 1998).
Therefore, education consists of the following:

(a) Individuals who are involved and have the potential and wish to developed
and brought to the maximum level of educational achievement.
(b) Individuals who need to have capabilities that can be developed in terms of
planning, effectiveness, efficiency, productivity and creativity.
(c) Situations that enable the education process which fosters and enhances
learning.
(d) Socio-cultural structures which consists of norms of culture and religion
which acts as a basis for effective education.
(e) Teachers and students who have the same aim and do not deviate from the
contents of lessons, activities and processes that fulfil the needs of the people
and the country.
Planning has been defined in many ways. It depends on the perspective and
background of a person in influencing the definition of planning. The following
are several definitions of planning which have become the basis of educational
planning:
(a) Computing and deciding on things that will be carried out in achieving the
fixed educational objectives and methods of implementation.
(b) A complete process which is to systematically prepare activities that will be
implemented to achieve the predetermined educational aims.

(c) The process of achieving various results or alternative paths which will be
carried out in the future to achieve the desired objective.
(d) Future thinking which controls future, decision making and consolidates all
the results.
Planning is anticipation of possible future situations. It involves determination and

relevant actions that need to be taken to achieve objectives by organising and
managing resources. Planning also involves a process which is continuous,
flexible, having activities or strategies which fulfil future aims. The future objective
is based on the objective which was determined by the advantages gained by
various organisations or beneficial parties, for example, the government, the
people, various religious institutions and non-governmental bodies.
The duration which is targeted usually takes into account the policy development
of a country such as a five-year development plan, long term development plan
and the framework of the countryÊs economic development plan. As such, mostly,
the duration of educational planning which was developed requires at least
5 to 20 years to be achieved or to be implemented.
Based on the concept of basic planning mentioned, several things should be

considered as the basis to develop comprehensive and compact planning. Among
these are as follows:
(a) It should be related to the future within the identified time frame based on
the current needs and demand of the country.
(b) It should have certain activities which are fixed together with fixed
objectives.
(c) It should be a systematic process which creates a flow and rational behind
the planning development and activities.
(d) The desired result can be measured or assessed qualitatively or quantitatively.
(e) It should be a guideline for implementation and managing education. It is the
framework which has to be used in implementation of any planning activity.
(f) It should avoid resource wastage. Cost resources, human and physical, can
be used to the maximum level and chosen according to needs.
(g) Quality assurance detection tools can be used as an instrument to ensure the
quality of education has reached the level that is required.
(h) It should fulfils the accountability of the planning committee. Always
assuring that the education policy and education planning is in accordance
and aligned together.

With reference to the mentioned factors, planning in the Malaysian context refers
to the process of preparing a series of activities for the future to achieve the aim
that has been identified or fixed. This objective is based on the philosophy of the
National Education as stated in the Education Act 1996 in Malaysia. Planning is
considered a process because it involves setting aims, objectives and selection of
strategy, data collection and information as well as continuous assessment. The
process has to be carefully planned taking into account all aspects. In Malaysia, the
planning process must take into consideration the interests of all races and the
countryÊs objectives to fulfil the present needs.
In the case of Malaysia, such a plan has been put in place with the launch of the
Malaysia Education Blue Print 2013ă2025 (Pre-school to Post-Secondary
Education) and the Malaysia Education Blue Print 2013ă2015 (Higher Education).
These documents signal a clear understanding of the government of the need to
plan for the future by having a clear vision and aspirations, and by outlining a
comprehensive transformation programme for the nationÊs education system.
The definition of educational planning has been restructured and given a new
meaning according to the needs of a country. Definitions of educational planning
among advanced countries and developing countries vary according to their
objectives and strategy. As such, the process of educational planning is not the
same but suitable according to present needs and specific places.
In this topic, several concepts in educational planning will be put forward based
on compatibility with the education in Malaysia. Here are some definitions which
can be considered to formulate the concept of educational planning in Malaysia in
a holistic, integrated and relevant manner:
(a) A process to prepare a set of plans for decision making and for future action,
aimed at achieving the objective in an optimal way that involves process
preparation, consideration for future action and a clear objective (Dror, 1997);
(b) Select effort that is relevant to achieve the objective (Adams, 1988);
(c) The process is done consciously, well-planned, logical and fulfils the
direction set by the organisation (Robiah, 1998);
(d) Decision-making action process for continuous future action based on the
objective to be achieved (Abdul Wahab Jamaluddin, 1991);
(e) Process of making decisions and taking actions for future, is a continuous
process taking into consideration the objectives set and how to achieve the
objectives in the most effective way (Saedah, Shahril, Zainun & Lee, 1993);
and

(f) One firm effort that is suitable and fulfils the demand from the countryÊs
perspective through method or correct strategy selection and appropriate to
achieve objective that is desired (Jamal, 1995).
ACTIVITY 3.2
From the seven definitions given above, what do you understand by
the definition of educational planning? Summarise the definitions and
share your summary on myINSPIRE.
From the definitions given, we can conclude that educational planning involves
the process of preparing a series of actions which is identified in terms of objective
strategy, accuracy and a nationsÊ perception in order to achieve the objective set
by the nation. This means, education emphasises continuous and observed input,
output and process methods.
In addition, we can understand that there are several elements included in

educational planning. Among them are as follows:
(a) Analyses which are rational and systematic, and that involve a series of
identified methodologies and related approaches. Each analysis which is
carried out has to be discussed in depth and be used as a guideline in
educational planning.
(b) The process of planning takes into account the changes or the educational
reforms trend from time to time, so that the national education objective is
achieved as desired. Educational reforms can occur in 20 years or according
to the needs of a country. Each reform needs careful planning. Each objective,
strategy, activity and planning component must be clear and accepted by all
parties, especially the people. Not taking into account educational reforms if
from the outside or inside the country, an educational planning is considered
not dynamic and sensitive towards any changes.
(c) The principles of efficiency and effectiveness are followed and any flaw in
planning is avoided. Cost of operational planning can be reduced or saved
effectively if the element of operational cost savings is discussed while
planning is done. This will enable other resources (human and physical) to
be utilised in other fields such as social, cultural and rural development.

3.2 APPROACHES TO EDUCATIONAL

PLANNING
An approach refers to the way of achieving something. It is a tool to achieve an
objective or need. In the context of educational planning, approach refers to
various steps that have been used to achieve the objective of the plan that has been
specified by beneficial parties (policy makers). Each approach has its strategy and
identifiable ways to implement it. In general, there are three levels or stages in
planning which is often used in explaining the approaches in educational planning
as stated in the following Figure 3.2.
Figure 3.2: Approaches in educational planning
Let us elaborate on each of these approaches:
(a) Technical Planning versus Political Planning

Technical planning is related to educational issues. It involves the analysis of
the need of education, quality, involves experts in education as well as
preparation of data and information from the lower level. Meanwhile,
political planning involves the parties which have interest in education.
These parties utilise education as an instrument to achieve the objectives of
the respective parties. For example, the Ministry of Human Resources will
utilise the education plan as a basis for planning human resource
development as well as implementing it at the national, state or even at
territory level.
(b) Top-Down versus Bottom-top

Top-down planning describes planning that starts at the top or superior level
and flows down to the subordinates or lower level. This kind of planning
involves policy makers at the central administration and takes into
consideration the interest of the ruling party and country. All the needs of
the country and people are given priority to ensure that the planning is
achieved.

Top-down planning also gives implications that each decision that has been
agreed upon at the policy making level must be carried out until the lower
level. The continuous monitoring system will ensure that each planning from
the higher level is carried out effectively at all levels of the education system.
However, any problem which does not involve change of policy must be
solved at each locality level or lower level of the education system.
On the other hand, bottom-top planning starts from the subordinates and
ends at the higher level. This type of planning gives priority to the needs of
subordinates or solves the problems at the locality level. It involves data
collection and information at the locality level to ensure the needs and
demands were met as well as passed on to the higher level for decision
making; either the data from the subordinates can be used or not.
(c) Planning for Big Changes versus Maintaining the System

This method works towards any educational planning aimed at changing,
improving or changing the present education system or maintaining the
present system as „status quo‰, for example, to change the primary school
and secondary school curriculum. This method is known as planning for big
changes. Another example is the primary school level examination
assessment system. Here, the Ministry of Education will reshuffle the
examination system towards holistic assessment approach based on the basic
ability of the student. The change in the assessment system is regarded as a
big change because it involves all the primary school education systems and
their assessment methods.
Meanwhile, planning to maintain the present system emphasises more on

preserving the present education system as „status quo‰ to ensure
implementation of the desired original educational objective, for example,
maintaining the school, Ministry of Education and the Education
Department administrative system, even though there is a change in the
school curriculum. Policy which involves unity, religion and race remains to
ensure that the education system does not change due to these factors. If
there is a need for any changes related to the unity, religion and race, it has
to be finalised; the elements involved as well as the implementation methods.
ACTIVITY 3.3
What are your views on the methods used in MalaysiaÊs educational

planning? Discuss with your coursemates on myINSPIRE.

3.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF EDUCATIONAL

PLANNING
This subtopic shall depict the special characteristics that are identifiable with
educational planning. They are as follows:
(a) A rational process where its appropriateness is received logically. It is organised
orderly with the activities that involve the countryÊs education system.
(b) Related to a countryÊs social aims, approaches or methods and processes that
is involved, as well as controlled planning.
(c) It has conceptual characteristics which reflect the skills and actions that are
carried out by the policy makers. It considers all the components or elements
which are related to the problems in education in a holistic manner.
(d) The concept that is explained is dynamic, might be formed or constructed
according to the situation so that it will not be out of direction or from the
planned objective. The role of the planner is to have basic knowledge of
forming the concept that may be accepted.
(e) Has a comprehensive scientific method and is able to use all resources which
are available to achieve the desired objective. The research process must be
controlled and detailed in order to ensure decision is exact and meets the
required standards.
(f) Knowledge about the comparison values and the value system in the
community will facilitate decision making in educational planning.
(g) Must understand the trend of human needs and able to forecast any
emerging possibilities in the future.
(h) Educational planning must cover the following:
(i) Purpose;
(ii) Current educational issues;
(iii) Future-oriented;
(iv) Data and information;
(v) Preparing various alternatives;
(vi) Preparing application models; and
(vii) Current and periodic assessment.

ACTIVITY 3.4
Explain the different factors that should be considered when setting up
an extensive reading programme. Share your explanation on
myINSPIRE.
3.4 EDUCATIONAL PLANNING DIMENSIONS

Knowledge about the dimensions in educational planning will help you
understand how big the problem is, the area and the measurements involved.
There are nine dimensions that are involved in educational planning:
(a) Significance
How significant or influential it is towards the social interests that are related
to the original educational objective.
(b) Feasibility
The use of available techniques as well as the budget that is allocated must
be seen as realistic or achievable.
(c) Relevance
Appropriateness that is absolutely accepted relying on the implementation
of educational planning.
(d) Definitiveness
It is the use of simulation techniques to establish planning by using dummy
variables. This is done to minimise the undesirable outcomes so that the
available resources are not wasted or shifted to other places.
(e) Parsimonious
The developed plan needs to be moderated and not be too complex to
understand or be carried out.
(f) Adaptability
Dynamic characteristic that is able to change according to the needs by re-
evaluating the available information and data.
(g) Time
The need for allocation of time due to limitations in the time required to plan,
implement and evaluate in educational planning.

(h) Monitoring
Ensure periodic and continuous observation is necessary to ensure the
planning runs smoothly and efficiently.
(i) Subject Matter

Main subjects must be drafted thoroughly and controlled so that each
planning will achieve the desired results. Among them are as follows:
(i) Objective and Aim ă Includes desired results in order to establish
planning rationally and accurately.
(ii) Programme and Implementation ă Methods or activities which are
organised during planning must be considered.
(iii) Human Resource ă Assist to enhance the quality of the work,
interaction, specialisation, attitude, competence and usability of the
human resource in all the aspects of the work.
(iv) Physical Resource Needs ă Sufficient budget, available resources and
patterns which are available in a country.
(iv) Budget ă The method used or the direction and planning of a certain
amount of funds for the future.
(v) Ruling ă The method of organising the activity and control towards
implemented educational programmes.
(vi) Social ă Social characteristics must be in the education system because
a social objective is essential in building a comprehensive and united
education system.
3.5 EDUCATIONAL PLANNING PROCESS

A dynamic education system will need organised and systematic educational
planning. Educational planning has certain processes in ascertaining that the
problem of education is handled well. Figure 3.3 shows the processes of normal
educational planning which is used in determining the appropriateness and
effectiveness of educational planning.

Figure 3.3: Educational planning processes
Let us further examine each of the processes mentioned:
(a) Educational Planning Process Problem Definition

Listing out the problems faced, comparison between reality and hope,
sufficient resource and identifying the functional and essential parts.
(b) Research Scope Analysis

Ensure that the overall and sub-scope selected is understood, data and
information is collected, organised and processed as well as identify methods
to be used in educational planning.
(c) Conceptual
Identify the general needs or needs of the community and ruler; identify the
purpose and the aim which is desired and to design planning.
(d) Evaluation
Through stimulation method, assessment will be planned according to the
needs and trends as well as to choose a relevant plan.
(e) Planning Identification

It is done when every problem is identified and reported from time to time,
which is related to education.
(f) Implementation
Preparing suggested educational programme, gaining acceptance in
preparing the educational programme and organising every department so
that they will operate as planned.
(g) Implementation Evaluation

Monitor the planning that is carried out, evaluate the planning as well as
solving, changing, designing and adapting the planning to be more dynamic
and united.

3.6 EDUCATIONAL PLANNING ACTIVITY

There are many educational planning activity models, but in this topic only two
simple models will be discussed which is relevant in the context of educational
planning in Malaysia. These models are transactional planning and component
based planning which we shall further investigate:
(a) Transactional Planning

Transactional planning involves the unity between planning, implementation
and programme formation. This model emphasises the selection and
formation of the programme that will be carried out. Conceptually, this model
has four main parts: the environment, the formulation of the plan, the
implementation and the assessment. Figure 3.4 shows the current direction of
the four parts.
Figure 3.4: Transactional planning
The following points provide further explanation:
(i) Environment
Understanding the current surrounding situation, assumption on the
current surrounding and how the operations are carried out. This is
important in the beginning stages in understanding the educational
planning process.
(ii) Formulation
Determined by processes involved, either stated clearly or is
determined by any appropriate process. Each process that is involved
must have its contents which will be made as a guideline or reference
in carrying out educational planning.
(iii) Implementation
Necessary to consider situations that facilitate the implementation of
an educational programme. Even the equipment, current situation and
other needs are important to ensure that each educational programme
can be carried out successfully.

(iv) Assessment
This is very important as it acts as a guide that would explain the
success of planning. This is an assessment towards the implementation
and processes that are involved. In assessment, there are another three
methods that should be used to assess the effectiveness of the
programme which is continuous monitoring, reporting success or
failure and overall assessment.
(b) Component-based Planning

This model is an approach to planning, but it uses several components as a
guide to reflect the planning process and activity which are carried out. It is
logical, systematic and moderately used. This component-based planning
process is shown in Figure 3.5.
Figure 3.5: Component-based planning process
Now, let us examine each component in detail:
(j) Needs Assessment

This means trying to obtain the information and data which is related
to the current situation. It involves the current education, results,
problem that is dealt with, strengths, weaknesses, available resources,
the change in the aspirations of the community and goal of the
government. The study is important to see if what should happen
actually takes place. This is the starting point for effective and accurate
planning.
(ii) Formulation of Goals and Objective

Summarises the aim and the planning objective. It is crucial to facilitate
any guided activity based on the aim and planning objective.
(iii) Policy and Priority Setting

It determines the policy and priority in planning based on the results
of the previous study of the need. It is formed based on the needs of the
policy and priority in the development of education.
(iv) Programme and Project Formulation

List and summarise the projects planned in order to facilitate selection
or the decision to be carried out in educational planning.
(v) Feasibility Testing

To ensure the budget, equipment, human resource and physical
components are sufficient. A budget must be provided for every project
in a logical and systematic manner to make sure that we do not over-
estimate and go beyond the budget of the project.
(vii) Plan Implementation

Implementation needs thorough, comprehensive and exact planning. It
is for the purpose of ensuring that every action is effective and efficient.
(viii) Assessment and Revision for Future Plan

Every activity implemented has to be re-assessed to ensure that
planning is done as suggested or otherwise. All this activities needs
feedback to ensure the implementation is adhered according to the
provisions that are determined.
SELF-CHECK 3.1
Answer all the questions and provide appropriate examples in the
Malaysian context.
(a) Educational planning process is complicated and complex.
Explain this statement.
(b) Explain five advantages of transactional planning compared to
component-based planning.
(c) Educational planning in Malaysia is important in the nationÊs
development. Explain at least five benefits of educational
planning.

Ć Knowing the characteristics and nine dimensions of educational planning may

help in understanding the scope of educational planning.
Ć Educational planning also has several processes which are used to determine
its appropriateness and effectiveness. Among the processes are problem
definition, research scope analysis and evaluation.
Ć There are two educational planning activities discussed:

ă Planning transaction process; and
ă Component-based planning process.
Component-based planning Technical planning versus political

planning
Educational planning dimensions
Top-down versus bottom-up
Planning for big changes versus
maintaining the system Transactional planning
Abdul Wahab Jamaludiin (1991). Perancangan dan pengurusan pendidikan. Nadi

Pendidikan, (6 (2).
Adams, D. (1988), Extending the educational planning discourse: Conceptual and

pragmatic explorations. Comparative Educational Review, 32(4), 400ă415.
Dror Y. (1997). Venture in policy sciences: Concepts and application. Elsevier.
Langgulung. (1990). Menghadapi abad dua puluh satu. Universiti Kebangsaan

Malaysia.
Ministry of Education Malaysia (2013). Education blue print 2013-2025 (Pre-school

to post-secondary education).

Ministry of Education Malaysia (2013). Education blue print 2013-2025 (Higher

education).
Robiah Sidin. (1998). Pemikiran dalam pendidikan. Fajar Bakti.
Saedah S., Shahril M., Zainum I., & Lee P. W. (1993). Pendidikan di Malaysia.
Utusan.

Topic  Budgeting
4
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Discuss the definitions and functions of budgeting;
2. Categorise the approaches in budgeting;
3. Construct a budget cycle;
4. Plan the implementation of a budget; and
5. List three criteria of a budgetary evaluation.
 INTRODUCTION
A budget allows an organisation to create a spending plan; and by following the
plan, the organisation would have enough money for itÊs needs. Following the
spending plan will keep the organisation out of debt which is caused by over
spending. This plan can also help organisations to get out of debt if they are
currently in debt. This simple practice certainly would work for people or
countries as well, as it guides them not to spend on non-budgeted items or spend
the money that they do not have. The culture of budgeting is meaningful and wise
especially in the current challenging economy.

TOPIC 4 BUDGETING  77
4.1 DEFINITIONS AND FUNCTIONS OF

BUDGET
Let us begin by studying the various definitions of budget as presented in Table 4.1:
Table 4.1: Definitions of Budget
Author Definitions
Scott, Martin, Petty & Budget is simply a forecast of future events.
Keown (1999)
Knezevich (1973) Budget is a detailed plan of future receipts and
disbursements.
Campbell, Cunningham, Budgets perform three basic functions:
Nystrand & Usdan
Ć Indicates the amount and timing of a firmÊs needs for
(1990)
future financing.
Ć Provides the basis for taking corrective action in the
event that budgeted figures do not match actual or
realised figures.
Ć Provides basis for performance evaluation.
Guthrie & Pierce (1998) Budget is the tool that provides benchmarks to management
to evaluate the performance of those responsible for
carrying out those plans and controls their action.
Caldwell & Spinks Budget is an instrument to value planning and controlling
(1998) aspects of a firmÊs financial administration.
Horngren, Harrison & Budgeting provides benchmarks to measure the
Robinson (1995) performance of division management as well as progress
towards strategic goals.
Candoli (1990) Budget is a quantitative expression of a plan of action that helps
managers to co-ordinate and implement the plan.
Ovsiew & Castetter Budget is a document which specifies the planned
(1960) expenditures and anticipated revenues of a school district in
a given fiscal year, along with other data and information
related to the fiscal elements of the educational philosophy,
programmes and needs of the district.
Swanson & King (1997) A school budget is a planning document that links
programmatic decisions to financial information about
revenues and expenditures.

78  TOPIC 4 BUDGETING
Three major components of a budget can be illustrated as a triangle, as shown in

Figure 4.1. It contains an educational programme of a school, its revenue and
expenditure.
Figure 4.1: Budget triangle
In theory, the educational programme is determined first. It is converted into cost

terms and finally the sources of required revenues are finalised. The rationale for
such a sequence is that our educational programmes are to be planned for the
needs of pupils, without letting the available funds be a limiting factor.
Actually, budgets are prepared for the organisation as a whole and for specific
management purposes as shown in Figure 4.2.
Figure 4.2: ManagementÊs use of budget and performance report

Stevenson and Lane (1990) state that a budget has six different functions as
illustrated in Figure 4.3.
Figure 4.3: Budget functions
The following is an explanation of each function:
(a) Records of the Past

It reflects bargains and compromises that have been made in the past
including priorities of earlier administrations. A record of earlier budget
decisions is provided to indicate what has been eliminated in the past.
(b) A Statement About the Future

It links proposed expenditures with desired future actions such as a plan to
determine future events through current happenings.
(c) Predictions of Future Actions

Budgets specify connections between words and numbers in a budget
document and future human behaviour. Whether the behaviour intended by the
planners of budget occurs, is not a given, but rather a matter of observation.
(d) A Mechanism for Allocating Resources

Funds are almost always more limited than requests. As a result, a budget is
a mechanism for allocating resources across competing demands and if the
intentions were to reach certain objectives at the lowest possible cost, then a
budget can also serve as an instrument for pursuing efficiency.

(e) A Form of Power

Budgets are mechanisms through which individuals or sub-units bargain
over conflicting goals, make side-payments and attempt to motivate each
other to achieve their own specific goals.
(f) Signals
Budgets serve as signals of the preferences of others and provide a way for
each group in an organisation to communicate their priorities and requests.
In order to perform its functions, a schoolÊs budget needs to achieve a range of

objectives. The main objectives are identified as follows:
(a) Matching income and expenditure;
(b) Forecasting;
(c) Coordinating activities of the school;
(d) Planning;
(e) Strengthening accountability;
(f) Allocating resources; and
(g) Communicating objectives and priorities to personnel.

The benefits of budgeting can be summarised by the following illustrations

(see Figure 4.4):
Figure 4.4: Benefits of budgeting

Source: Horngren, Harrison & Robinson (1995)

According to Hack, Candoli and Ray (1998), a master budget includes operating
budget, capital expenditures budget and the financial budget as shown in Figure 4.5.
Figure 4.5: Master budget
The following points shall elaborate on the items presented in the master budget
shown in Figure 4.5:
(a) Operating budget sets the expected revenues and expenses for the period. It
contains:
(i) Sales or revenue budget;
(ii) Purchases, cost of goods sold and inventory budget;

(iii) Operating expenses budget; and

(iv) Budgeted income statement.
(b) Capital expenditures budget reflects the organisationÊs plan of purchases

such as:
(i) Property;
(ii) Plan;
(iii) Equipment; and
(iv) Long-term assets.
(c) Financial budget contains:

(i) Cash budget (statement of budgeted cash receipts and disbursements);
and
(ii) Budget balance sheets.
The end of the operating budget is the budgeted income statement, which shows
expected revenues, expenses and operating income for the period. The financial
budget results are in the budgeted balance sheet, which gives budgeted amounts
for each asset and liability and for ownersÊ equity.
SELF-CHECK 4.1
1. State the three components of the budget triangle.
2. Give six examples of the objectives of budgeting.
3. What is included in a master budget?

4.2 APPROACHES TO BUDGETING

There are six common features of a good budget as follows:
(a) Unity
(i) The budget document should describe all programmes and services of
the school district.
(ii) The budget document should include detailed revenue and
expenditure forecast for the general funds as well as for all other
budgetary funds used by the school, including capital funds.
(b) Regularity
(i) Budgets must be prepared on a regular basis.
(ii) Some states use biennial budgets, but the norm is the 12-month period
each year.
(iii) The determination of a fiscal year is generally a state requirement and
several states rely on a calendar year.
(c) Clarity
(i) A well-designed budget document shows clearly how the districtÊs
revenue is collected and spent.
(ii) It will identify all sources of revenue and indicate not only how much
is spent, but in general, what those funds will be used to purchase.
(iii) Particularly important are personnel counts by function or programme
and separate breakdowns of expenditures for supplies and material,
travel and other goods and services.
(iv) The budget should be displayed in a manner that is understandable to
the average citizen and provide aids to its review, such as descriptions
of the budget process and a comprehensive table of contents.
(d) Balance
The budget must be balanced. This means that revenue should equal or
exceed expenditures and any amount budgeted for contingencies.
(e) Publicity
School district budgets are public documents that describe how the district
plans to use tax revenue it collects to provide educational services.

(f) Operational Adequacy

The expenditures detailed in the budget should be adequate to provide the
services required to meet the districtÊs mission and goals.
There are many different approaches to developing a budget and providing the
information it contains. This is shown in Figure 4.6 as follows:
Figure 4.6: Approaches of budgeting
4.2.1 Site-based Budget

Site-based budgeting is a concept of developing a district budget through the
involvement of teachers, community and administrators at the school level. This
budget approach is seen as a strict minimum, not a comfortable optimum.
In this kind of approach, the starting point of the budgetary process is the
necessary expenditure facing the school. Once this first call on funds or base
budget has been identified, the school can then explore options because resources
in excess of the base budget are available for alignment with the schoolÊs aims. It
is a decentralised system of providing revenues for instructional supplies,
materials, equipment, texts and library books. Such a degree of decision-making
power is not always possible because of union or association influences, but it does
demonstrate the flexibility possible in a site-based budget process.
To be effective, site-based budgeting requires that principals and staff be able to

match students with available resources. It is not simply a matter of providing a
principal with an amount of money based on the number of pupils in the building,
to be spent in three or four categories at the school level rather than at the district
level. The employees in the building must be a part of the planning and must
recognise cultural, ethnic and socioeconomic factors that may influence studentÊs
needs and then establish priorities and budgets to meet those needs.

Budgeting for administration, capital outlays and maintenance costs usually

remain a district responsibility, because of the need for large expenditures on
particular projects. Such a practice is known as site-based management and its
purpose is to give the principal and instruction staff more control over budget,
personnel and organisation at the school level. Site-based management often gives
authority to principals to move funds within a total school allocation among line
items in the budget.
With site-based management, schools will improve because it does the following:
(a) Enables site participants to exert substantial influence on school policy
decisions;
(b) Enhances employee morale and motivation;
(c) Strengthens the quality of school wide planning processes;
(d) Fosters the development of characteristics associated with effective schools;
and
(e) Improves the academic achievement of students.
4.2.2 Limited Plan Budget

This approach uses the timetable plan as the major instrument of resource
allocation. It includes more obvious but limited planning elements.

Figure 4.7 illustrates this approach as follows:
Figure 4.7: Limited plan approach

Source: Knight (1993)

This kind of strategy is still low-risk and relatively uncomplicated, but it does not
encourage long-term planning or consideration of a broader range of alternatives.
4.2.3 Zero Budgeting

Zero budgeting is a rational budgeting approach. It means that the cost centre has
to calculate its financial needs over each year, knowing what its commitments will
be. Thus, it is then possible to meet demands according to organisational needs.
However, one major problem is that over-estimation can occur in ensuring that
sufficient funds are allocated.
Zero budgeting is more of a decision-making process than a complete resource

allocation system. It works bottom-up from basic organisational activities, rather
than top-down from organisational goals and objectives.
In the zero budget, there are five basic steps:

(a) Identification of decision units;
(b) Analysis of each decision package;
(c) Ranking of the decision packages;
(d) Acceptance of packages and allocation of funds; and
(e) Preparation of the budgets.
There are several advantages to this type of budgeting, including involvement of

staff members, the requirement of annual evaluation of all programmes, accurate
determination of programmes and the development of priorities with alternatives.
The criticisms of the zero-base system is the great amount of paperwork involved,
the need for more administrative time in the preparation of the budget and the
feeling that the system is too complicated and, thus, too impractical for small
school districts.
4.2.4 Programme Budgeting

The Planning, Programming, Budgeting (PBB) method is used as a systematic
approach that requires a review of the plans, objectives and budgets periodically
and annually. In these approaches, programme objectives are set and then
managers develop a planned budget to achieve them. Effectiveness in evaluation
leads to the achievement of programme objectives and does not involve specific
target performances.

An organisation using this method may require the development of several

programme plans with objectives and budgets. In these cases, managers at different
levels of hierarchy review the proposals. Higher-ranking officials then decide which
programmes or combination of programmes to fund or recommend.
The weaknesses of this method are as follows:

(a) Difficulties with presenting clear goals and objectives that everyone agrees on;
(b) Creating an adequate database;
(c) Requires staff with a high level of technical ability;
(d) Developing objective measures of performance; and
(e) Threatening power bases created by those holding the purse strings.
To overcome the problems of manipulation which might occur, Caldwell and

Spinks (1998) attempt to establish a totally objective method of financial planning
in a school context. They argue that the costing of the component parts of the
institutionÊs curricular offer can be evidence to making informed decisions about
priorities to be adopted by that organisation. They also outline the way in which
this might be done. They suggest that if each element of the total programme is
costed and subject to collaborative prioritisation, then its collegiality will be
enhanced and power politics will be shifted to the capacity where various people
have to influence their colleagues.
There are seven major steps to programme budgeting as follows:

(a) The school district identifies and defines its mission, goals and objectives and
clarifies its desired outcomes;
(b) Alternative approaches or programmes for achieving these outcomes are
specified;
(c) The alterative programmes are translated into fiscal and non-fiscal
requirements. This includes planned expenditures and proposed revenue
sources for a programme. Ideally, this is done for a multi-year period and
not for a single budget cycle;
(d) Each alternative approach is analysed to determine its cost effectiveness;
(e) With this information, it is possible to select the best combination of
programmes and establish the optimum course of action for the district;

(f) Once implemented, each programme is reviewed and an assessment of the

degree to which desired outcomes were achieved is made; and
(g) The evaluations are cycled back into the system at the beginning of a new
budget cycle.
4.2.5 Pragmatic Budget

The pragmatic approach is useful when schools take responsibility for their budget
for the first time. It firmly bases the new budget upon the old one, and so, is low-
risk and economical in terms of time and effort. However, it also attempts to
improve the previous budget and make savings that can be used another time.
4.2.6 Incremental Budget

This involves adjusting the previous yearÊs budget with increments for any
changes in volume such as cases with decrements. It is difficult to justify because
it involves no thinking analysis, planning or linking of the budget to objectives and
priorities.
Which is the best?

Simkins and Lancaster (1987), suggested that each school needs to adopt a
system that fits its own needs and proposed a wide range of possible criteria as
follows:
(a) Respond equitably to needs of different subject areas;
(b) Take account of priorities;
(c) Promote achievement of the schoolÊs objective;
(d) Encourage innovation;
(e) Facilitate long-term planning;
(f) React rapidly to environmental changes;
(g) Facilitate evaluation of „sub-unit‰;
(h) Take account of patterns of power and influence;
(i) Take account of differences in ability to spend wisely;
(j) Avoid incurring substantial costs or time; and
(k) Be easily understood and widely accepted.

ACTIVITY 4.1
Debate or discuss with your coursemates, the advantages and

disadvantages of the zero budgeting approach versus programme
budgeting approach. Provide suitable examples to support your
arguments.
SELF-CHECK 4.2
1. What are the six features of a good budget?
2. State and briefly explain all the approaches in budgeting.
3. What are the five steps in the zero budgeting approach?
4.3 BUDGET PREPARATION

There are five basic steps in developing a school budget as follows:
(a) Development of the Budget Guidelines

Building a budget is a complex task that takes substantially longer than a
year and requires participation of school staff at many levels in the
organisation. There are some aspects that we have to consider when we
develop a school budget. These are illustrated in Figure 4.8.
Figure 4.8: Aspects to consider when developing a school budget

Hack, Candoli and Ray (1998) note that the following should be included in
the budget guidelines:
(i) A message from headmaster which describes the fiscal context for the
year. This would include available funding, increases or reductions in
revenue for the year and any important changes in priorities from one
year to the next year.
(ii) A Budget Calendar which includes a timeline for important steps in the
process. This calendar includes the time to prepare, implement and
evaluate the budget and as a result starts nine to 12 months before the
fiscal year and ends as much as six months after the fiscal year for
which the budget is being prepared.
(iii) A Budget Hearing guides staff and promotes community participation

at the district and school level, including procedures for public
hearings as required by the law and as desired as part of an individual
districtÊs budget process.
(iv) Budget Forms that need to be filled out and submitted by schools and
district departments.
(v) Budget Format of information on the school accounting structure or

code that is to be used in preparation of the budget and in tracking
revenues and expenditures during the fiscal year.
(b) Preparation of Documents

Suggested materials that should be included in the budget document are as
follows:
(i) Letter of transmittal
(ii) Statement of introduction, especially relating to the school philosophy
(iii) Justifications of:
 Curriculum review, by unit, divisions and departments;
 Audited statements of funds; and
 Bonding schedule.
(iv) Recapitulations of sections in the budget
(v) Salary schedules

(vi) Statistical summary of salary programme:

 Statistical summary of other pertinent data;
 Enrolment, showing trends and projections;
 Numerical sufficiency of staff;
 Pupil-teacher ratio in instruction;
 Per pupil costs by budget categories;
 Enrolment by curriculum in the high school;
 State-aid condition indicating changes; and
 Property tax.
(vii) Expenditure and revenue items for two to three previous years:
 Policy statements mandating expenditures;
 Items mandated by new laws or official directives;
 Inventory report; and
 Budget transfers during previous year.
(c) Modifications to the Original Budget

If expenditure estimates exceed revenue projections, the school administration
must make adjustment in one or both sides of the equation. Typically, it is easier
to reduce expenditure than to increase revenue. Reductions in expenditures
often mean limited compensation for employees or elimination of some
programmes.
(d) Obtaining Approval

Once a balanced budget has been developed, the districtÊs school board must
approve it. The timing of this process, along with the required documents
that must be submitted and the time in which the public may comment on
the budget, are generally set by state law. In general, however, the manager
submits the budget to the school board, makes copies available to the public
and helps the board schedule public hearings on the budget document. At
this time, the board may further modify the budget to reflect its policies and
goals.
(e) Managing the Budget

The adopted budget serves as a guide for expenditure allocations throughout
the year. Since it is impossible to estimate all expenditure needs perfectly
during the budget process, it is important to continually monitor revenues

and expenditures to make sure they are in line with budget projections. If
there are changes either in the revenue available to the district, or in the
expenditure needs of the district, modifications to the budget document must
be approved by the school board.
Such modifications may be the result of an unexpected arrival of students,

requiring more teachers and classroom space, or a change in the revenue
receipts for one or more programmes. At all times, the district administration
and school board must strive to keep the budget in balance, reducing
expenditures if revenue projections fall short and increasing expenditures to
meet the needs of a growing student population.
In short, the budget becomes an important management tool to help ensure

that educational resources are based on the priorities established at the
beginning of the budget cycle.
SELF-CHECK 4.3
1. What are the five basic steps in developing a school budget?
2. Give five examples of documents that we have to include in

budgeting.
4.4 BUDGET CYCLE

School administrators realise that effective budget building must be a continuous
process. They recognise a need to follow a specific budget preparation calendar as
shown in Table 4.2.
Table 4.2: Budget Cycle Calendar
Month Event
Months 1 & 2  Budget year begins
Month 3  Quarterly revision
 To incorporate accurate revenue and enrolment figures (present
budget).
Month 4  Population (enrolment) projections
 Staff need projections
 Programme changes and additional projections
 Facilities needs projection

Month 5  Staff requisitions - supplies capital

 Outlay preliminary requests
Month 6  Budget revisions (present budget)
 Central staff sessions on needs
 Maintenance and operations requests
Month 7 Rough draft of needs budget
Month 8  Meet with staff and principal to establish priorities
 Citizen committeesÊ reports and reviews
 Central staff and board of education budget sessions
Month 9 Budget revision (present budget)
Month 10  Working budget draft
 Meet with staff and community groups to revise working budget
Month 11 Final draft of working budget
Month 12 Budget hearings and adoption of working budget
The details to be followed and the actual time to be assigned to budget preparation
depend on the size of the school district, the number of staff involved in budget
preparation and the degree of difficulty encountered in obtaining a three-sided
balance as in the budget triangle. On the day the current yearÊs budget begins, the
administration starts planning for the next year. The details involved in the
preparation of a new budget will not be the same in all districts, since the legal
requirements and the number of staff members responsible for budget planning
will not always be the same. The budget cycle calendar should be organised to
include certain minimum requirements.
Table 4.3 outlines the essential aspects of a budget cycle as follows:
Table 4.3: Aspects of a Budget Cycle
Aspects Explanation
Formulation Defining the issues of concern, clarifying the objectives and
limiting the problems.
Search Determining the relevant data and seeking alternative
programmes of action to resolve the issues.
Explanation Building a model and using it to explore the consequences of the
alternative programmes, usually by obtaining estimates of their
cost and performance.

Interpretation Deriving the conclusions and indicating a preferred alternative

or course of action. This may be a combination of features from
previously considered alternatives or their modification to
reflect factors not taken into account earlier.
Verification Testing the conclusion by experimentation. Rarely is it possible
to carry out this step until a programme is implemented. A
programme plan should call for evaluations that can be provided
after the verification of facts.
Structuring of the The correct questions must be asked and the problem must be
problem, design of properly structured. The objectives of the policies and
the analysis and programmes must be clearly stated in policy terms, the relevant
conceptual population must be defined and the alternatives for evaluation
framework must be selected. The two principal approaches are the fixed
output approach where for a specified level of output, the
analyst attempts to attain the output at the lowest possible
economic cost, and the fired budget approach, where the analyst
attempts to determine which alternatives are likely to produce
the highest output within the given budget level.
ACTIVITY 4.2
Why do you think a budget cycle is important in the budgeting of school
finance? Discuss with your coursemates.
ACTIVITY 4.3
Interview the headmaster of a school about the schoolÊs budget. Inquire
whether:
(a) It has undergone changes in the last few years.
(b) It uses an accounting system required by the state; and
(c) The use of computers in school accounting and budgeting
practices has had any effects and what these effects are.
4.5 BUDGET IMPLEMENTATION

Budget implementation can be included in some aspects of the school
administration, for example, distribution of funds to the school site, technology,
maintenance and operation, risk management, food services and purchasing.

4.5.1 Distribution of Funds to the School Site

School districts in Malaysia typically use a set of formulaic ratios to direct
resources to school sites. For instructional personnel, teachers are typically
provided to a school site based on the number of students in the school, for
example, one teaching position for every 25 students. Other personnel are
generated on a variety of similar formulaic ratios based on numbers of students,
other staff or school characteristics.
4.5.2 Technology
The most expensive items in schools are machines such as computers. They entail
the cost of maintenance, repair and updating of instructional technology tools. The
cost of placing computers and Internet connections in classrooms or in computer
labs is substantial. Once the investment in equipment has been made, the expense
of maintaining that equipment must be considered. It is also expensive to provide
technical training and support for teachers so that they make maximum use of the
technology and a plan must be established to keep both the hardware and the
software up to date. Providing equity for schools in making these purchases and
then maintaining their investment is complicated, unless schools are able to carry
over funds from one year to the next. It may never be possible to establish a fund
large enough to purchase enough computers.
4.5.3 Maintenance and Operations

The school facilities need to be maintained and repaired, however, the cost is much
lower as it involves only things like roof repairs and replacement of boilers. It is
important that either allocation rule considers these differences or school-site
decision makers have the foresight to establish reserves to pay for these items
when they are due.
4.5.4 Risk Management

For expenses on insurance and medical benefits, large risk pools are helpful in
keeping costs down. There are some advantages to co-operative purchasing
programmes, across schools or districts. The advantage to letting school sites
purchase their own benefit and insurance packages is that they can adapt their
programmes to meet the needs of their staff and students. The downside is that in
smaller risk pools, the potential of one lengthy illness making future insurance
very expensive is much greater.

Thus, programmes that provide more autonomy at school sites need to be

structured very carefully so that these functions do not take away from funds
available for direct instruction.
4.5.5 Food Services

In some schools, federal assistance pays for meals of low-income children. It is
called „rancangan makanan tambahan‰. It is unlikely, that a school principal or
staff will have the skill and expertise to operate a food services programme
efficiently. Although school sites could consider contracting out food services,
again, there may be benefits of scale in allowing the district to handle this.
4.5.6 Purchasing
For many years, districts have large purchasing operations, buying supplies in
large volume and then distributing them to school sites. Although there are
substantial savings in the purchase price of materials, the costs of maintaining
inventory and distribution are significant. Today, many districts have eliminated
the cost of inventories and the warehouse through the decentralisation of many
office supplies.
SELF-CHECK 4.4
Give five examples of the areas in budget implementation.
4.6 EVALUATION OF BUDGET

This is the last stage of the budgetary process. It comprises three aspects as follows:
(a) Financial Efficiency

Comparing the out-turn budget with the start of the year estimate.
(b) Resources Efficiency

Looking at what the money was spent on.
(c) Effectiveness
Assessing whether the expenditure has achieved the outcomes as required.

Budgetary evaluation is further broken into two evaluation stages as shown in

Figure 4.9.
Figure 4.9: Stages to evaluate school budget
One of the important lessons school administrators learn is that the budget is the
business of all the people in the district, not just the official concern of the
management and the school board. This concept has been a long time practice
which is well-received. School patrons cannot support financial claims against
them without some degree of understanding of the purpose of a budget.
In reality, budget critics often become budget defenders when they understand the
objectives the school is attempting to achieve and the financial limitations under
which it operates. The school administration is responsible for keeping the board
of education informed about the operation and the effectiveness of the budget.
The school administration usually issues financial reports to the board on a regular
basis, showing total expenditures to date, balances in the chief accounts and
anticipated problems in keeping within main budget item limitations. They
determine the extent to which the budget has been effective, what improvements
should be made in the next budget, what imbalances have been created between
programmes that are over financed compared with those that are underfinanced
and other necessary subjective and objective evaluations of budget performance.
The school administration must make special notes and report to the board from
time to time concerning the ever present problems of protecting the schoolÊs funds
against dishonest, unethical, or careless handling by school personnel.

ACTIVITY 4.4
Discuss with your coursemates the difference between functional
evaluation and strategic evaluation in budgeting evaluation.
This topic covers the following aspects of budgeting:
Ć Categorisation of approaches in budgeting as follows:

 Base budgeting;
 Limited plan;
 Zero budgeting;
 Programme budgeting;
 Pragmatic; and
 Incremental.
Ć Describing the preparation of budgeting involves:

 Development guidelines;
 Preparation document;
 Modifications original budget;
 Obtaining approval; and
 Managing budget.
Ć Explaining the budget cycle includes the budget calendar.
Ć Discussing the implementation of budget includes:

 Distribution of funds to the school site;
 Technology;
 Maintenance and operation;
 Risk management;
 Food services; and
 Purchasing.

Ć Generalising of evaluation in the budget includes:

 Functional evaluation; and
 Strategic evaluation.
Budget balance sheet Incremental

Budget calendar Limited plan
Budget cycle Operating expenses budget
Budget hearing Past record
Budget income statement Pragmatic
Budget triangle Programme budgeting
Cash budget Publicity
Capital expenditures budget Purchases budget
Clarity Regularity
Cost of goods sold budget Sales budget
Form of power Site-based budget
Functional evaluation Strategic evaluation
Future predictions Unity
Future statement Zero budgeting
Caldwell, B. J. & Spinks, J. M. (1998). The self-managing school. London, England:

Falmer Press.
Campbell, R. F., Cunningham, L. L., Nystrand, R. O. & Usdan. M. D. (1990). The

organisation and control of American Schools. (6th ed.). Columbus, OH:
Merrill.

Candoli, I. C. (1990). School district administration: Strategic planning for site

based management. Lancaster, PA: Technomics.
Guthrie, J. W. & Pierce, L. C. (1998). School finance and educational policy:

enhancing educational efficiency, equality and choice. (2nd ed.). Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Merrill/Prentice Hall
Hack, W. G., Candoli, I. C. & Ray, J. R. (1998). School business administration: A

planning approach. (6th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
Horngren, C. T., Harrison, W. T. & Robinson, M. A. (1995). Accounting. Upper

Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall
Knezevich, S. J. (1973). Program budgeting (PPBS). Berkeley, CA: McCutchan.
Knight, B. (1993). Financial management for schools. Oxford, England: Heinemann

Educational.
Ovsiew, L. & Castetter, W. B. (1960). Budgeting for better schools. Englewood

Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Scott, J. R., Martin J. D., Petty J. W. & Keown A. J. (1999). Basic financial
management. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Simkins, T. & Lancaster, D. (1987). Budgeting and resource allocation in

educational institutions. Sheffield, England: Sheffield City Polytechnic.
Stevenson, K. R., & Lane, J. H. (eds.). (1990). School business management in the
21st Century. Reston, VA: Association of School Business Officials
International.
Swanson, A. D., & King, R. A. (1997). School finance: Its economics and politics.
(2nd ed.). New York, NY: Longman.

Topic  School as a
Place for
5 Teaching and
Learning
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Define learning;
2. Explain behaviourist, cognitive and constructivist approaches in
learning; and
3. Discuss how the three approaches are applied in the teaching
process.
 INTRODUCTION
Schools can be a motivational, meaningful and memorable place for many people
and it is almost impossible for any of us to forget the schools we went to years ago.
In school we gain knowledge, we socialise and we carry out many activities or
learn various skills that are useful to us in the future.
Although the school functions as a small unit of analysis in the education system,
it has great meaning to students and teachers. The learning process occurs in
various forms and it involves various behavioural changes. Learning can be
viewed from several angles that involve behavioural changes, cognition and
development of meaning. This educational perspective is used extensively in the
teaching process. Each of the learning approaches explained later is beneficial to
students at various levels.

104  TOPIC 5 SCHOOL AS A PLACE FOR TEACHING AND LEARNING
5.1 DEFINITION OF LEARNING

When we talk about learning, we often associate it with learning for passing
examinations. In actual fact, learning covers a much wider scope. It involves
elements such as knowledge, skills, behaviours and it occurs in all kinds of social
situations. It is certain that learning does not occur just in the school environment.
But, what is learning?
Within the wider context, learning refers to something that occurs when experience
results in a change in oneÊs knowledge or behaviour. The change may be incidental or
may occur through a formal process. This definition shows that change occurs in
knowledge or behaviour. Although the context of change within this scope is often
debated, there is no one definition that accurately describes the learning process. In
fact, the various learning approaches provide a wider perspective on learning.
Simply stated, these learning approaches focus on the following aspects:

(a) Learning approaches that stress on behavioural change, skills and habits.
(b) The cognitive approach stressing on internal mental activities, such as
thinking, remembering, creating and solving problems.
(c) The constructivist approach that attempts to look at how an individual
produces meaning from an activity. The learning is seen as a process to build
knowledge.
The application of each of these approaches have implications for teaching.
SELF-CHECK 5.1
What do you understand by learning?
5.2 BEHAVIOURIST APPROACH IN LEARNING

Do you know the rationale underlying the behaviourist approach?
According to the founder of the behaviourist approach, B. F. Skinner

(1904-1990), learning is defined as behavioural change that occurs to an
individual as a result of an experience.

TOPIC 5 SCHOOL AS A PLACE FOR TEACHING AND LEARNING  105
Behavioural change originates from the work of Skinner and other scholars who
stressed on experience and the effect of behavioural change on an individual. The
focus of this approach is behaviour. Learning is defined as a behavioural change
that occurs in an individual as a result of an experience. The behaviour is merely
about what a person does in a certain situation.
5.2.1 Effect
Within the behaviourist approach, the effects of certain behaviours will determine
whether the behaviour will be repeated or not. Ongoing repetitions will reinforce,
recall and place it permanently in the metacognition. The next subtopics will
discuss the two main effects of the behaviourist approach, namely, reinforcement
and punishment.
5.2.2 Reinforcement
The ordinary meaning of reinforcement is reward but in the theory of learning,
reinforcement has a more specific connotation. Reinforcement is something that is
done to motivate repetition of a certain behaviour. Rachlin, Raineri and Cross
(1991) perceives that reinforcement is done to satisfy individual desire and to
lessen stress.
There are two kinds of reinforcement, which are positive reinforcement and
negative reinforcement. Positive reinforcement means that a reward is given after
certain behaviour is displayed. Reinforcement is often given by teachers in class as
a form of motivation. Positive reinforcement that is often given is giving praise
after students complete a task, such as answering questions correctly. Other
examples of positive reinforcement are giving a smile, patting students on the
shoulder, giving presents and others. Reinforcement can provide motivation for
students to produce work of high quality.
By contrast, negative reinforcement happens when an unpleasant stimuli is given

immediately after an action is displayed. If an action causes a negative situation to
stop, the behaviour may be repeated because the individual has learned how to
stop it. Let us say that a mother or father is constantly complaining about a teacher
and is often seeking for the teacher to be transferred. In order to escape from
receiving a similar complaint, as a principal, you transfer the teacher. You may
take the same action in other situations if there is no other negative effect from that
action.

5.2.3 Punishment
Punishment is a process to weaken or to lessen unwanted repetitive behaviour.
Punishment is often linked with negative reinforcement but punishment will
lessen the occurrence of the behaviour. There are two types of punishment, direct
punishment and removal punishment. Direct punishment occurs when stimuli
that is given represses a behaviour. As an example, teachers give additional work
to students who attain low marks, ask students to run round the field and so on.
The second type pertains to the removal of the stimuli. As an example, teachers do
not provide conveniences when a student does not exhibit correct behaviour. For
example, a student is not allowed to watch television as long as an assignment is
not completed.
SELF-CHECK 5.2
Give two examples of positive reinforcement that you can offer to
students in the classroom.
5.3 APPLICATION OF THE BEHAVIOURIST

APPROACH IN THE CLASSROOM
Many teachers use the behaviourist approach in the classroom. Several principles
that need to be used in the approach include the following:
(a) Giving praise that is clear and systematic but only to those who need it;
(b) Identifying achievements that are really valid;
(c) Determining the standard for praise based on the capability and limit of the
student;
(d) Identifying positive behaviour based on the way the students appreciate it;
and
(e) Determining specific and clear goals, so that you know which kind of
reinforcement should be given.
Several examples of the application of the behaviourist approach in learning

include writing learning objectives, mastery learning and direct teaching.

5.3.1 Learning Objectives

Learning objectives are statements about what students will be expected to learn
or should be able to do after completing a lesson or a course. They are important
as they guide teachers in strategising teaching approaches for the purpose of
instructional efficiency and effectiveness. Without learning objectives, the students
will experience difficulty in understanding what they are supposed to learn.
There are various ways to write learning objectives. However, basic to writing
learning objectives is the behavioural change that should occur in learners. Clear
teaching objectives are indicators to the teacher to achieve the teaching goal.
5.3.2 Mastery Learning

Mastery learning rests on the assumption given that if time and teaching are
adequate, students can master a learning objective. Through this approach, the
teacher needs to divide what needs to be learned into smaller teaching units. Each
unit that is divided comprises specific objectives. Teachers need to inform students
of the objectives and the criteria to succeed in the evaluation of each unit. Learners
who cannot fulfil the minimum level specified can revise the unit. The advantage
of mastery learning is that this approach helps students who do not master a unit
the first time around. These students can master the unit later during the next level
of testing.
Mastery learning is suitable when the teaching focuses on the mastery of concepts
or skills. As an example, for Mathematics, the performance of a student will be
affected if the teacher proceeds from one unit to the next without understanding
whether students have acquired the conceptual skills that were taught. Mastery
learning is very useful as students are given additional time and support either in
the class or through extra classes.
5.3.3 Direct Teaching

Direct teaching can be used to teach basic skills such as scientific facts,
mathematical calculation, as well as mastery of grammar and language rules. The
skill is taught in stages. This approach does not help students in creative writing
or to solve complex problems but is more towards helping to comprehend a certain
procedure. Psychologists find that direct teaching helps students to learn.
Nevertheless, there is criticism that direct teaching can only ensure the success of
achieving lower level objectives. In addition, this approach does not encourage the
use of new and innovative teaching methods.

According to Rosenshine (1988), direct teaching that is effective should comprise

the following framework:
(a) Revision and re-evaluation of teaching activities conducted the previous day;
(b) The use of new teaching aids ă and provision of many examples;
(c) Providing feedback based on answers given by students. Re-teach if necessary;
(d) Giving individual exercises. Students should be given different group
assignments or homework based on their varied learning styles.
(e) Re-evaluating learning weekly or monthly.
SELF-CHECK 5.3
1. What are the advantages of using mastery learning in the
classroom?
2. What are the several principles of the behavioural approach that

should be used in the classroom?
5.4 COGNITIVE APPROACH IN LEARNING

According to cognitive psychologists, learning is an active mental process for
assessing, storing, recalling or using knowledge. The basis for the approach is
towards an active process of the mind so as to understand the environment.
Cognitive research studies in the 1970s and 1980s mainly focused on how a
personÊs belief, expectation and feeling influence what and how he learns. The
Information Processing Model dominates research conducted on cognitive science.
Presently, psychologists have renewed a lot of cognitive knowledge in the aspects
of learning, thinking and problem solving.
The contemporary cognitive approach suggests that an important aspect in the

process of learning is what the individual brings to the learning situation. Certain
scholars view that what we already know determines what we believe, learn,
remember and forget. Gillani (2003) posits that as a student encounters a new
learning situation, his prior knowledge would come into play in making a new
learning experience understandable. So, knowledge is not just something new but
is something from the past and that knowledge helps to direct the existence of new
knowledge. Pre-requisite knowledge is important for the learning of new knowledge.
A strong foundation of knowledge can be a good learning strategy to help
understand and remember something. Knowledge can be categorised as follows:

(a) General Knowledge

This knowledge can be used in all kinds of situations. For example, general
knowledge about reading or learning a certain word will be useful in various
kinds of situations.
(b) Domain-specific Knowledge

This knowledge refers to a kind of assignment or subject. As an example,
when referring to the ninth hole, a person knows that it has to do with a game
of golf.
5.4.1 Information Processing Model

According to Woolfolk (1998), information processing is a human mental activity
related to receiving, storing and retrieving of information to be re-used. This model
consists of three main elements such as sensory memory, short-term memory or
working memory and long-term memory.
(a) Sensory Memory

Sensory memory is short-term memory that exists in the human sensory
system. The meaning we assign to information that we receive is known as
perception. Meaning is built from reality and existing knowledge. Sensory
memory enables an individual to store information for a duration of one to
three seconds. If the information is not processed, it will immediately
disappear.
With regards to sensory memory, the first step in learning is to pay attention.
Students cannot process information when they cannot identify it or do not
have perceptions. Many factors influence studentsÊ attention in class. Calling
a student suddenly, colouring, outlining a concept and changing oneÊs
teaching method are some of the ways to gain studentsÊ attention.
(b) Short-term Memory

Short-term memory involves a small memory capacity, that is, it has the
capacity of holding a small amount of information for a short duration of
between 5 and 20 seconds. The information is processed, sieved, arranged or
synthesised to be sent to long-term memory to be stored. Using repetitive
rehearsal, new information can be stored. In the process of teaching, teachers
often question about facts that are explained to students. After students
provide feedback, the teacher will repeat his explanation. This approach helps
an individual to transfer short-term memory to long-term memory.

(c) Long-term Memory

This memory has a large capacity. As an example, long-term memory stores
information that you have learned, such as telephone numbers that you
already know. This is because this type of memory stores information longer,
which is from a few seconds to several years. Information gets into the
memory box fast but a few approaches are needed in order to store it in the
long-term. Several types of long-term memories that are often used are:
(i) Episodic Memory

This memory is related to experience and events that occur to an
individual throughout his life complete with time and place. Examples
are jokes, gossip or a film plot.
(ii) Procedural Memory

This memory is related to how we perform a certain task such as the
learning of a procedure. For example when formulating school
expenditure, or conduct the PTA meeting, procedural knowledge is
represented by formulated statements. If A happens, then B will be done.
(iii) Semantic Memory

This memory is related to meaning, namely storing concepts, facts,
rules, schemes or images. For example, when a person is asked about
the number of mirrors found in his school, he will immediately imagine
the shape of the mirror and begin to count the number of mirrors. The
image is useful in making decisions. Similarly, the image of the road
appears in the teacherÊs mind when he is asked by someone to give the
direction to another school.
5.4.2 Recalling Information from Long-term Memory

Some of the things that occur when we try to recall information that has been
stored in long-term memory is that we will increase the information that already
exists or we will leave out certain information. This phenomenon occurs due to
certain reasons:
(a) Inference
An inference is made by someone when given a statement that reflects on
social life. As an example, someone who hears the statement, „In order to
repair the broken chair, Ali hit the nail hard‰. When asked what Ali had
done, oneÊs thought will directly be on a „hammer‰ that is used to hit the
nail. But in reality it might not truly be the case. Ali might have used his own

a piece of wood, stone or his shoes to hit the nail. But one would add his own
information when trying to remember from long-term memory. This is
known as inference.
Inference has great implications on oneÊs life. Imagine what will happen if
we make inferences about information when we are giving an account of an
event as a court witness or when we are telling someone whom we have just
known about something.
(b) Stereotype
Stereotype is a unit of information about character traits or physical
attributes that we assume to be true for a group of people. We may not know
anything about the person but we make assumptions about the personÊs
traits.
For example: „Sharifah is a famous 40-year-old unmarried lawyer.‰
Probably the stereotype given by the person who makes the statement is:
(i) She is very choosy!
(ii) She is a famous lawyer and men are afraid to approach her!
(iii) She is anti-men!
We use stereotypes stored in long-term memory to explain, clarify or

explicate something.
(c) Schemata
Schemata are cognitive structures in the long-term memory that are abstract
representations about an object, matter or event that we have experienced in the
real world. You may have the schemata about what is served at Pizza Hut. You
definitely do not ask for rice with dishes or fried noodles at Pizza Hut!
SELF-CHECK 5.4
State three elements that are used in the information processing model.

5.5 APPLICATION OF TEACHING AND

LEARNING FROM THE COGNITIVE
APPROACH
Similar to the behavioural approach, the cognitive approach, when used correctly,
will change oneÊs teaching and learning. The cognitive principles in teaching and
learning can be summarised as follows:
(a) Perception and attention that students give are flexible but limited.
(b) Teachers need to ensure that students pay attention in class.
(c) Perceptions and attention that students give are influenced by their past
experiences.
(d) Teachers need to guide students to link new information to what they
already know.
(e) Limitations towards data and source may affect learning.
(f) Teachers need to guide students to arrange information based on small,
meaningful units.
(g) Teachers need to give students the chance to use oral stories and visual
images.
(h) Information that has been explained needs to be repeated.
(i) Information should be presented in an orderly manner.
(j) We should focus on meaning and not memorisation.
(k) Teachers need to ensure that students possess declarative knowledge to
understand new knowledge.
(l) Students need to know their personal cognitive skills and to use existing
resources in order to be able to learn by themselves.
Strategies that can be used by students in the cognitive approach include

underlining key words when reading, taking notes so that information coding
process can be done more systematically and using mind maps, charts or diagrams
to understand the structure of knowledge.

The mnemonic technique is also a systematic procedure to improve memory.

Many of the mnemonic strategies use images to remember certain facts or
information. Mnemonics will help you to remember through preparation of
indicators so that you can remember information better. There is no need to learn
numerous facts in order to recall the information. Information can be summarised
by preparing charts, diagrams or committing to remember certain locations within
the memory box. The mnemonic technique is often applied when we use word
summary to recall a certain phrase or word. Examples are EPF, MIMOS and others.
5.6 CONSTRUCTIVIST APPROACH

According to McBrien and Brandt (1997), constructivism is a teaching approach
whereby each individual constructs knowledge and does not merely accept
knowledge from others. In other words, a constructivist learner constructs
knowledge by testing ideas and then attempts to apply the ideas to new situations.
The constructivist theory states that learners build meaning about the world.
Learners will synthesise new knowledge to existing meaning. Learners also
formulate rules by reflecting about their interactions with objects and ideas. As an
example, when they come across an object, idea or word that is unfamiliar, they
interpret what they have seen to be similar with the rules that have been
formulated. Learners adjust the rules made in order to explain the new information
better.

Figure 5.1 shows several traits of constructivist learning.
Figure 5.1: Traits of constructivist learning
Based on Figure 5.1, the constructivist teaching and learning approach focuses on
students. Besides that, studentsÊ knowledge is a product of the activity that is
conducted by the student and is not accepted passively. The student plays an
active role in the learning process. The teacherÊs function is to identify studentsÊ
existing knowledge and to plan the teaching approach that is basic to this type of
knowledge. This approach is in line with the application of the zone of proximal
development (ZPD), a concept defined by Vygotsky (1978).

ZPD is concerned with the distance between the actual developmental level and
the level of potential development under guidance of capable persons such as
teachers or other students. The teacher, as adult, plays the role of a facilitator who
guides students to construct knowledge and to solve problems; ZPD is the
potential level of development that can be brought about by assistance of teachers
or capable peers.
Among the strengths of the constructivist approach are that the student would be
able to think and understand more and recall a learning concept better. This is
because the student is able to relate the knowledge learned with his experience.
5.7 APPLICATION OF THE CONSTRUCTIVIST

APPROACH
Several applications of the constructivist approach in the classroom include the
following:
(a) Inquiry Based Learning and Problem Solving

John Dewey explained the process of inquiry based learning in 1910. Using
the approach, the teacher will pose questions or problems and the student
will form a hypothesis in order to explain the problem. Then, the student will
collect data to test the hypothesis and to form the conclusion. The use of
technology such as computers and videos can support inquiry learning. The
use of software in Science lessons among students, for example, encourages
inquiry about Science concepts and their relationship to life. Students can
understand lessons that are challenging when given certain situations. In
order to solve problems, the group approach can be used.
(b) Cooperative Learning

Cooperative learning has been used for a long time in the American
education system. This approach motivates a student to learn. Cooperative
learning involves the use of random structures. One such example is the
jigsaw structure. Jigsaw is a structure whereby students can learn by
themselves. Students work in groups, and each group member will be given
a part of the learning material that needs to be studied by all the group
members. Each student will be skilled in each part that is given to him, and
students will then teach other members within the group.

ACTIVITY 5.1
1. How would you apply the constructivist approach in your
teaching? Discuss with your coursemates.
2. Discuss several principles of the behavioural approach and how

they should be applied in the classroom.
 Although learning occurs in school, the form and approach used to teach
varies. The behaviourist, cognitivist and constructivist approaches provide
comprehensive knowledge to understand the learning habits of students and
how to use the appropriate teaching process.
 Teachers need to know the strengths of each approach and to apply them when
needed.
 There is no one correct teaching approach, but each approach can be applied
after the teacher understands the needs of the student.
Behavioural learning approach Direct teaching

Classroom interaction Learning
Cognitivism Learning objectives
Constructivist approach Mastery learning
Cooperative learning Stimuli

Gillani, B. B. (2003). Learning theories and the design of e-learning environments.

Lanham, MD: University Press of America.
McBrien, J. L. & Brandt, R. S. (1997). The language of learning: A guide to education

terms. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum
Development.
Rachilin, H., Raineri, A., & Cross, D. (1991). Subjective probability and delay.
Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 55 (2), 233ă244.
Rosenshine, B. V. (Ed.) (1988). Talk to teachers; A festschrift for N.L. Gage. New
York, NY: Random House.
Woolfolk, A. E. (1998). Educational psychology. Boston, MA : Allyn & Bacon.
Vygotsky, L. (1978). Mind in society. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press

Topic  Organisational
Culture and
6 Climate
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Distinguish school culture and school climate;
2. Discuss the importance of culture for school success;
3. Demonstrate the need to develop a positive work culture and
climate in schools; and
4. Propose a model of school that has a strong and positive work
culture.
 INTRODUCTION
School culture and school climate refer to a set of values, cultures, practices and
organisational structure in schools that influence and affect the process of
formation of behaviour and safety of students in schools. Teaching and learning
approaches, openness and the type of relationship between administrators,
teachers, parents or guardians and students contribute towards the formation of
the school climate. Although school culture and climate are two interrelated forms,
school climate refers more to the effects of school environment on students, while
school culture refers to the way and style teachers and staff work as a team in
schools.

TOPIC 6 ORGANISATIONAL CULTURE AND CLIMATE  119
6.1 SCHOOL CULTURE

Consider this statement for a moment:
Did you know that an open culture enhances an organisationÊs relationship with
its environment? It is a situation where parents, teachers and other interested
parties enjoy mutual benefits, open relationships, full trust, clear
communication and shared goals for the organisation.
Culture is a way we do our work. In this system, there are patterns of ideas, thinking,
norms and values that contribute towards the formation of individual behaviour.
According to Mintzberg (1989) culture refers to an organisationÊs ideology, or „the
traditions and beliefs of an organisation that distinguish it from other organizations
and infuse a certain life into the skeleton of its structure.‰ Robbins (1998) defines
culture as as „a system of shared meaning held by members that distinguishes the
organisation from other organisations.‰
Scheine (2010) sees that culture should be reserved for a „deeper level of basic
assumptions, values and beliefs‰ that become shared and taken for granted as the
organisation continues to be successful.
We can conclude that a school culture is a system of shared ideas and practices that
exists within the school which holds us together and that gives us a unique identity.
Hoy and Miskel (2013) explain that culture carries important functions as follows:
(a) Creates distinctions among organisations;
(b) Provides the organisations with a sense of identity;
(c) Facilitates development of commitment to the group;
(d) Enhances stability in the social system;
(e) Is the social glue that binds the organisation together; and
(f) Provides standards of behaviour.
The organisational culture that we practise exists at three levels. They are culture as
norms, culture as shared values and culture as tacit assumptions (Hoy & Miskel, 2013).

120  TOPIC 6 ORGANISATIONAL CULTURE AND CLIMATE
The following are examples for each level mentioned:
(a) Examples of culture as norms:

(i) Never reprimand students in public;
(ii) Never criticise colleagues or staff in public;
(iii) Be available for students and colleagues; and
(iv) Everybody handles their own discipline problems.
(b) Examples of culture of shared values are:

(i) Commitment to the school;
(ii) Commitment to teaching and all school duties;
(iii) Teamwork; and
(iv) High academic and sports achievement.
(c) Examples of culture as tacit assumptions are:

(i) Teachers are professionally capable of making educational decisions;
(ii) Problems can be be solved by open communication and by maintaining
diplomacy and civility; and
(iii) Teachers are family; they care for each other.
Cultures can be designed and built. School leaders can initiate or become the
champion of a positive culture. Examples of cultural practices that could be instilled
are as follows:
(a) Loving culture;
(b) Culture of respect;
(c) Culture of being brave to question;
(d) Reading culture; and
(e) Culture of speed.

Each culture stated before should be accompanied by various related activities.

The reading culture for instance, is inculcated through the following activities:
(a) Nilam Project ă every student who has completed reading a book, writes a
brief report on the book that has been read;
(b) A book corner in class ă becomes a place for magazines and newspapers;
(c) Book shack ă a place to read books;
(d) Knowledge walkway ă a billboard filled with useful knowledge; and
(e) A novel a week ă inculcate book reading skills.
The loving culture should be accompanied by various fun activities. For instance,
(a) Teachers greeting students first;
(b) Mentor-mentee project;
(c) Book on classmatesÊ biographies; and
(d) Daily diaries.
SELF-CHECK 6.1
Relate Hoy and MiskelÊs three levels of organisational culture to school

culture, and provide your own examples for each.
6.2 SCHOOL CLIMATE

School climate is the „characteristic‰ and environment that exist in a school that
differentiates it from other schools. This characteristic is the product of interaction
between teachers and students as well as the society in that school as a whole.

Are you aware that the following six leadership practices are closely associated
with organisational climate? They are, namely, the following:
(a) Sharing of vision;
(b) Focusing on studentsÊ achievements;
(c) Managing the safety and effectiveness of learning environment;
(d) Cooperating with parents and the community;
(e) Acting with fairness and integrity; and
(f) Influencing the social and political landscapes of the organisation.

6.2.1 Types of Climate

Moos (1979) defines school climate as a social system that forms a learning
environment where students from various backgrounds and different experiences
exist in a group, where their behaviours depend greatly on the type of protocol
created by administrators and teachers. Moos divides social environment into
three categories, which are:
(a) Relations, encompassing involvement, sharing and cooperation with friends
and teachers in classrooms.
(b) Self development or goal orientation, covering personal development and
shared individual goal achievement.
(c) Changes and system reinforcement, which involve clear regulations and
laws and teachersÊ actions to ensure that regulations are adhered to.
Moos (1979) proposed that "although the specific types of educational

environments needed depend in part on the types of people in them and on the
outcomes desired... [at least] we need to focus on relationship, personal growth,
and system maintenance and change dimensions in describing, comparing,
evaluating, and changing educational settings." (p. 96)

A school is an agent preparing students in the environment. An educational
institution is an organisation that is established to achieve continuous educational
objectives. Environmental factors and the school climate will influence input and
output of educational organisations in the future.

A school climate can be divided into two types, that is, positive climate or open
climate and negative climate or closed climate. An open climate is depicted by a
school environment that is peaceful, comfortable, safe, organised and free of
threats and serious disciplinary problems either among teachers, staff or students.
In schools that have a positive climate, normally administrators, staff and students
are genuine, good and sincere, proud of the school and have esprit de corps,
possess clear leadership skills where teachers give full commitment without
feeling pressured.
Sheninger and Murray (2017) believe that a positive culture shows an attention to
social and physical safety. It also supports high behavioural and academic standards
other than providing encouragement and maintenance of respectful, trusting and
caring relationships. Teachers would also be at their best in such an environment
as such a climate develops and encourages trust, respect, communication and
cooperation within the school and the community at large. Hence, positive school
climate is the foundation for improvement of student achievement and excellent
colleagiality.
Unlike positive climate, negative climate is where the school is in a chaotic

condition, the principal is always anxious, teachers are listless and students are
uncontrollable. Such a school will show abnormal, tense and pretentious
behaviour of administrators, teachers and students. There is a lesser sense of
belonging, minimal participation in school activities and only compulsory
activities are implemented. Normally administrators will use their power to issue
directives to activate programmes, while teachers will be complacent and show
high work dissatisfaction.
Although a school climate is said to be negative or positive, in reality this cannot

be clearly seen. However, often times there exist both climates in schools. What is
obvious is its level because climate lies within a positive and negative continuum.
6.2.2 Importance of Climate

Implementation of duties by teachers and staff in an organisation is determined by
two factors, namely individual personality and environment or the environment
within the organisation. This shows that school climate is important to ensure an
individualÊs effectiveness and commitment towards the organisation. A positive
climate will help students and teachers to be more motivated and subsequently
teaching and learning will run smoothly.
The school climate greatly influences studentsÊ development, particularly through

three main aspects, namely introduction to self-concept, ability to work effectively
and ability to build good relations with other people. School influence plays a
major role after family in forming studentsÊ personality. In fact, for a majority of
students, a school is the substitute for family. The influence of teachers and peers
leave a deep impact on students. Therefore, the role of a school climate is closely
related to personality and academic excellence of students as well as the
effectiveness of a school.
ACTIVITY 6.1
Describe the climate in a school that you are familiar with. Share your
thoughts on myINSPIRE.
6.3 CHANGE IN SCHOOL CLIMATE AND

CULTURE
As we have already discussed, culture is shared norms, values and tacit
expressions. In contrast, climate is the perceptions of behaviour which is the
relatively enduring quality of a school environment that is experienced by
participants, which in turn, affects their behaviour and is based on their collective
perceptions of behaviour in schools (Hoy & Miskel, 2013).
Did you know?

According to Humphrey (2000), school climate is similar to school culture
whereby it explores the types of culture and staff satisfaction towards the school
and its leadership. The unique attributes of school culture evolve through a
long-term process.
Climate change and school culture are closely related with the school administrative
leadership pattern. This is because school leaders are the most important people
who influence the climate and culture of a school. If a school leader is open, his
school climate will also be open and positive. Thus, changes in climate will occur
when teachers work hard and calmly because their safety is guaranteed. This is very
much in line with the concept of climate of citizenship, where teachers generally
behave in helpful ways. They typically go beyond routine duties, voluntarily help
others and embrace extra work. Their behaviour is characterised by altruism,
conscientiousness, courtesy and good citizenship. Voluntarism is a dominant
characteristic of teacher behaviour (Hoy & Miskel, 2013).

Examples of the practice of this concept are altruism, conscientiousness,

sportsmanship, courtesy and civic virtue. Students will also feel the changes in
school climate taking place. Conversely, if school leaders are withdrawn, the
school climate will be withdrawn; teachers and students will feel anxious and not
confident with the school. As such, school leaders should be individuals who are
capable and responsible in improving and bringing changes to the climate and
culture of the school. School leaders can provide emphasis on the relationship
between groups in the school. They can also ensure a harmonious climate and
attend to studentsÊ and teachersÊ personal development, particularly in terms of
values, self-confidence, trust and attitude.
Possibly, school heads will face obstacles in changing climates and school cultures
in the short term. But they should play their roles effectively if they want to see
their schools develop in the future.
School climate involves human relations. This creates complexity. There is no

shortcut to it. Subsequently, school leaders, when they attempt to take measures
to improve school climate and culture, need to be aware of the following four-step
process:
(a) Being aware of situations ă school heads should be aware of the behaviours
of students, teachers and staff in the school. This can be done through
observation and scrutinising.
(b) Analysing the situation ă based on information obtained, school heads

should analyse the situation systematically to get the total picture and
understand it clearly, such as by studying various contributing factors to the
development of school climate and culture.
(c) Taking action ă school heads can take action to change school climate and
culture through changes in value, attitudes, relationships and the conduct of
teachers and students. Positive norms are encouraged, while negative ones
are abandoned.
(d) Assessing ă through actions that can be taken to see its effectiveness. Among
others, a school head can modify certain aspects in climate and culture
wherever necessary. Continuous assessments are very important because
certain changes made in an organised manner take a long time.

To improve and change school climate and culture, all factors should be taken into
consideration whether it has internal or external characteristics. Attitudes, values,
teaching skills, learning, environment, building, equipment, quality and quantity
of teaching aids and books cannot be separated in the change of climate and school
culture. Since society also influences school culture and climate, values and
attitudes of the surrounding community should also be taken into consideration.
Hoy and Miskel (2013) suggested two change strategies in improving

organisational climate, namely, clinical strategy and growth-centred strategy.
Clinical strategy involves gaining knowledge of the organisation, diagnosis,
prognosis, prescription and evaluation, while the growth-centred strategy is
concerned with accepting a set of assumptions. Among the assumptions are that
change is a property of healthy school organisations, that it has direction that
implies progress, and that teachers have high potential for development and
implementation for change.
SELF-CHECK 6.2
List four steps which school leaders should exercise in their attempt to
change school culture and climate.
ACTIVITY 6.2
School culture and climate are important factors that contribute to school
excellence. Discuss with your coursemates, the aspects that should be
given attention by a school administrator in bringing change in the
organisation.
6.4 STUDENTS CONTROL

Various programmes have been implemented in schools in the effort to build and
control discipline. Among the programmes which have been initiated is the „Safe
School Programme.‰ Through this programme the school community, namely
teachers, students, support staff, school administrators, counsellors and so on need
to be aware of student safety and this is interpreted through sensitive, caring and
responsible behaviours and attitudes as well as professionalism to assure that the
learning environment is conducive.

Did you know?

Schools in which students are highly disciplined generally exhibit academic
strength and excellence; have cultural clarity in terms of goals; strong teachers,
strong teacher parent and student relationships; and climates that are focused
on learning.

Among the actions that have to be implemented by the school community to

ensure student control and safety in school are:
(a) Administrators and teachers should be on duty at the entrance and within
the building area before and after school hours;
(b) Teachers and administrators should be able to anticipate whatever problems
that could arise;
(c) Teachers should be present at all areas and special rooms;
(d) The school community should be able to help control traffic inside and
outside the school during and after school hours;
(e) The school community is encouraged to supervise and eat at the school
canteen;
(f) Teachers are required to be with students during every school programme
and activity;
(g) The school community should monitor toilets, special rooms and the school
compound at all times;
(h) Teachers should help students during and after school hours;
(i) The school community is trained to face any crisis that arises and understand
their responsibility towards prevention as well as facing of emergencies;
(j) Teachers should discuss in class and during every programme the awareness
of safety in the school;
(k) The school community should be responsible in implementing policies to
determine safety in every co-curricular activity at all times during school
hours;
(l) The school community should prove that they have the commitment in
instilling culture and a learning environment; and
(m) School administrators and teachers are required to call students by name.

Apart from that, training and lecture activities or briefings can be implemented in
order to inform students about plans, procedures and responsibilities in
maintaining the school climate. Among the topics and activities that are suitable
with training are plans to handle crisis, awareness on drug prevention,
gangsterism, dangerous weapons, involvement of school community in facing
conflict resolution, reducing violent behaviour and peer counselling. The school
community should also be responsible in avoiding, managing and responding to
every crisis that arises.
Exposure in handling of conflicts effectively can be implemented through training

and courses which can be presented to parents, students and the school
community. The content covers communication skills, problem resolution,
decision-making skills, empathy, identifying existence of gangsters, legal skills
and others. Activities in the form of directives begin from informal to formal and
from planning and implementation.
Through smart school partnership and cooperation as well as involvement

between schools and social bodies in preventive efforts, examples that should also
be actively implemented to enhance school safety are violence prevention
programmes, legal enforcement, emergency agencies, fire services and youth
agencies.
Schools are encouraged to establish crime prevention clubs through continuous

safety campaigns. The clubs are voluntary bodies that are implemented by
associations to reduce criminal offences and increase control and safety. A safe and
comfortable climate shows that there is school safety. Among the aspects that
should be given attention to create and safeguard students are safety planning
through control, communication systems, guarding, identification badges, access
cards, visitor tags and safeguarding by safety guards.
The role of parents and guardians is also important to inculcate a sense of

belonging and pride for the school through support, involvement and
participation as partners in safe school activities. Examples include safety rounds,
assistance, monitoring and parental educational programmes whereby parents
learn skills to help, receive counselling services and also learn about the effects of
violent behaviour in school.
There is a need to consider having personnel officers who are given the task and
responsibility to lead, coordinate and help in ensuring that the school environment
is safe. The personnel can possibly be security guards, school administrators or
teachers who are tasked to implement this role.

SELF-CHECK 6.3
List the actions that can be taken by school administrators in disciplining
students.
6.5 ORGANISATIONAL DYNAMICS

Organisational dynamics is a directional polar of behavioural change from a stable
organisation to another polar of stable behaviour. The dynamics of an
organisation, particularly educational organisation is caused by the existence of
pressure for change, which is the system of internal climate that requires the
organisation to change. Sergiovanni (1998) states that factors that cause pressure
leading to a more dynamic organisation are personal force, bureaucracy, market
type as well as increase in professionalism, culture and political influence. Hersey
(1983) states seven types of pressure that push for change namely force,
remuneration, skills, valid power, personnel or reference, power of information
and power of communication.
A dynamic organisation is more capable of reducing conflicts in the society which

is becoming increasingly complex. Factors such as economy, technology, politics
and socio-cultural factors will increase conflict in the society. Efficiency in
managing a complex and multi racial community such as in Malaysia requires
educational changes because education is an important agent for change in society.
Apart from that, it is also aimed at increasing production capacity through skills
and knowledge preparation based on changing times.
6.5.1 Organisational Change Concept

There are various definitions that are closely related to a dynamic organisation. In
normal circumstances, dynamics or change that is introduced result from
modification of past behaviour in order to suit a new situation.
According to Carzo (1967):
„Dynamics of change involve a shift from a set of stable behavioural or

situational pattern to another.‰

Changes that occur in an organisation like schools should involve continuous

characteristics (kaizen), happening in stages as well as entirely to become better or
upgraded. Changes are also linked to introduction of a new behaviour or new
practices which are hoped to improve practice or an existing situation in school.
Therefore, changes cannot be separated from the concepts „transformation‰,
„innovation‰ and „upgrading‰.
According to Stoner and Winkel (1989):
Change agents as responsible individuals take the lead role to manage change
in the clientele system (individual, group or organisation). These change agents
may comprise staff members inside or outside an organisation. External agents
enjoy greater acceptability compared to internal agents of the organisation as
they are perceived to have no vested interest.
Rusinah (1999) meanwhile defines change agents as:
„Change agents are individuals group that take responsibility for changing
the existing pattern of behaviour of a person or social system‰.
According to Shahril (2001), the principal as a change agent means that he is the
main or first person or individual to make modifications in a school organisation.
Therefore, as a change agent, the principal should make adaptation and changes
in certain fields so that it is suitable with the environmental change to ensure that
the school as a social institution will continue to exist and to function. The question
is whether the principal who is burdened with duties as administrator and
headteacher is capable of implementing change effectively.
Dynamics cannot be avoided in an organisation including schools. This is because

the environment also changes. Therefore, if we want to continue to exist and
function, we cannot escape change.
This situation is depicted in a statement by Handy (in Hussein, 1993: 223):
„If you put a frog in water and slowly heat it, the frog will eventually let itself
be boiled to death. We too, will not survive if we donÊt respond to the radical
way in which the world is changing‰.


Change in certain organisations occur due to external pressure and internal

encouragement. According to Stoner and Winkel (1989), external pressure which
forces change are rising costs, lack of resources, technological advancement,
external demands (consumer) and lack of financial allocations from the
government. This situation results in an organisation being forced to change its
structure, goals and operational methods. Meanwhile, internal pressure consists
of new strategies, technology, behaviour and attitude. However, both external and
internal enforcers are interrelated.
There are several objectives for change to be implemented in an organisation,

including school. Among the objectives are as follows:
(a) Increasing motivation ă namely change as an instrument to attract and

increase interest in work among staff and students.
(b) Increasing production capacity ă change as a way to increase production

capacity in terms of quality and quantity. For instance, school teachersÊ work
production and studentsÊ achievements are improved through various
approaches.
(c) Reducing conflict ă in an organisation which comprises divisions and units.

Difference in terms of work, capability, interests, background, economy,
social, politics and technology, individual and organisational goals will also
create conflict. In such a situation, change needs to be made to reduce
conflict. As a smart principal, one should take advantage of the existing
conflicts to strengthen oneÊs leadership.
Now let us look at the external and internal forces that may cause change to occur.
(a) External Forces

Several external forces against change that have been identified are: the
Federal Government, ministries, the societyÊs and parentsÊ needs,
technological changes, labour market demands and the countryÊs economic
changes. As a country that practices the central educational system, all
policies and laws relating to education have been determined by the Federal
Government and the Education Ministry which are the stake holders.
One of the duties of the school principal is to ensure that all such policies and
laws are adhered to. This means that the principal should implement all new
policies that have been directed to him by higher officials based on his
wisdom, for instance, implementation of KBSR, KBSM, smart schools,
effective schools and so on.

The school is a social institution which provides educational services to clients

consisting of students, parents and the society. No doubt, parents, certainly
hope for the best service to be provided for their children. Therefore, they are
said to have indirect authority to force and push for change to be done in
schools. The role of bodies such as the parent-teacher association is very
important in helping and giving support to the principal to implement change
in school. According to Wyant et. al. (in Hussein, 1993), schools that are
successful in implementing changes are those funded by external bodies,
besides the involvement of the principals.
In the modern world, technological advancements happen very fast. In school,

the role of technology is very important. The failure of schools to progress in
tandem with technological advancements will impede educational excellence.
Usage of modern equipment in school such as computers and other machines
and equipment as well as new techniques in administration, teaching and
learning will help increase the schoolÊs excellence. Recent developments in the
educational world that place emphasis on use of multimedia such as smart
schools force change to be implemented in schools. To implement such change
certainly requires a principal who possesses knowledge, skill and a high level
of expertise and power (Ramaiah, 1999).
One of the goals of this countryÊs education is to provide education to the

people so as to fulfil the need of the labour force to develop the countryÊs
economy in various sectors. In this context, the principal should be aware of
the needs and demands of the countryÊs labour force. All such demands force
and require the principal to think of all matters relating to subjects and
streaming of students in his school in line with the countryÊs needs.
(b) Internal Forces

Change in a school organisation is also caused by situations that may exist
within the school organisation itself. Among the various sources of internal
pressure are the leadership within the organisation, communication, decision
making and lack of efficiency in motivational strategies.
In schools, the principal is the leader for learning and administration. A change
can occur due to internal pressure, which is from the principal himself as the
leader. To become the pioneer of change, the principal should be someone who
is creative, innovative, proactive and visionary. „To learn is to change, to change
is to create‰ (Handy, 1989). Only a dynamic and proactive principal can
implement change effectively.

The principal should also implement change to create effective communication.

One of the causes of inefficient leadership of the principal is miscommunication
whereby a lot of information is not conveyed directly to teachers, non-teaching
staff, students and society. There are many reasons for the failure to convey
information. Therefore, to make principal leadership more efficient, a change in
communication should be carried out in the school. Communication should be
multi-directional instead of being top-down.
Change should also be carried out when various problems exist among the
organisational members, for instance, the rising incidence of teachersÊ and
studentsÊ problems such as breaking of school rules among students, being
disrespectful of teachers, stealing, gangsterism, threatening and quarrelling.
This indicates that certain aspects pertaining to discipline need to be studied and
changed.
6.5.2 Types of Change in Schools

There are various types of change that can be carried out in a school organisation.
Normally, change in schools is related to the improvement concept, namely a type
of continuously organised change. Organised change means:
That the change is anticipated, directed and made to occur, the product of the
successful planned change effort is the attainment of predetermined
objectives (Hussein, 1993: 262)
This statement means organised change aims to transform a dissatisfactory

existing situation. The dissatisfactory situation exists due to ineffective classroom
practice and management, disciplinary problems and poor student performance.
The goal of organised change in schools is to create a balance between what is ideal
and what is real. Generally, organised change in school requires strategy and an
action plan. Among the strategies is organisational development including
increasing the capability and ability of members such as teachers and non-teaching
staff in school.
A manager who is alert and responsible will do something to protect the strength
of the organisation when pressure for change arises. He will assess and ensure that
every change that is carried out is accurate and suitable with the problems that are
faced. A similar stance should be taken by the principal when implementing
change in school.

According to Leavitt (in Stoner & Winkel, 1989), an organisation can be

transformed by changing three aspects, namely structure, technology and humans.
Changing organisational structure involves efforts to restructure internal systems
such as communication lines, the authorityÊs relations and integration of
mechanism, degree of centralisation and restructuring of duties, and streaming of
work or management hierarchy. Change should be done when the organisational
condition is not functioning or is functioning less efficiently that expected. Within
the school context, the principal will need to implement change by restructuring
the duties of teachers and staff according to needs and expertise in line with the
organisationÊs goals.
To improve motivation and work satisfaction, factors such as interest, expertise

and teachersÊ skills should be taken into consideration in restructuring teachersÊ
duties. The transmissive method is often used by creating several teams or sub-
committees so that duties and activities can be carried out smoothly. When there
are inefficient staff, the principal should study the weaknesses and their causes to
enable restructuring of duties to be done. Examples include the selection of
teachers to teach in class and for certain subjects, establishment of a curriculum
committee, discipline and so on.
Changing organisational technology means changing equipment, the process and

technique of research as well as the production method. This type of approach was
founded by Taylor (in Stoner & Winkel, 1989) through scientific management
theory which states that the sophisticated technological change can increase
productivity and bring about positive effects to the organisation. In the context of
an industry that places emphasis on production of goods, technological change is
very important.
In school, technological change that involves scientific management of the school

will improve the effectiveness in working progress and operations. Usage of
modern equipment such as the photocopying machine, computer, audio visuals,
technics and modern teaching and learning models will make it easy for teachers
to teach and students to learn. At the same time, modern technology can create a
more interesting, motivational and less boring learning climate.
Another form of change is human change. Human change means changes to

subordinates in the aspects of skills, perceptual expectations and human
behaviour. Human behaviour is difficult to change. Humans, in general, do not
oppose all changes but they will object to what they think may threaten their
position.

There are various techniques to change that steer individuals and groups to work
more efficiently. According to Stoner and Winkel (1989), among the techniques
that are used are sensitivity training, feedback monitoring, negotiation processes,
team building and inter-group development. In the school context, the principal
can induce changes of behaviour, attitude, views and aspirations among teachers
and staff individually, in groups or as a whole organisation. For example, the
principal exchanges or transfers teachers who always create problems, Difficulty
is in getting replacement teachers, especially if it involves teachers who are
specialists and experienced. In such case, the principal should use flexible and use
appropriate methods involving high level human skills.
There are certain types of long-term changes that are implemented in schools.
Normally, this approach refers to efforts to develop an organisation as a whole by
focusing on characteristics as well as quality of working relations. Among the
methods that are normally used are problem solving processes and decision
making in school which requires the principal to solve the problem alone or with
others, namely subordinates. Principals, as leaders, should make changes by
involving and sharing power with subordinates instead of imposing authority.
Change can also involve school culture. It encompasses changes in designing

activities, interactions, norms, attitudinal values and feelings that exist in the
schools environment. In such a cultural change process, the principal should
identify the culture that is unrequired and one which is to be maintained. This is
important because if wrongly chosen, it will lead to objections and will not be
accepted by school teachers and school staff.
6.5.3 Theories and Models of Change

Various change models and theories have been proposed by researchers. These
theories and models can be used as a basis and a guide to organisational leaders,
including principals, to implement change. However, the use of these models
depend on the situation of the organisation or school. Normally, the model is
closely related to the management style and leadership of the school and the way
the principal makes decisions.
In this subtopic, we are going to look at four theories or models as follows:
(a) Field Force Theory

This theory was proposed by Lewin (1943). According to this theory, any
behaviour is the result of the equilibrium between driving forces and
restraining forces. Restraining forces lead to one direction while driving
forces lead to another direction. The standard gained is the equilibrium
between both sets of forces. Increase in driving force may improve
performance or otherwise, whereby there will be an increase in restraining

force. An example is when the principal asks teachers to work beyond their
capabilities with the assumption that it will increase work quality. This action
may lead to hatred and retaliation that can reduce the level of hard work and
creativity of certain teachers. Perhaps a more appropriate and planned
method may change internal beliefs, and teachers will voluntarily implement
change more efficiently.
This theory explains that organisational change can be influenced by human

change, technology, change of organisational structure, process and
situation. Change process is regarded as a system whereby if one of the
factors changes, other factors will also change. This explains that behavioural
change occurs as a result of three stages of change, namely:
(i) Unfreezing stage;
(ii) Change; and
(iii) Refreezing.
Unfreezing which involves actions necessitates obvious change until

individuals, groups or organisations can see or accept it well. Change
requires a trained change agent to instil values, attitude and new behaviour
through the processes of identification and personalisation. Organisational
members identify values, attitudes and behaviours that are brought by
change agents and appreciate them after looking at the effectiveness. The
final stage, refreezing, means strengthening new behavioural patterns with
the help of supporting aids so that they become a new norm.
(b) Autocratic Change Model

This model views that effective management is through power. The belief is
that success in implementing change in schools is through the use of the
principalÊs power. In this case, the principal will not compromise in
implementing change in schools. Subordinates are forced to follow directives
from time to time.
In an Autocratic Change Model, normally subordinates will be given the

authority to carry out change at their respective divisions or units that are
deemed suitable as long as their actions are in line with their commitments
and for the good of the school.

(c) Planned Change and Development Model

One of the relevant models here is the linkage model. This model emphasises
the importance of educational theory and research findings or research as a
source to implement school reforms. The main method of this model is to change
the existing practice in schools that are found to be unproductive or ineffective
to achieve the schoolÊs vision or goal. Efforts that are carried out to resolve "the
dysfunctions of the school organisation" encompass disciplinary problems,
examination performance, leadership styles, human relations in school and
teachersÊ teaching methods. (Hussein, 1993)
This model consists seven stages of processes namely:
(i) Goal stage ă The first stage is to determine the goal and direction of the
school. In forming the goal and direction, information on research
findings and written materials are referred to. At the same time all
views and opinions of teachers are taken into consideration.
(ii) Assessment stage ă The second stage is evaluation. All practices,

policies and procedures that exist in the school are evaluated to obtain
norms to draw comparison of strategies that should be implemented
and action that should be taken.
(iii) Planning stage ă Planning stage is a stage where the school conducts
overall planning in terms of methods and implementation strategies.
At this stage, there may be adjustments or school restructuring, for
example, of the schoolÊs philosophy, mission, policy and procedure,
teaching and learning system and process as well as work distribution
among teachers.
(iv) Staff training stage ă It is where staff development is carried out. This
training is aimed at ensuring that they understand school improvement
aspects. Among the activities that can be carried out are workshops,
seminars and mind mapping. It can be carried out at the school level.
(v) Trial stage ă The trial stage shows how teachers try new practices,
instill new values and build confidence towards such change.
(vi) Transformation stage ă This is said to occur when a new practice is

more effective and is practiced by all teachers more comprehensively
and, at the same time, the process of adjustment continues to take place
on any practice and strategy that is not effective.
(vii) New culture stage ă The final stage is building and reinforcement of a
new school culture which is more productive.

(d) Loucks Horsley and HergetÊs Model (1985)

In this model, the programme idea for change comes from an external party
based on agreement from those responsible in the education system. This is
aimed at obtaining approval, financial, moral and staff support from the
party (Hussein, 1993).
The model proposes seven steps or actions that should be taken by a school
to improve it. The steps are as follows:
(i) Establishment of school improvement projects ă At the stage of project

development and school upgrading, the expected results and the role of
the initiator are determined. Only then does the principal have a
discussion with relevant parties or propose the idea for the programme.
(ii) Assessment and goal determination ă It places emphasis on where the

upgrading process should begin. This model suggests that change
should begin with elements of dissatisfaction, namely problems faced,
types of problems, who is involved, evidence and causes and what are
the goals if the problems are resolved. At this stage, visions are formed.
(iii) Identifying ideal resolution methods ă During the stage to determine

ideal resolution methods, the following are carried out: determine
existing resources, establish the criteria for resolution methods, find
out where resources can be obtained, make a decision and adjust the
approaches to practices in classrooms.
(iv) Preparation for implementation ă At the preparation stage (unfreezing)

to implement, awareness is built, method of implementation is chosen,
existing practice is assessed, goals are set and the duration for the
programme is set.
(v) Programme implementation ă The next stage is the programme

implementation stage (moving) or organising staff and support
training as well as supervising by principal.
(vi) Studying the progress and problems ă Progress and problem

assessments are carried out after the programme is implemented. Any
problems that are raised should be solved immediately and positive
reinforcement should be given to teachers.
(vii) Management and institutionalisation ă The final stage is to ensure that

the act of problem resolution becomes the school practice and a norm
that should be adhered to clearly (refreezing).

6.5.4 Challenges to Organisational Change

Every change that is made cannot escape deterrents and challenges. However, an
effective principal ought to anticipate what the potential hindrance is before any
change is implemented. To him, hindrance is not a problem but a challenge that
should be overcome. Among the causes for hindrances to change according to
Shahril (2001) are:
(a) Uncertain future;
(b) Loss of individual power;
(c) Objection from certain groups who lack trust in the leader who is making the
change; and
(d) There are weaknesses to any change and renewal that will be implemented.
Factors that impede change from being implemented in an organisation including

schools are:
(a) Reduction of power and responsibility;
(b) Increasing work load;
(c) Loss of economic resources;
(d) Discomfort;
(e) Lack of financial resources;
(f) Lack of confidence in achieving success; and
(g) Political, social and religious factors.
Decrease in power and responsibility occurs when staff involved with change are
afraid to lose their power and have less responsibility in the organisation. They
think that the reduction in power will affect their importance, position and comfort
in the organisation.
Every change that is implemented is difficult to accept if it involves increase in the

workload for the staff. For instance, teachers do not like changes in subjects and
classes that are taught as well as an increase in teaching time and additional class
activities. There are also staff who oppose change because they themselves are
unclear of the goals and reasons for the change that is made. To them what will
happen in the future is still unclear.

There is lack of trust towards leadership or the principal who creates change,
which can hinder change. This mistrust may be caused by weaknesses of the
principalÊs leadership, who is not confident whether the change can bring about
success or failure. Experience of past failures will influence his perception that the
failure will repeat itself. Therefore, lack of support and commitment from staff
towards change will occur.
An important obstacle to any change is lack of resources and lack of stability. Lack
of stability encompasses lack of expertise or important information in the change
and lack of resources. This problem is also faced in schools. Besides using the
allocation provided by the Government, the principal also has to look for resources
from the parent-teacherÊs association to ensure success of various school
programmes, such as additional classes and other programmes.
Therefore, to overcome problems and obstacles to change, several measures or

actions can be done by the organisationÊs leadership, among which are as follows:
(a) Education and communication;
(b) Joint involvement;
(c) Negotiation;
(d) Manipulation; and
(e) Use of power.
Communication and education means that all staff should be given clear
information and explanation about the goals of the change. There are various ways
to present information to staff in school, for instance, through memos, reports,
circulars and meetings. All staff should also be involved in discussions and
decision making on change. The principal should be open in accepting views and
ideas from teachers. Teachers and staff should be given courses and training so
that they will have a better understanding of any programmes that will be
implemented.
Another method is through the tactic of involvement. Any decision that will be
taken should involve teachers and other staff. Normally, somebody who is
involved in the process of giving opinions and decision making will support the
change. This is proven by a research conducted by Coch and French (1948) that
found a close correlation between involvement and success in change that was
introduced.

In order to reduce hindrances to change, facilities and equipment should be

provided. New equipment that is provided should also prove to be better than
existing ones. Counselling services and training should also be intensified to build
confidence among teachers in facing change. The principal should also provide
support, encouragement and drive towards any change that will be implemented.
The change should be implemented in stages, not instantly.
Another tactic that can be adopted is manipulation, whereby the manager or

principal can practise the method of disorganising facts so that it will look
attractive. For instance, the principal can put forward change and successes that
are achieved and cover up weaknesses resulting from the change. The purpose of
manipulation is to garner support from staff. Another manipulative way that is
used is to offer bribes or promise a better reward to the leader of the group that
obstructs the change. Thus, it is hoped that the head of the group will support the
management or principal and try to influence others to accept the change.
The final tactic is to use his power to impose a threat and force explicitly and
implicitly, such as replacing teachers who do not lend their support, not
supporting promotions and downgrading when evaluating the performance of
teachers and staff who refuse to accept change. However, the tactic is not that
effective because it is too authoritative.
6.5.5 Factors Contributing to the Need for

Organisational Change
According to Fullan (1998) several factors exercise influence on the need for an
educational organisation to change:
(a) Immediate and drastic change involving natural disasters such as
earthquakes, floods and starvation and so on. These emergency factors
require immediate change.
(b) Education is seen as capable of resolving any type of problem. The society
demands every member to be wise in facing any risk and not to be left
behind. Education becomes the most important change target.
(c) External force that are brought in such as import of new technology and
values as well as migrating population.
(d) Lifelong learning and borderless world.

In addition, factors include fast changing technological development that requires

expertise in certain fields, improvement in quality of life as well as sophisticated
communication. Change in lifestyles, work patterns, marital status, safety, fund
maturity period and so on are also seen as influencing organisational dynamics.
Various methods and changes in technology, management style and

organisational structure are capable of driving other organisations to change and
follow the competing strategies. Change in political policies need to be done in
todayÊs conflicting and competitive world in order to prepare citizens to face
global changes.
Change in the economic structure as well as company restructuring, company

merging and retrenchment of workers will occur. Teaching about educational
change prepares people to face economic pressure and to face challenges in
reducing the countryÊs economic crisis. Furthermore, change exists in the labour
market where workers are the real assets of a country and not agriculture or
mineral products. Efficient and skilled manpower are in high demand and should
be in equilibrium. With a more skilled workforce, a country will move to become
more progressive in the future.
SELF-CHECK 6.4
1. State seven types of push factors for organisational change.
2. Explain the importance of organisational climate towards school

excellence.
Ć A school leader is the motivator and creator of the school climate and culture.
His values, attitudes and practices influence that of the students, change the
educational direction, the school system and overall school conduct.
Ć Therefore, the school head should be aware of change and educational needs,
societal values, technological changes and current political and economic
changes in the country.
Ć These aspects are essential because they play an important role in

philosophical change and educational direction in Malaysia.

Organisational climate Safe school

Organisational culture School culture
Organisational dynamics Students control
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Malaysia: IBS Buku Sdn. Bhd.
Carzo, R. Y. (1967). Formal organization ă A system approach. Homewood, IL: The

Dorsey Press.
Coch, L. & French, J. (1948). Overcoming resistance to change. Human Relations,

1(4), 512ă532.
Fullan, M. G. (1998). Breaking the bonds of dependency. Educational Leadership,

55 (7), 6ă10.
Handy, C. (1989). The age of unreason. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School
Press.
Hersey, B. (1983). Management of organizational behaviour (4th ed.). Inglewood,

NJ: Prentice Hall.
Hoy, W. K., & Miskel, C. G. (2013) Educational administration: Theory, research

and practice (9th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill
Humphrey, J. (2000). What is your school climate telling you? Principal

Leadership, High School Edition I (1), 4.
Hussein Mahmood. (1993). Kepimpinan dan keberkesanan sekolah. Kuala

Lumpur, Malaysia: Dewan Bahasa & Pustaka.
Lewin, K. (1943). Defining the „Field at a given time‰. Psychological Review, 50(3),
292ă310.

Loucks, H. S., & Herget, L. (1985). An action guide to school improvement.

Alexandria, VA: Association of Supervision and Curriculum Development
& the Network Inc.
Mintzberg, H. (1989) Mintzberg on management: Inside our strange world of

organizations. New York, NY: The Free Press.
Moos, R. H. (1979). Evaluating educational environments: procedures, measures,

findings and policy implications. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Nona, A. P. (1991). Problem solving & expertise: A cognitive view of

administrative leadership. Organizational Theory dialogue. AERA, 1 & 7ă12.
Robbins, S. P. (1998) Organizational behavior: Concepts, controversies,

applications (8th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Rusinah Sirun. (1999). Principles of management: A study guide. Petaling Jaya,

Malaysia: Prentice Hall.
Scheine, E. H. (2010) Organization culture and leadership (4th ed.). San Francisco,
CA: Jossey-Bass.
Sergiovanni, T. M. (1998). Organization, market and community as strategies for

change: What works best for deep changes in schools. In A. Hargreaves, A.
Lieberman, M. Fullan, & D. Hopkins (Eds.), International handbook of
educational change (pp. 571ă595). Dordrecht, Netherlands: Kluwer.
Sharil, M. (2001). Characteristics of effective principals and headmasters, facing

new challenges in 21st century. Journal of Leadership, Univ. Of Malaya, 1,
12ă18.
Sheninger, E. C., & Murray, T. C. (2017) Learning transformed: 8 keys to designing

tomorrowÊs school, today. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.
Stoner, J. A. F., & Winkel, C. (1989). Management (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River,
NJ: Prentice Hall.

Topic  Communication
in School
7
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Discuss the importance of effective interpersonal communication;
2. Evaluate the impact of communication on organisational
effectiveness;
3. Analyse the potential obstacles to effective communication;
4. Explain the importance of communication skills; and
5. Debate on the importance of effective communication for
managerial effectiveness.
 INTRODUCTION
Nine out of ten serious controversies that occur in peopleÊs lives are caused by
miscommunication. Due to this, communication is regarded as the main pillar of
an organisation as it is very much needed in leadership and management
processes. Without exception, communication becomes the most important aspect
in complex organisations like schools. This is especially true when interpreting the
schoolÊs vision and mission for smaller action plans to be implemented. Therefore,
many scholars agree that without communication, the process of achieving
organisational goals will not take place.
Hoy and Miskel (1996) stated that „without communication, there can be no
organisation‰. Communication also affects leadersÊ capacity to lead as Salacuse
(2006) aptly wrote, „communication is fundamental to building relationships and
therefore to the ability to lead.‰

146  TOPIC 7 COMMUNICATION IN SCHOOL
In schools, communication is important because the nature of the relationship

between the headmaster and the teacher requires quick decisions to be made. It is
estimated that around 70 per cent of the headmasterÊs time is used to communicate
(Hoy & Miskel, 1996). Usually the headmaster communicates with the staff around
150ă430 times per week with the average of three minutes for each instance of
communication. Meanwhile, communication through phone calls is estimated to
be around 30ă50 calls per week with the average of two and a half minutes for each
call (Morris et al., 1984).
A survey conducted by Morris et al. (1984) concluded that the time spent for
communicating is actually very short, whether it involves face-to-face interaction
or phone calls. This pattern of short communication needs to be effective enough
so that it benefits the organisation and parties who are involved in the
communication process.
7.1 DEFINITION OF COMMUNICATION

Until now, there are at least ninety five definitions of communication (Hoy &
Miskel, 1996). However, the following definition is the one used widely when
referring to communication between a principal and his teachers and staff:
A process where people are trying to share meaning through the sending of
messages by using symbols that are meant to influence others to carry out
their duties.
(Hoy & Miskel, 1996)
Based on this definition, communication involves two parties, namely the sender
and the recipient of the message. The message is sent using communication
symbols through a particular channel. Both parties need to mutually understand
the symbols in order to reach the maximum effectiveness in communicating. If
either party does not get the message clearly, miscommunication will occur.
Therefore, every symbol used in the communication process should be understood
by both parties.
SELF-CHECK 7.1
Define communication.

TOPIC 7 COMMUNICATION IN SCHOOL  147
7.2 COMMUNICATION PROCESS

Hoy and Miskel (1996) constructed a model of the communication process based on
their definition and called it a general model of the communication process, which is
illustrated in Figure 7.1.
Figure 7.1: A general model of the communication process
The sender is an individual or a party that sends the message. Meanwhile, the
recipient is the person or party that the message is meant for. Encoding and decoding
are the cognitive processes that create, change and interpret a message. The sender
does the encoding, while the recipient does the decoding. The message channel is the
medium or tool that relays messages from the sender to the recipient, while the
response is the feedback from the recipient to the sender. Based on this feedback, the
sender can identify whether or not effective communication has occurred.
7.3 PURPOSE AND IMPLICATION OF

COMMUNICATION
In schools, communication occurs for many purposes. However, the main
purposes of communication in schools are as follows:
(a) To set and spread the schoolÊs vision and plan carefully to achieve it.
(b) To set and organise the teachersÊ and staffÊs duties to achieve the schoolÊs
vision or aim.
(c) To direct, encourage and lead teachers and staff to carry out their assigned
duties always.
(d) To monitor teachersÊ and staffÊs level of work achievement.

Based on these purposes, communication has become very important in any

organisation because all tasks executed need to be communicated with everybody
in the organisation. Smetzer and Leonard (1994) stated that communication is
important in an organisation because it is an effective tool to influence people to
work together or complete assigned tasks. Therefore, communication is regarded
as a „bridge‰ for the success of work completion and problem solving. Figure 7.2
explains how important communication is in ensuring the success of any
organisational activity.
Figure 7.2: The importance of communication
There are several possibilities that might result from communication. Among them
are as follows:
(a) If the message received is clear, it may result in the occurrence of positive
action on the recipientÊs side.
(b) If the message received is unclear, it may result in action that contradicts
what is required from the sender.
(c) If the message is totally not received, the task that is expected to be carried
out will not occur.
(d) If the message is wrongly interpreted by the recipient, a tragedy may occur.

Besides that, effective and ineffective communication will result in the following
outcomes (refer to Table 7.1):
Table 7.1: The Outcomes of Effective and Ineffective Communication

Effective Communication Ineffective Communication
 Recipient would be satisfied and  Recipient would be disappointed and
happy angry
 Problems could be solved  Problems cannot be solved; instead, it
may become more complicated
 Reduces complaints
 Recipient will constantly complain
 Enhances the schoolÊs image
 Tarnishes the schoolÊs image
 Easy to foster cooperation
 Difficult to foster cooperation
 Prevents confusion
 Causes confusion
Apart from that, the communication channel, like the communication medium,
also has its impact on the effectiveness of communication. For example, face-to-
face communication is the most effective way of communicating. Therefore,
meetings and discussions are the frequently used methods to disseminate
information or messages as well as to solve problems. Another way of
communicating which is equally effective is using the telephone. Telephone calls
enable feedback to be received instantly. On the other hand, letters of personal
nature are moderately effective, whereas formal letters are of least impact.
Communication that uses numbers which are abstract symbols has very low
effectiveness. Thus, it is highly recommended for the principal to use more
face-to-face communication and less abstract language.
Hoy and Miskel (1996) summed up the effectiveness of communication in Figure 7.3.

Figure 7.3: Effectiveness of communication

Source: Hoy & Miskel (1996)
The implication is that should failure occur in the communication between the
superior and subordinates or among fellow subordinates, it will interrupt the
organisationÊs operations, or even worse, cause failure in the mission or aim of the
organisation. Therefore, Hoy and Miskel (1996) concluded that „The greater the
clarity of message, the more likely administrator, teacher and student actions will
proceed in fruitful directions‰.
ACTIVITY 7.1
1. Explain how the communication process occurs.
2. Explain the implications of communication to the effectiveness

of an organisation.
7.4 COMMUNICATION OBSTACLES AND WAYS

OF OVERCOMING THEM
Sometimes, ineffective communication still occurs even when all parties
communicating aim to clarify the message to the recipient. This may happen due
to several reasons. DeVito (2000) stated that there are four types of obstacles that
could affect the effectiveness of communication, namely physical, physiological,
psychological and semantic factors.

7.4.1 Semantic Obstacles
Semantic obstacles refer to the difference in meaning of the message sent

between the sender and the recipient. The use of difficult words and
complicated language in a message received by the recipient is the main cause
of miscommunication.
A plane crash at the Kennedy Airport, New York on 25 January 1990 was caused
by a misunderstanding of the terms used. The aeroplane was actually running out
of fuel. The pilot asked for an emergency landing by saying that the plane was
„running low on fuel‰. The sentence was wrongly interpreted by the air traffic
controller as something not urgent and therefore, he denied the emergency landing
for that Avianca Flight 52.
The pilot should have used the term „fuel emergency‰ to avoid any
misunderstanding. Another similar case happened at the New Delhi Airport on 12
November 1996 that claimed 349 lives. The crash was also caused by a
communication breakdown between the pilot and the air traffic controller tower.
Additionally, the discrepancy in meaning could also cause both parties to interpret
the message differently. These different interpretations will eventually lead to a
communication breakdown.
Besides that, differences in knowledge, experience and culture between the sender
and the recipient of the message could also be a cause of communication
breakdown. Communication breakdown brought on by these factors always
happens in schools. This may occur if the principal constantly overestimates his
staff. He assumes that his staff possesses as much knowledge and experience as
himself. As a result of constantly using sophisticated jargon or overly simplistic
instructions, the staff are not able to comprehend his instructions.
As an example, in writing a memo to a senior assistant teacher, a principal writes:

„Senior assistant, please talk to the file‰. A simple memo such as this may cause
the senior assistant teacher to be unclear of what to do and he may assume that the
principal likes to bully his subordinates. As a result, he may not carry out what he
is supposed to do. On the other hand, the headmaster might think that the senior
assistant is not competent enough. In actuality, what was meant in the memo was
„please discuss this with me, and bring along the file‰. This illustrates a
communication breakdown caused by the principalÊs assumption that the senior
assistant has a similar experience and knowledge of the terms used.

To overcome obstacles like this, the principal needs to use terms that are easily
understood by others. He should also use complete sentences in order to avoid any
misunderstanding by the recipient. It is highly recommended that principals use
standard terms that have been widely used in the school. On top of that, it is
advisable for him not to use complicated terms that can hardly be understood by
the staff.
7.4.2 Psychological Obstacles
Psychological obstacles refer to cognitive or mental distractions like feelings

of anger, fear and resentfulness that could be a factor to ineffective
communication.
People who are angry, resentful and afraid are usually close-minded, prejudiced
and emotionally unstable. They cannot concentrate on the communication process
even if it is done face-to-face. Eventually, communicating with people in this state
would lead to misunderstandings and a communication breakdown. Therefore,
principals are advised to communicate with the teachers and support staff in a
calm and comfortable manner, and try to avoid using intimidating words or tones.
There are recipients who question the accuracy and the truthfulness of the message
sent. This could also lead to communication breakdown if the recipient has had
the experience of getting an inaccurate message from the sender before. This bad
experience may cause the recipient to be prejudiced towards the sender. In schools,
this situation can be prevented with the condition that the principal never gives
wrong or inaccurate information to the teachers and support staff of the school.
7.4.3 Physiological Obstacles
Physiological obstacles relate to physical or mental impediments of the self

that may involve the sender, recipient or both. Examples include hearing
disability, visual impairment as well as weak pronunciation, stammering,
stuttering and poor memory.
These obstacles are natural. However, they can be solved with the use of hearing,
visual and written aids. If the root of the problem is pronunciation, then, the
principal needs to practice pronouncing difficult word(s) correctly.

7.4.4 Physical Obstacles
Physical obstacles refer to the external distractions that cannot be controlled

by the sender and the recipient. Among the distractions are a noisy
environment and distance of sight.
These matters may occur especially during meetings, discussions or briefings held
in a noisy environment or with a bad sound system. This situation may eventually
cause the whole communication process to be ineffective and be a waste of time
and energy. Therefore, it is important for the school management to ensure that
they provide a comfortable and calm environment with minimal noise distractions
every time they need to have an activity. The principal needs to also ensure that
the audio visual equipment that will be used in briefing sessions are in a perfect
and fully operational condition.
7.5 EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION SKILLS

In schools, as the principal is the source of communication to teachers, the
supporting staff and students, they really need to understand why communication
breakdowns happen. As such, the principal needs to find an effective method or
strategy to ensure that communication is effective in the school.
The following describes several effective strategies and methods of

communication:
(a) Principals need to use simple words and symbols in order to be easily
understood by all teachers and supporting staff. The use of lengthy sentences
and unfamiliar jargon should be avoided. If new and complicated terms still
need to be used, the principal needs to first explain the meanings clearly.
During communication, the principal needs to use a two-way
communication strategy. By communicating this way, they are able to assess
whether or not all of the teachers and staff understand the message that is
being communicated.
(b) Effective communication can occur if the principal at first identifies the
language ability of the teachers and staff. The principal needs to do this by
actively involving them in formal or informal discussions. By doing so, they
will easily be able to convey information or directives to the teachers as well
as the other staff.

(c) Some of the obstacles to effective communication are because of the

recipientÊs feeling of prejudice towards the sender. This could happen due to
the senderÊs insufficient knowledge and experience in the field he is
communicating in. It could also be because the sender lied or wrongly
delivered the intended message. These bad attitudes could cause the
recipient to simply reject or deny the message sent. Therefore, the
headmaster needs to prove his true credibility as a reliable and trustworthy
information sender to teachers and other supporting staff by ensuring that
the message sent can be received openly and clearly.
(d) Among the obstacles of effective communication is the lack of faith among
the recipients towards the sender of the message. This occurs when the
credibility of the sender has been eroded, which may be due to a lack of
knowledge and experience of the sender in the field that is to be conveyed,
or the sender had lied and twisted the true information. This may cause
recipients to close their minds right from the beginning to the message being
conveyed. Thus, to ensure that the message is openly accepted by recipients,
the principal needs to constantly display his credibility, as a sender of true
information and one who has never lied to teachers and the supporting staff,
and possesses the latest and in-depth knowledge.
(e) Besides that, communication breakdowns can also occur due to the lack of
planning on the senderÊs side. Therefore, it is always best for the principal to
plan in advance what he needs to convey to his teachers and staff. The
planning should cover the trustworthiness of the content of the message, the
language used, the use of any necessary audio-visual equipment as well as
the fluency of pronunciation. This planning could have an impact on the
effectiveness of the message sent.
(f) Communication breakdown in an organisation could also occur due to the

factor of listening skills. Listening skills involve the ability to understand
others. In order to listen actively, the listener needs to reflect on what he
listens to. This could enable him to analyse and eventually understand what
is being said by the sender.
(g) The effective way of communicating is by two-way communication. This

method allows instant feedback on the matters being discussed. Therefore, it
is highly recommended for the principal to use this method of communication.

(h) In the matter of writing, the principal should avoid using ambiguous or
overly simplistic sentences. The following are examples of sentences that
could cause subordinates to misunderstand instructions given:
(i) Please talk with the file.
(ii) Please take action.
(iii) Please answer.
(iv) For your attention.
(v) For your action.
These simple sentences could cause confusion and misinterpretation

especially to new staff who have yet to be familiar with the terms or words
used by the superior. For example, to the recipient, the instructions such as
„Please take action‰ and „Please answer „ are vague. The recipient might ask,
how far should the action be taken and when does it need to be solved. Both
these messages give the assumption that full authority of action has been
given to the recipient. The same situation would happen to the other
ambiguous instructions too.
In order to overcome this, the principal should use complete instructions that
could explain the necessary actions to be taken as well as the limitation and
timelines for the instructions to be completed. Examples are as follows:
(i) Senior Assistant Teacher I

It is found that many Year 5B pupils are having difficulties in
Mathematics. Please identify the causes of this problem and prepare a
report on this matter to be submitted to me by 20 February, 2006. Thank
you.
Signature: The Headmaster
1 February, 2006.
(ii) Senior Assistant Teacher II

Please investigate this case of truancy involving the head of class in 4A
and report it to me. Do not take any action unless I instruct you to do
so.
Signature: The Headmaster
1 February, 2006.

ACTIVITY 7.2
1. Elaborate on communication obstacles.
2. Explain the elements that lead to effective communication.
7.6 COMMUNICATION IN STAFF

MANAGEMENT AND TEAM FORMATION
In the management of an organisation, especially in staff management, the school
organisational chart is the basic form of communication between the management
and the staff or vice versa, as well as among colleagues. A strong relationship and
stable communication can prevent confusion and conflict in an organisation. Less
conflict will create harmony in an organisation. In turn, this will bring about
satisfaction in communication and motivate teachers and staff to carry out the
duties and responsibilities assigned. This will lead to efficiency and effectiveness
in achieving organisational goals.
Figure 7.4 is a communication pattern that should be practised by members of an

organisation. The figure shows the formal relationship between the principal with
the upper authority and also with the senior assistant teachers. The principal can
directly communicate with the teachers under Senior Assistant Teachers I, II and
III, but the teachers need to go through their respective senior assistant teachers
before they can directly communicate with the principal.

Figure 7.4: Communication pattern among members of a school organisation
A particular pattern of communication which appeals to teachers and support staff

is emphasised as the aim is to influence them in carrying out tasks for the sake of
achieving the schoolÊs goals. This means that communication should be a
persuasive tool that can motivate and satisfy teachers and the supporting staff.
When a principal can communicate well, automatically he will be able to attract
the attention of his teachers and support staff.

Following are several basic tips that could influence staff:
(a) Teachers and support staff prefer informal communication with a sense of
empathy and respect from the management even if it may still sound
authoritative. This means that polite and persuasive words should always be
used. People are not usually keen on receiving bossy and intimidating
instructions even though they originate from the upper management.
Therefore, it is always best for the principal to use polite and persuasive
words when giving instructions.
(b) Polite words used could lead to effective communication. The following are
some guidelines that could be used during communication between the
principal and teachers and support staff:
(i) Use the correct salutation, such as Mr or Mrs. The correct salutation
used could show respect to the recipient.
(ii) Use a moderate intonation with a language easily understood by all.
(iii) Avoid using inappropriate facial expressions or body language (for
example, frowning) that could cause confusion or be wrongly
interpreted by the recipient.
(iv) Avoid making criticism on someone publicly. It could disappoint and
humiliate the recipient.
(c) A more humane type of communication should come from the upper
management in the effort to build a strong team. Honesty and transparency
are the basic characteristics leading to staff confidence. Therefore, Adair
(2003) suggested the following to be practised by principals (see Figure 7.5):
Figure 7.5: Suggestions to improve communication

Source: Adair (2003)

7.7 RESEARCH FINDINGS ON

COMMUNICATION
The following list summarises several research findings on communication:
(a) Denton (1993) stated that two-way communication will result in more
effective communication as the staff (that is, the recipients) will be more
comfortable with this style of communication. He further stated that the
more comfortable the staff are, the more committed they will be in
performing the assigned tasks.
(b) Previously, Goldhaber (1992) stated that open communication has positive
effects on the performance of the individual staff as well as the organisation.
(c) Miller et al. (1988) stated that open communication will lessen the feeling of
fatigue, and in turn, make the staff feel more responsible towards their
duties. This occurs as members of the organisation feel that they are part of
the organisation.
(d) Similarly, Falcione et al. (1987) also state the effects of communication where
open communication will produce a positive attitude towards work. Besides
that, effective communication will produce a sense of trust between the staff
to the management.
(e) Shank et al. (1996) stated that good communication between staff and the
management would encourage the staff in doing their daily tasks. Farnham
(1989) also agreed and added that good communication would result in high
satisfaction and motivation among the staff and the organisationÊs
production. FarnhamÊs findings are quite similar with the findings of Frone
and Major (1988) as well as Pincus (1986).
(f) Martin (1997) stated that an effective communication system in an

organisation will encourage a sense of accountability and teamwork among
the staff. This is further emphasised by Varona (1996) who concluded that
there are some positive connections between communication and the
commitment of the staff towards the organisation.
(g) Sheninger and Murray (2017) observe that most schools still heavily rely on
traditional means of communication (for example, newsletters and phone
calls). The shift here is to begin to meet stakeholders where they are and
engage them in two way, real-time communication. This blended approach
will result in more transparency, exposure and amplification of the shared
vision.

ACTIVITY 7.3
1. Explain the importance of communication in staff management.
2. Elaborate on the role of communication in team building.
 The importance of communication in increasing the level of motivation,

commitment and satisfaction among staff as well as the level of an
organisationÊs productivity is undeniable.
 The elevation of motivation, commitment and satisfaction among the

subordinates depend on whether they are clear on what needs to be done and
if they are able to have positive two-way communication with management.
 Two-way communication could lessen conflict in an organisation. As a result,

subordinates are able to complete tasks with more determination. It is this
determination that causes the productivity of an organisation to increase.
 In complex organisations such as schools, the translation of goals into units of

concrete action and subsequent goal accomplishment depends on
communication. Establishing a communication network and process,
therefore, becomes the first task of the organiser and the continuous task of the
administrator.
 Headmasters need to adopt suitable styles and methods of communication to

be practised in schools in order to turn their schools into successful
organisations.
Communication Physiological obstacles

Communication pattern Psychological obstacles
Communication process Semantic obstacles
Physical obstacles

Adair, J. (2003). The concise Adair on leadership. London, England: Thorogood.
Denton, D. K. (1993). Open communication: Importance of effective

communication system in corporation. Business Horizon, 36(5), 64ă69.
DeVito, J. A. (2000). Human communication: A basic course (8th ed.). New York,
NY: Longman.
Falcione, R. L., Sussman, L., & Herden, R. P. (1987). Communication climate in

organizations. In F. M. Jablin, L. L. Putnam, K. H. Roberts, & L. W. Porter
(Eds.), Handbook of organisational communication (pp. 195ă227). Newbury
Park, CA: Sage.
Frone, M. R., & Major, B. (1988). Communication quality and job satisfaction
among managerial nurses. Group and Organisation Studies, 13(3), 332ă347.
Goldhaber, G. M. (1992). Komunikasi dalam organisasi. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia:

DBP.
Hoy, W. K., & Miskel, W. G. (1996). Educational administration: Theory, research

and practice (5th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
Martin, J. (1997). HR in the cybercop. HR Focus, 74 (4), 3ă4.
Miller, K., Stiff, J. B., & Ellis, B. H. (1988). Communication and empathy as
precursors to burnout among human service workers. Communication
Monographs, 55, 250-265.
Morris, V. C., Crowson, R. L., Porter-Gehrie, C., & Hurwitz, E. Jr. (1984).
Headmasters in action: The reality of managing schools. Columbus, OH:
Charles E. Merill.
Pincus, J. A. (1986). Communication satisfaction, job satisfaction and job

performance. Human Communication Research, 12(3), 395ă419.
Salacuse, J. W. (2006) Leading leaders: How to manage smart, talented, rich and
powerful people. New York, NY: Amacom.

Shank, M., Paulson, G. & Werner, T. (1996). Perceptual gaps in the American
workforce. Journal for Quality and Participation, 19(6), 60ă64.
Sheninger, E. C., & Murray, T. C. (2017) Learning transformed: 8 keys to designing

tomorrowÊs school, today. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.

Topic  Classroom
Management
8
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Suggest ways to enhance teaching effectiveness;
2. Outline effective pedagogical techniques;
3. Compare various approaches in teaching evaluation;
4. Structure the processes and framework for effective supervision;
and
5. Discuss Acheson and GallÊs supervision model for teaching
improvement.
 INTRODUCTION
According to specialists in the field of education, school and classroom
management aims at encouraging and establishing student self-control through a
process of promoting positive student achievement and behaviour. Academic
achievement, teacher efficacy and teacher and student behaviour are directly
linked to the concept of school and classroom management.
Research shows that a high incidence of classroom disciplinary problems has a

significant impact on the effectiveness of teaching and learning. In this respect, it
has been found that teachers facing such issues have failed to plan and design
appropriate instructional tasks. Teachers tend to neglect variety in lesson plans
and rarely prompt students to discuss or evaluate the materials that they are
learning.

164  TOPIC 8 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT
ACTIVITY 8.1
Discuss with your coursemates the characteristics of a high achieving

school environment. Cite examples of high achieving schools that you
know of.
8.1 ENHANCING TEACHING EFFECTIVENESS

The following are the requirements in enhancing teaching effectiveness:
(a) Teachers must be able to motivate their students in learning. They also need
to teach them how to learn effectively and efficiently.
(b) Teachers must treat the students as their customers. They must have the
latest knowledge in the areas that they are teaching. They must also practice
the knowledge acquired and know how to bridge the gap between
knowledge and practice.
(c) Teachers must be able to realise the differences among their students from
the aspects of their skills and abilities. They must be able to approach them
differently according to their levels of knowledge, skills and abilities.
(d) Teachers must be very creative in their teaching. They must try to use
different methods of teaching which will attract the interest of students.
Teachers must be flexible and able to react to changing situations.
(e) Good teachers vary their styles of teaching to suit the different abilities of
students. They must be able to communicate with everyone in the classroom.
The class must be entertaining to maintain attention of students.
(f) Good teachers must have a sense of humour while teaching. By being not too
serious, the teaching and learning atmosphere can be more relaxed. This
would indirectly encourage communication among the students and
teachers.
(g) Teachers must be able to coach and develop students. They are mentors to
their students. They must be dedicated and committed in devoting their time
during and outside school hours with their students and to prepare their
teaching materials and activities (see Figure 8.1).

TOPIC 8 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT  165
(h) Excellent leadership is important in supporting teaching activities in the

school. They must also have enough resources to support teaching activities.
(i) The school must have a reward system to appreciate effective teaching.
Teachers who have been rewarded for excellent teaching must be a mentor
to the new teachers.
(j) If you enjoy and have fun teaching, then you would be able to attract all the
students in your class to participate in the teaching and learning process.
Figure 8.1: Good teaching is about caring, nurturing and developing minds and talents
8.2 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT OR

ELEMENTS
Classroom management is a crucial part of a teacherÊs job. It refers to the physical
being of the classroom, time management and learnersÊ attendance, learnersÊ
movements, learnersÊ disciplinary problems and others.
The physical being of a classroom refers to the size of the classroom, arrangement
of chairs and tables, cleanliness of the classroom (like whether it is dusty or full of
rubbish), decorations on the walls including pictures, notice boards, learnersÊ duty
rosters, cleanliness of the blackboard, brightness of the classroom and the facilities
provided.
In terms of time management, learners are required to be in the classroom during

lessons. Learners are not allowed to cut class or come in and go out of classes
without the teacherÊs permission. Learners who do not obey the rules will need to
be reprimanded. In addition, teachers need to set a good example of time
management by completing the activities planned within the given time.

Learners are required to discipline themselves. They cannot go anywhere they like
without the teacherÊs permission, disturb friends, be noisy and so on. Usually, the
monitor is given the responsibility of collecting and sending exercise books to the
respective teachers. Teachers also must ensure that the learning environment is not
noisy and chaotic.
Disciplinary problems are everyoneÊs responsibility. Some disciplinary problems

are considered serious offences such as fighting in class, speaking in a rude
manner, disobeying teachers, smoking, stealing, bullying, breaking the schoolÊs
dress code, bringing weapons like knives to school, bringing drugs to school and
acting violently towards teachers and peers. Disciplinary problems can create
conflict among students. This issue will be discussed in the following subtopics.
The up-keeping of learnersÊ records like the registration record, attendance list,
achievement record, progress record, school fees record, textbook borrowing
scheme record and others are the teacherÊs responsibility. The records should be
managed systematically and if required, they should be brought to class to get the
confirmation of learners.
In terms of management, you must be able to manage your class wisely. Today,
the concept of class control has changed. In the past, the position of chairs and
tables were permanent but, today, they can be moved according to the teachersÊ
needs. Similarly, in the past, learners were required to stay quiet but now the
situation is more flexible. Learners are encouraged to move around and discuss in
groups. This encourages learners to become more active and more open to discuss
anything with their teachers.
ACTIVITY 8.2
1. Explain what you understand about classroom management.
2. Discuss with your coursemates the main elements involved in

classroom management.

8.3 EFFECTIVE TEACHING TECHNIQUES FOR

MOTIVATING STUDENTS
To increase studentsÊ motivation, teachers must prepare their teaching activities to
suit the studentsÊ potential development. This will include the readiness of the
students to learn a particular subject (Mohd. Salleh Lebar, 2007).
The teaching techniques that teachers can use to increase motivation for learning
are as follows:
(a) Use suitable and interesting induction techniques to attract studentsÊ

attention;
(b) Relate studentsÊ basic skills with the new skills they are going to learn;
(c) Carry out teaching-learning activities from simple to complex according to

the studentsÊ level of learning readiness;
(d) Utilise various stimuli to sustain studentsÊ interest in learning;
(e) Adapt the inquiry-discovery method of teaching and learning to arouse the
studentsÊ desire to learn. Other teaching methods which can increase the
students creativity skills should also be used;
(f) Plan individualised teaching strategy to suit the needs of different types of
students;
(g) Instil the feeling of satisfaction and achievement at every level of learning so
that the students will be ready for the next higher level of learning;
(h) Raise the level of self-esteem among the students;
(i) Create conducive learning situations by suitable classroom organisation; and
(j) Prepare effective teaching aids to attract studentsÊ attention during class
lessons.
SELF-CHECK 8.1
State five effective teaching techniques that teachers can use to motivate
students.

8.4 TEACHER’S EVALUATION

Teacher effectiveness is the most important factor in student learning. As such, a
focus on teacher effectiveness is a necessity to ensure that all teachers are
competent to teach, and this can be established through the process of teacher
supervision and evaluation. Supervision and evaluation, together with curriculum
and teacher development are dimensions of instructional leadership (Smith &
Andrews, 1989). Effective supervision will increase teachersÊ teaching capabilities
and quality. Teacher supervision precedes teacher evaluation.
Hoy and Forsyth (1986) said that evaluation is important in supervision; but
evaluation is not a teaching supervision. Evaluation, if not done carefully, will
hinder the improvement of the teaching process and be a barrier to studentÊs
learning.
Evaluation is a task to identify, understand, appreciate, assess, evaluate and

decide. Evaluation is an aspect carried out in all activities. In teacher training, the
teacher evaluation is an attempt to increase teacher understanding and teacher
appreciation towards teaching itself. Hence, evaluation is more of an assessment
instead of a measurement process. Evaluation is also about understanding and is
a decision-making process.
The evaluation process will try to answer all these questions:

(a) What is really happening in the classroom?
(b) What is really done by the teacher and the students?
(c) What is the learning outcome expected in a teaching and learning session?
(d) In view that we have a mission, an education platform, knowledge of how
the students studies (pedagogical knowledge) and understanding of the
contents, what should actually happen in the classroom?
(e) What do the teachers, students and others understand about teaching
activities?
(f) What are the learning experiences, accumulated by a student during his
involvement in class activities?
(g) In reality, how does the teacherÊs and supervisorÊs assessment differ when it
comes to teaching?
(h) What is the action to be taken to understand clearly about teaching and
learning?

These questions will be the basis for the teacher to understand evaluation. How
does evaluation differ from direct assistance in a supervision exercise? Table 8.1
shows the differences between formal evaluation and direct assistance.
Table 8.1: Differences between Formal Evaluation and Direct Assistance

in a Supervision Exercise
Element Formal Evaluation Direct Assistance

Concerns Ensure the teacherÊs performance is Focus on the teacherÊs
sufficient. Does the teacher have professional needs. The
enough satisfactory performance or instrument or measuring
not? Evaluation is based on one types differ according to the
criterion for all teachers. teacher to be supervised.
Instrument used is agreed
between teacher and
supervisor. Improvement is
continuous without
concerning teacherÊs skills or
abilities.
Attribute or It is a summative evaluation. It is a continuous evaluation
character and formative evaluation.
Relationship Hierarchical relationship or „line Equal relationship. Involves
between relationship‰. Supervisor has relationships among peers of
supervisor and power over the teacher. Supervisor the same profession (assists
teacher acts as an administrator. teachers to help themselves).
Differences of evaluation can be seen in scientific aspects and artistic aspects. It is

shown in Table 8.2.
Table 8.2: Assumptions and Practices Related to Technical–Rational and

Artistic Approach
Technical-rational Approach Artistic Approach

Evaluation is a process to determine value Evaluation is giving value to something.
of something – teacher, teaching or Before evaluating, we should understand
prestige. it. So the evaluation is an attempt to
understand something. Example: what is
happening in the class? What event
happened?
Stress is given on the observation of the Word and behaviour are proxy; need to be
words used and behaviour, instead of viewed to understand the meaning.
intuition or understanding of something. Evaluation designed to help intuition and
Intuition is controlled (to be objective). not to take over.

According to the „blueprint‰ and Evaluator has a representation of teaching

evaluation of teachers is based on the episode. Some substances are not
specification. explained in the evaluation.
The blueprint determines which is suitable It shows that evaluation can bring a
and good. It is an exclusive process. different meaning to every episode. An
evaluator is supposed to identify and
elaborate on the episode. Every teaching
episode will discover an implicit
curriculum. The product may be
unexpected but perhaps is more
meaningful than whatever was planned
and explained in the teaching plan. It is an
inclusive approach.
TeacherÊs objective which was determined For the evaluator, the implicit assumption
earlier is important. and teacherÊs platform influence teaching.
There are implications for teaching and
planned activities.
When using the scientific approach, Evaluators stress on how to find, explain
evaluator concentrates on methodology. and measure new things. He uses the
Stress on how to explain and measure it suitable method although it is subjective
correctly before the objective is determined. or impressionistic.
It depends on the scale and other The instrument and scale will obstruct
instruments. Helps evaluator to be more them from understanding the „event‰ that
objective and to give equal treatment to all happened. This approach prevents the
teachers. Evaluation focuses only on the evaluator from being deeply involved with
event. the event. The evaluator uses the data to
determine what is supposed to be
understood from the issues.
Specifically concentrates on teaching value Evaluator concentrates more on improving
and teacherÊs inference. The teacher plays understanding and stimulating thoughts
a subordinate role, while the evaluator is and widening the teacherÊs experience. The
the expert. Evaluation is something done teacher holds an important role. Evaluator
by the evaluator towards the teachers. and teacher share the role and evaluation is
done together.
Adapted from: Sergiovanni (1977)

8.4.1 Summative and Formative Evaluation

Although the teacherÊs evaluation requires some techniques similar to programme
evaluation such as collecting and analysing data, the teacherÊs evaluation also
requires other different strategies and techniques. Here we will identify
summative evaluation and formative evaluation. What do you mean by a teacherÊs
summative evaluation? TeacherÊs summative evaluation is an administrative
function used to fulfil the organisation needs to achieve teacher accountability.
So, summative teacherÊs evaluation involves decision making to improve the

teacherÊs achievement. Did the teacher achieve the level needed? In the event that
the teacher did not attain the required level, the process of documentation
(an administrative function) will be done to improve the teacherÊs practice.
Summative teaching evaluation is an effort to collect data for the purpose of
remunerating the teachers.
The summative teacherÊs evaluation is based on policies and procedures set by a

department. The achievement of a teacher has to be documented by conducting an
effective teacherÊs evaluation. The administrator can use a checklist, rating scale or
narratives to explain how far the teacher achieved the standard needed.
The evaluation forms used must be the same for all teachers. The instrument needs
to be used by all teachers. The instrument used to authenticate and evaluate must
be valid and consistent. Experts suggest that the evaluation must be done several
times to guarantee the validity of the instrument. The observation should also be
done a few times to ensure both the effectiveness of validity and reliability. A few
factors to be noted when doing evaluation are as follows:
(a) Pre-evaluation discussion;
(b) Post-evaluation; and
(c) Legal and ethical issues during evaluation.
How about the formative evaluation of teachers? The formative teacherÊs

evaluation involves the supervision function to help and support the teacherÊs
professional development. This evaluation does not involve the organisationÊs
needs but involves teaching and learning. It supports the teacherÊs professional
development, so the evaluation is an ongoing process and a value-added element.
It is not like the summative teacherÊs evaluation which uses the same standard
form, but a formative teacherÊs evaluation needs systematic observation, for
example, questioning, studentÊs involvement and so on. The systematic
observation is a suitable method in a formative teacherÊs evaluation.

What are the suitable artefacts to evaluate during the formative teacherÊs
evaluation? Some of the artefacts are assignment, experiments, projects, quizzes or
effective tests. The artefact analysis allows the supervisor and teacher to determine
the areas that are supposed to be improved. Table 8.3 shows the differences
between summative and formative teacherÊs evaluation.
Table 8.3: The Differences between Summative and Formative Teacher Evaluation
Item Summative Formative

Function Administrative Supervision
Purpose Accountability – TeacherÊs Help – Professional
achievement evaluation. The development. Value added
decision, to continue teacherÊs teaching.
service or not.
Scope Teaching: The responsibility Instructional
written in rules and circular;
co-curricular, personal quality.
Focus Evaluation form Data collected in class
(observation artifact) relevant
to instructional teacherÊs needs.
Periodical Time A set time (usually one Ongoing (value added)
academic year).
Stress On Achieve standard which is Involves the trust between
determined; includes validity, teacher and supervisor, teamsÊ
reliability and process. good relationship. Try to
improve the teacherÊs needs in
the classroom.
Evaluation Usually done by proxy or Administrator, supervisor,
administrator. The final colleagues, student or parents.
decision is with the
administrator.
Source: Glickman, Gordon & Ross-Gordon (1998)
8.4.2 Understanding the Supervision Process

Supervision is the process of generating instructional improvement (Sagala, 2009).
It is a formalised professional support provided for teachers by the management
to bring about professional development that eventually will increase teaching and
learning quality, all of which is directed to improve student learning outcomes.
How can we have a full understanding of classroom supervision of teachers?

Supervision is a part of teaching or practical teaching. In teaching or practical

teaching, the supervision process functions to upgrade the school and the students.
If we want to improve the school, than we have to focus on teacher education
programmes. Supervision starts before and during practical teaching. The
processes involved in the teachers education programme include lectures,
seminars, tutorials or co-curriculum education. In this process, activities such as
counselling, modelling techniques, coaching, evaluating or interpretation can help
to develop a teacher. So, supervision is a systematic programme to develop
effective teaching.
In Figure 8.2, Waite (1995) suggested the domains that are involved in supervision
activities. According to this figure, domains in supervision are knowledge,
behaviour, personal development, communication, teaching and personal skills.
For each domain, there is another category. But each one is related to one another.
Figure 8.2: The main domains involved in supervision activities
According to Figure 8.2, we know that there are other areas involved if we want to
know about supervision. From the sociological perspective, we should know the
role and interaction of supervision and teacher trainees. The psychological
perspective is also important in teacher training. What psychological perspectives
are useful in supervision? The following are some aspects to be considered:
(a) How do trained teachers learn as adults?
(b) To what extent does supervision promote learning among teacher trainees?
(c) How are learning outcomes from supervision measured and evaluated?

In addition, there are also anthropological and ecological perspectives to be

considered. For full-time teacher trainees, teaching practices allow them to become
familiar with the school and the classroom culture as well as environment. The
ecological aspect is related to the supervisorÊs position in different places. In
different positions and circumstances, the supervisor would face different
environmental situations.
Since supervision involves practical training, the design and analysis of teacher
training would be guided by these questions:
(a) When was the teacher trainee placed there and when will the supervision
activity be conducted?
(b) How is the practicum rationalised in teacher education?
(c) What is the suitable duration for the practicum session to be effective?
(d) When more than one supervisor is involved, how would their participation
be coordinated?
(e) How can ICT be applied to facilitate supervision effectiveness?
ACTIVITY 8.3
Work with your coursemates to develop a list of activities that can help
to shape or form a teacher. Share your list on myINSPIRE.
8.4.3 Supervision Framework

We have already discussed that supervision is a systematic and useful activity.
Supervisors share their knowledge, experiences, skills and actions with the teacher
trainees.
What is the supervision framework to accommodate these activities? Figure 8.3

shows the relationship between course content and supervision process. The
figure shows how the content learned by trainee teachers are transmitted during
practical training, through two supervisory sessions.

Figure 8.3: Relationship between course method and supervision process
In the pre-teaching phase, the supervisor advises the trainee teacher on what needs
to be achieved in the teaching session, what has been achieved before and after
supervision, and what is the estimation of the supervisor during the supervision.
On the other hand, this session is where the supervisor gives ideas on what is
needed and estimates the result after the supervision session.
Meanwhile in the post-teaching phase, both the supervisor and the trainee teacher
will try to strengthen what has been taught during the teaching session by giving
ideas and suggestions. When the trainee teachers receive guidance from the
supervisor, it is important to make sure that the advice given is consistent. An
inconsistent supervision session will put the trainee teachers in conflict and this
may even be stressful to them.

According to Figure 8.4, the observation session must be incremental to the trainee
teachers. Each time the trainee teacher has been observed, he will learn a new step.
The figure shows that the supervision process can be an evaluation.
The more the supervision done, the higher the perception of considering the
supervision session as an evaluation session.
Figure 8.4: The development of a trainee teacher through supervision
Each supervision session is very important. In each session, there is a discussion

session and sharing of experiences between the trainee teacher and supervisor.
Consider the following steps:
Step A: Supervisor tries to help trainee teacher to plan the teaching session. An
agreement about some issues will be reached.
Step B: There is not much of interaction between the supervisor and the trainee
teacher, but only observation.
Step C: There is some interaction between the supervisor and the trainee
teacher.
Step D: Supervisor and the trainee teacher reflect on what happened during the
supervision process.

At what stage does the trainee teacher receive the most attention? In step A, the
trainee and supervisor face contradictions about knowledge, experiences,
behaviours and skills. Whereas, in steps B, C and D, both parties know and
understand each other. The understanding between the trainee and the supervisor
can be a collaborative effect. The convergent model on supervision that can explain
these aspects (please refer to Figure 8.5):
Figure 8.5: Convergent model on supervision
Based on the models shown in Figure 8.5 and 8.6, we can come to a conclusion
about post observation conferences. The interactions are a result of communication
between the trainee teacher and supervisor. One of the suggestions given to the
trainee teacher is to identify teaching aspects (please refer to Figure 8.6). Here, the

supervisor tries to listen and exposes the strengths and weaknesses of the
suggested method. Trainee teachers might give reflections or other alternatives
and upgrade suggestions. Finally, the supervisor will write a report on the trainee
teacher.
Figure 8.6: Model of post-supervision conference interactions
ACTIVITY 8.4
Discuss with your coursemates, the meaning of „incremental‰ in the

supervision progress. Give examples to illustrate your points.

8.4.4 Supervision Model

The supervision model by Acheson and Gall (1997) suggested three steps to follow
in a supervision process and they are:
(a) Pre-observation Conference

(i) Is the first level of observation in a classroom.
(ii) This step can reduce the stress between teacher and supervisor.
(iii) It is to get a rough idea about what is going on in the classroom, which
class you teach and teaching objectives.
The three steps in Pre-Observation Conferences are as follows:

Step 1 – Create a relationship between the teacher and supervisor. This can
reduce the tense situation between both parties. This approach
helps the teacher to know the role and function of supervision.
Step 2 – Plan together with the teacher on the teaching objective; the result
and strategies that can be used in teaching.
Step 3 – The final stage in the pre-observation level. Teacher and supervisor
plan how the supervision data has been collected. The technical
terms on data collection will be discussed (date and timetable).
Figure 8.7 shows an example of a data form for a pre-observation
conference:

Pre-Observation Conference Record

TeacherÊs Name: ⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄..
SupervisorÊs Name: ⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄.
Date: ⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄..
Subject: ⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄
Time: ⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄.
1. What is the teaching objective for this class? What is the type of teaching
conducted?
..............................................................................................................................
2. What is the type of teaching expected from the students?
..............................................................................................................................
3. How do you know that the teaching objective has been achieved?
..............................................................................................................................
4. What is the teaching strategy that has been used?
..............................................................................................................................
5. What is the follow-up action after teaching?
..............................................................................................................................
6. What do you want from me (as a supervisor) in this session? What type
of observation is needed?
..............................................................................................................................
Figure 8.7: Example of data collected during the pre-observation conference
(b) Observations in the Classroom

(i) The procedure to collect data is related to the teaching behaviour of the
teacher in the classroom.
(ii) Includes detailed information about issues.
(iii) The following questions might be used by the supervisor during
classroom observation:
• How effective is the teacher in using questioning skills?
• How is the teacher using problem-based learning in teaching?
• How effective is the teacherÊs evaluation strategy?
• What type of interaction happens between student and teacher?
(iv) The questions above require the teacher to use observation in
classroom and specific procedures of collecting data to get answers.

(c) Post-observation Conference

It is formative where the teacher will be involved in the discussion; it is a
consolidation of what was carried out in the teaching process and an
enrichment of the teaching practice.
(i) The main characteristic of post-observation conference is: reaction
about the teacherÊs teaching involving personality, supervisorÊs
thoughts and reactions from specific matters.
(ii) What is a good post-observation conference? According to Griffith (1993),
a good observation conference includes:
• Telling and persuading – Supervisor can sell ideas and improve the
teacherÊs weaknesses in teaching. Supervisor will assure teacher
about the relevant ideas.
• Telling and listening – Supervisor will inform the teacher about the
strengths and weaknesses about the teacherÊs teaching process.
Teachers will react to the supervisorÊs comments. This approach
allows teachers to voice out ideas and improves teaching practices.
• Problem solver – Both supervisor and teacher try to solve the
problem together. Discussion will help to identify learning
problems and supervisor plays the role of a facilitator.
Stoller (1996) defines this stage as a feedback conference. It is because this stage is
after the supervision process and it is interactive, collaborative and stimulating. If
the observation process goes on very well and the data were successfully collected,
then the feedback conference will be a useful and beneficial session.
The feedback conference should be done immediately, such as after the classroom
observation ends.
This is because the teacher and supervisor can still remember what happened in
the classroom. In the feedback conference session, teachers and supervisors should
analyse the collected data during observation process and get answers for the
problems that arise. In this way, the teacher can analyse, interpret and correct the
teaching practice. These data can be used as evidence of classroom practices and
the ways to improve them.
The tasks to be done both by supervisor and teacher together are:

(a) Analyse data;
(b) Agree with what happened in the classroom;

(c) Interpret data; and

(d) Agree with actions taken together according to various approaches.
Figure 8.8 illustrates an evaluation format and performance criteria.
Figure 8.8: Sample of an evaluation format and performance criteria

SELF-CHECK 8.2
Explain the three steps used in pre-observation conference session.
8.4.5 Observation Record

An evaluation form is a record about communication between the teacher trainee
and supervisor. In the form, there is a column for views and recommendations
about the teaching process of the trainee. What do trainees expect to get from the
evaluation form? Among others they expect the following:
(a) Comments and suggestions;
(b) Advice and written comments used for upgrading; and
(c) Encouragement and guidance to teach effectively.
One more issue always raised is whether the observation recorded should be given
to the trainee teacher immediately after observation or after the reflection process
is over.
What is the structure of the form used for observation? A few types of records can
be used. The type depends on the teaching subject. In any case, if the attributes are
stated, then the feedback can be standardised.
There are a few categories of forms that can be used. These forms can either be in
a structured form or an open form. Many supervisors like to use the structured
form and adapt according to the needs of the attributes. The ordinary scale used is
the 5-point Likert scale. The attributes that can be observed are:
(a) Teaching skills;
(b) Language skills; and
(c) Teaching methodology.
The openness question involves these aspects:

(a) Strength;
(b) Aspects to be observed; and
(c) Overall comments.

Another form used by the supervisor to evaluate the teacher includes 24 aspects
about teaching. These items combine to form the following groups:
(a) Planning and preparation;
(b) Implementation;
(c) Classroom interaction;
(d) Classroom management; and
(e) Personal attributes.
Other than the structured approach, open questions can be used.
8.4.6 Supervision: When and Where

On the issue of supervision for the teacher trainees, there are four factors to
consider:
(a) Total teaching time;
(b) Amount of practical teaching;
(c) Timetable for each teacher who is going to supervise each student; and
(d) The number of supervisors who will supervise each student.
In the supervision session, both supervisor and teacher trainee really need to know
the objective and purpose of supervision. Other than that, some matters must be
taken care of such as follows:
(a) Supervisor and trainee teacher agree about documentation needed for
supervision purpose (example: teaching plan, syllabus, examination
information, timetable, students circular, teaching aids, etc);
(b) Supervisor and trainee teacher agree about the time and data fixed for
supervisor;
(c) Supervisor has to be punctual for pre-observation session;
(d) Supervisor observes the whole teaching;
(e) Enough time fixed for post-observation session, immediately after teaching
supervision over; and
(f) Trainee teachers would be provided with a written report on the
supervision.

8.4.7 Language Used in a Supervision Discussion

The language used can affect the meaning of the message that is transmitted. A
suitable language can strengthen the communication between the teacher and the
supervisor. The language used with a new-comer may bring about a critical
connotation, and it may have an opposite meaning. In this context, language in
supervision are described as follows:
(a) Language as an Ice-breaker

Language that is used as an introduction greatly influences the development
of relationship between the teacher and the supervisor. Many supervisors
like to ask teachers about their teaching experiences before they start the
supervision. They avoid giving ideas. The words chosen are important to
stimulate the teacher to speak. Read the following two scenarios on how the
supervisor asks questions to the teacher.
Scenario A
Can you comment on your achievement? How and why do you teach?
Scenario B
What do you think about your teaching? What makes you happy about your
teaching?
Scenario A is neutral. The statement did not recommend or give negative

responses about the teaching evaluation.
Scenario B gives positive comments about teaching.
Many supervisors like to use the neutral statement. Read the following
statements:
(i) How do you feel about your teaching that you have just started? What
area do you think needs improvement? Do you think you have taken
the right action?
(ii) Can you reflect on your teaching just now? Reflect on your teaching in
terms of the strengths and the weaknesses.
The first statement has a slightly negative connotation as compared to the

second statement which is a neutral one. Attention must be given to the
impression made when making a statement.

(b) Language for Good Rapport

The relationship between the teacher and the supervisor depends more on
the teachersÊ role. The language used by teachers should be more
sympathetic or careful, suiting the role of a teacher. How does one build good
rapport between the teacher and the supervisor? Usually the supervisor can
get ideas from the teacher before giving comments about the teaching.
Supervisors must be straightforward (frank) when giving comments.
Sometimes the supervisor can bring in his experiences and share them with
the teacher.
(c) Language Used During Questioning Session

Many supervisors use questioning techniques during the supervision
session. Example: What is the alternative to solve the problem?
Some supervisors use specific questions to get teacherÊs rationale about

teaching.
Example: Why did you teach this aspect? How do you see that this aspect is
relevant?
These questions allow the teacher to view the issue from a different
perspective. Sometimes the teacher sees the question from a negative
perspective.
Example: When the supervisor asks, why didnÊt you answer the studentsÊ
question?
(d) Language When Giving Suggestion

A dilemma always faced by the supervisor when giving ideas or suggestions
is the language to be used. Supervisor depends on logical approach and
practical examples to try to convince teachers to accept the teaching strategy.
Supervisor must try to avoid saying this statement:

„You should do this!‰
But try to use this message,

„Why didnÊt you use this approach?‰ or
„Maybe you can use this strategy.‰
Give the teachers alternative to help them make a decision. The word such
as „maybe‰ is a more gentle word that will change the supervision
atmosphere.

(e) Language Used When Making Criticisms

Another aspect during supervision is when the supervisor is criticising the
teaching. This is especially the case when the language used by the
supervisor is against individual norms. For example, if the supervisor says
„IÊm not satisfied with your achievement today.‰
Try to understand the personality of the teacher that you supervise. Do not
raise your voice when you are criticising. A critical voice will help and
interest the teachers in improving teaching practice.
The following approaches can be used when making criticisms:
(i) Approach A: Just now you explained this matter; but actually it is
wrong. You have to tell the students that the fact is
wrong.
(ii) Approach B: You explained this matter just now (I think my

interpretation is like this). Now please refer to the
textbook and see the differences. But you told the
students already. Maybe it is better for you to prepare
a complete lesson plan before you teach.
(iii) Approach C: Emm... I also have made such a mistake before. But I
immediately told my student. I must apologise. That
incident taught me to prepare a complete lesson plan
before I teach my students.
These approaches can be used to criticise teachers during the supervision

session.
(f) Language Used During Evaluation

Although the supervision is not a formal evaluation, the reality is that an
evaluation has been done. In the supervisorÊs mind (although it is not
written) he will have an impression of the strengths and weaknesses of the
supervised teacher. That teacher can be labelled; the usual terms are
strengths/weaknesses or good element/not good element. Sometimes the
supervisor is very strict and uses labelling such as correct/wrong/weak/ not
relevant and others.

Terminology in teaching must be suitable. If the supervisor is more

democratic, he may use statements, such as:
„I will not give you grade D. But in the future, you might have to improve
your teaching practice in class.‰
An extreme supervisor might say „I might fail you, if there are no changes in
your teaching‰ or „I will fail you if I donÊt see any changes.
• Among ways that can enhance teaching effectiveness are by motivating

students, being creative in teaching and also by having different styles of
teaching students of different levels.
• The aspects that need to be considered in classroom management include the

physical being of the classroom itself, learnersÊ movements and also learnersÊ
disciplinary problems.
• To increase student motivation in learning, teachers must prepare their

teaching activities which will suit the studentsÊ potential development.
• Teachers need to bear in mind that „evaluation is important in supervision; but

evaluation is not a teaching supervision.‰
• There are three stages in the supervision process: pre-observation, observation

and post-observation.
• Skills (including communication and language) and knowledge are very

important during supervision.
Class management Post observation

Motivation in learning Pre-observation
Observation

Acheson, K. A. & Gall, M. D. (1997). Techniques in the clinical supervision of

teachers: pre-service and in-service application (4th ed.). New York,
NY: Longman.
Glickman, C. D., Gordon, S. P. & Ross-Gordon, J. M. (1988). Supervision of

instruction: A developmental approach (4th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn &
Bacon.
Hoy and Forsyth. (1986). School supervision (1st ed.). New York, NY: Random
House
Mohd. Salleh Lebar. (2007). Sosiologi sekolah dan pendidikan. Batu Caves,
Selangor: ThinkerÊs Library.
Sergiovanni, T. J. (1977). Handbook for effective department leadership: Concepts

and practices in todayÊs secondary schools. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Sagala, S. (2009). Kemampuan profesional guru dan tenaga kependidikan. (Cet. 2).
Bandung, Indonesia: Alfabeta.
Stoller, F. L. (1996). Teacher supervision: Moving towards an interactive approach.

Forum 34(2), 1–15.
Smith, W & Andrews, R. (1989). Instructional leadership: How principals make a

difference. Alexandria, VA: ASCD
Waite, D. (1995). Teacher resistance in a supervision conference. In Corson, D.

(Ed.), Discourse and power in educational organizations (pp. 71–86).
Gresskill, NJ: Hampton Press.

Topic  Quality
Management in
9 Education
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Demonstrate the concept of quality;
2. Compare quality management and traditional management;
3. Suggest appropriate strategies to improve delivery of education;
and
4. Generate ideas on ways to continually enhance quality service in
education.
 INTRODUCTION
An education system which is of quality is capable of producing a workforce
which acts as a global player having unique personal characteristics such as strong
leadership traits, innovative, productive, skilful, competitive, durable and creative
to face challenges of a country and the flow of globalisation. It can also contribute
towards fulfilling the vision of the government to create a lifelong learning culture.
Quality input from education, whether physical or not, is one of the main factors
which can improve the quality of education. Among the efforts put in are to
strengthen delivery systems preparing qualified teachers, and ensuring the
curriculum is relevant to present and future needs. In Malaysia, time and again the
quality of education has been re-emphasised.

TOPIC 9 QUALITY MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION  191
According to UNICEF (2000), quality education includes:

(a) Learners who are healthy, well-nourished and ready to participate and learn,
and supported in learning by their families and communities;
(b) Environments that are healthy, safe, protective and gender-sensitive
providing adequate resources and facilities;
(c) Content that is reflected in relevant curricula and materials for the
acquisition of basic skills, especially in the areas of literacy, numeracy and
skills for life, and knowledge in such areas as gender, health, nutrition,
HIV/AIDS prevention and peace;
(d) Processes through which trained teachers use child-centred teaching
approaches in well-managed classrooms and schools as well as skilful
assessment to facilitate learning and reduce disparities; and
(e) Outcomes that encompass knowledge, skills and attitudes linked to national
goals for education and positive participation in society.
School as a learning organisation expects teachers and the administration to

improve the quality and effectiveness of teaching and learning. Quality of teaching
and learning is closely related to the quality of teachers teaching specific subjects.
Effective quality teaching is influenced by several elements such as „teacherÊs
learning‰ and ‰working together‰ among teachers (Brownell, 2006).
9.1 QUALITY IN EDUCATION

Take a moment to ponder on the following:
„Quality is a journey not a destination‰
This saying is a paradigm which will be used in this course to explain and discuss
the issue of quality. Quality is an abstract entity, and when we mention „quality‰ an
individual will at once assess the thing or situation to see if it is of quality or not.
9.1.1 Definition of Quality

Researchers in teacher education have a different understanding of the term
„quality‰ and its relationship with quality teachers. But the focus is on the
satisfaction given to consumers from the aspect of suitability, durability as well as
possessing a good and appealing form. Quality is also seen as a degree or

192  TOPIC 9 QUALITY MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION
difference in agreement towards a standard set. The degree of difference happens

because of the inequality or the needs between related parties, especially when
dealing with the services rendered. To a consumer, quality is also referred to as
fitness for use (Juran, 1988).
In general, there are five ways or methods to explain the concept of quality as
stated by Garvin (1984), which are given as follows:
(a) Transcendental Approach

Quality can only be understood when an object or a specific characteristic is
seen and assessed based on the standard which is set. It is obvious when a
characteristic is reflected.
(b) Product-based Approach

It is an approach that can be measured and given a permanent standard.
Marks or scores given can be computed or categorised, so that the different
characteristics of quality can be measured.
(c) Consumer-based Approach

It depends on the level of satisfaction of consumers who use the products or
services which fulfils their demand or needs. It refers to the satisfaction of
consumers towards a demand for a product or a service fulfilled by the
manufacturer.
(d) Process-based Approach

This approach focuses on the suitability of a product or service which meets
a fixed specification. The reason is to control cost and effectiveness of
productivity.
(e) Value-based Approach

This approach involves the relationship between cost and quality. It explains
that a product of quality will satisfy a need and the price is reasonable and
accepted. The price and cost must be accepted by the manufacturer and
consumer.
9.1.2 Characteristics of Quality

When we talk about quality, we refer to all features or characteristics of a product
or service which enables us to fulfil the hidden and displayed needs of customers.
Usually a quality which is expected is not stated, but more to the perception of an
individual. For example, as a distance learning student, you might not have told

your lecturer what you want or expect or what characteristics a lecturer should
have to consider him of having quality. Is it from the aspect of presentation or
teaching materials, etc?
There are many characteristics or qualities for a product or service which a

consumer may need and these are listed as follows (refer to Table 9.1):
Table 9.1: Characteristics or Qualities of a Product or Services
Product Services
Durability Polite and friendly
Reliability Location
Functional Physical facilities
Safety
Punctuality and Factual
9.1.3 Elements of Quality

In order to understand quality, we ought to understand the seven basic elements
which are interrelated as follows:
(a) Strategic Planning

Strategic planning refers to a process of forming and implementing strategies
to optimise achievement of organisational strategic objectives by taking into
consideration an organisationÊs internal and external environment. From
there, arises a strategic plan as a step to produce results and an action that must
be taken to form an organisation towards achieving its mission.
(b) Customer
In the context of quality, a customer can be defined as a person who accepts
our work eventually. As such, we have to see our colleagues, supervisors and
subordinates who are involved in our daily work as customers; not only to
those who come to the office to get services be it students, employees from
other departments or the public.
Just like other organisations, educational institutes or schools have an open

system of interacting with the environment. As a result, we have to be aware
of the changes or external environmental demand and feedback from those
who receive the product and services, that is, customers.

(c) Process and Techniques

Each work process can be seen as a transformation of input (human resource)
to output (services). For example, in OUM, learners, lecturers and teaching
and learning methods can be seen as a process of input involved in the
teaching and learning process which we are presently undergoing.
Transformation occurs through teaching or learning, that is, by absorbing
information from materials by the individual.
Output is when the individual as a graduate after completing his studies

through this programme is able to contribute and be absorbed into the
countryÊs manpower.
Apart from understanding this process, we also need to know the

improvement techniques to improve the quality. The model which is usually
used is the Plan-Do-Check-Adjust (PDCA) cycle, which is a systematic
approach in making decisions (see Figure 9.2). This process is repeated until
the expected results are achieved.
Figure 9.2: PDCA cycle
(d) Continuous Improvement

Quality is a journey and there is pressure for continuous improvement.
Standards which are fixed today might not be able to be used tomorrow. In
a work process, we learn from previous experiences and try to do better to
produce better quality. It is easier to say that continuous improvement aims
for 100 per cent perfection which is an ideal standard.

(e) Quality Control Group

Emphasising the process and technique is especially important because in an
organisation, quality must be practiced in a group or a team. In a process,
employees must also understand that they are a part of the quality cycle
which is interrelated and interdependent to achieve the organisational
objective. If the quality of one department does not meet the standard,
quality from other parts will also be affected. Workers from various
departments who are involved must cooperate to overcome the problem and,
as such, forming a quality control group is a way to encourage teamwork.
(f) Total Involvement

All the elements mentioned before will not assist in the implementation and
absorption of quality unless there is total involvement from every
organisational group. Total involvement is based on commitment from the
administrators to allow changes for quality improvement. Apart from that,
decisions made by authorities must be abided by each employee.
(g) Measurement
Measurement refers to assessing the improvement carried out to increase the
quality of services to 100 per cent perfection. Performance will be measured
to see how far the mission and objective are achieved in strategic planning.
Measurement can be carried out at the individual level, in a work group,
quality control committee and top management.
SELF-CHECK 9.1
In your own words, define and describe what you understand about
quality.
9.2 STRATEGY TO PROMOTE QUALITY IN

EDUCATION
There are various factors involved that contribute to poor quality of education, and
it is not only due to one aspect but a combination of factors that affect student
learning in general. Vision, leadership, professional learning and positive attitude
and values are some of the factors that contribute to excellent quality in certain
services. Unfortunately, factors such as these are absent in poor quality services.
There is very little understanding, let alone commitment by managers or educators
on what high quality means, and they lack the willingness to transform their
practices as the need for change does not exist at all.

In Malaysia, strategies to promote quality in education are divided into two main parts:
(a) Quality of Education at Preschool and Primary Level

To promote quality there are several strategies planned, among them are as
follows:
(i) Institutionalise the preschool education by:

Ć Making it compulsory for all implementation agencies of preschool
programme to use the national preschool curriculum.
Ć Strengthening the monitoring mechanism and enforcement on
preschool programmes sponsored by all government and non-
governmental agencies.
Ć Preparing training facilities for the needs of preschool teachers.
(ii) Strengthen quality of teachers by:

Ć Reviewing designation norms among primary school teachers so as
to be in line with the enrolment.
Ć Improve pre-service training and appropriate in-service courses
with educational development.
(iii) Improving school infrastructure by not taking location into

consideration:
Ć Increase the number of classrooms and special rooms in primary
schools especially in rural areas.
Ć Improve the basic facilities in primary schools especially in rural areas.
(iv) Improve the quality of teaching and learning process by:

Ć Integrating information and communication technology (ICT) in
the process of teaching and learning.
Ć Introducing the concept of „smart schools‰ in all schools.
Ć Improving the monitoring and observation process in teaching and
learning.
Ć Strengthening studentsÊ achievement evaluation mechanism.
Ć Improving remedial programmes.
(v) Re-examine the rate of grant per capita in primary schools to make it
more realistic.
(b) Quality in Secondary Education

Improve the quality of secondary education related to improvement,
enhancing and strengthening programmes as well as introducing new
programmes. Issues regarding the quality of secondary education are related
to the infrastructure, science and technology, studentsÊ achievement in
English, teaching aids, assessment, co-curricular activities, studentÊs
welfares, realising the National Philosophy of Education through the
implementation of curriculum, number of trained teachers and preparing
special education.
To improve the quality of secondary education, several strategies are

implemented, among them are as follows:
(i) Improve and expand the infrastructure of school and consider the
welfare of students by:
Ć Increasing the number of schools which are well-equipped for
teaching and learning and co-curriculum.
Ć Increasing the accessibility to secondary education to reduce the
rate of dropouts.
Ć Strengthening student safety programmes.
Ć Preparing learning facilities for students suffering from prolonged
chronic illnesses.
Ć Ensuring needy students are cared for.
Ć Studying and implementing school building construction methods
which saves land and space.
Ć Maximising utilisation of educational resources.
Ć Preparing all basic facilities.
Ć Selectively holding special school facilities such as sekolah bantuan
penuh (fully-assisted government school), sekolah menengah
teknik (technical secondary school), sekolah menengah vokasional
(vocational secondary school), sekolah menengah sukan (sports
secondary school) and sekolah menengah khas (special needs
secondary school).

(ii) Strengthen secondary school curriculum by:

Ć Improving the academic skills of students by ensuring that at the end
of their secondary education, students mastered communication
skills, learning skills as well as critical and creative thinking skills.
Ć Increasing the love for knowledge towards obtaining, applying and
generating new knowledge equal with e-economy.
Ć Improving skills, self management by ensuring that at the end of their
secondary education, students will have developed character, positive
attitudes and responsiblity.
Ć Giving serious emphasis on civics to instil positive values such as to
obey and love the country, stay united, be loyal to the country, respect
leaders and the elderly, as well as experience democracy.
Ć Improving teamwork skills application.
Ć Preparing basic industrial skills in secondary schools.
Ć Reinforcing the remedial and intervention programme for students
who face problems in learning.
(iii) Increase the quality of teaching and learning science by:

Ć Increasing the number of quality science teachers and giving better
incentives to them to encourage more passes in the Science subject.
Ć Increasing the number of pure science laboratories and providing
sufficient teaching aids for science.
Ć Giving emphasis on contextual learning to make the subject more
interesting.
Ć Introducing new elements in science subjects such as biotechnology
and microelectronics.
Ć Maximising the integration of ICT in teaching and learning.
Ć Increasing the use of robotic and science kits in teaching and learning.

(iv) Increase the number of trained teachers and the quality of teachers in the
rural areas by:
Ć Increasing the incentive and prepare a conducive working
environment.
Ć Increasing the number of critical subject option teachers to overcome
the problem of mismatching.
Ć Increasing the number of trained teachers in the rural areas and
increasing the overall quality of teachers.
(v) Strengthening co-curricular programmes by:

Ć Improving and varying the activities for the three components of co-
curriculum.
Ć Ensuring the safety of students.
Ć Reinforcing management training for co-curricular activities to
teachers.
Ć Presenting incentives and recognition for co-curricular activities.
Ć Encouraging the involvement from the public and private sector.
(vi) Expand community involvement for the progress of a school by:

Ć Expanding parent teacher committee membership to the community.
Ć Creating ways for the parent teacher association to get involved in
curriculum and co-curricular activities.
Ć There are five ways to explain the concept of quality:

ă Transcended approach;
ă Product-based approach;
ă Consumer-based approach;
ă Process-based approach; and
ă Value-based approach.

Ć There are seven interrelated characteristics of quality: strategic planning,

customer, process and techniques, continuous improvement, quality control
group, total involvement and measurement.
Ć The strategy to enforce quality in education are divided into two parts: quality
of education at preschool and primary school level and quality in secondary
education.
Ć Educational development intends to produce individuals who will be able to

face the challenges of globalisation and e-economy.
Ć To achieve the objective, educational development is based on equity, quality

and efficiency in educational management.
Ć An effective and quality education will produce individuals who are „all
rounders‰ in line with the National Philosophy of Education. These
individuals will have strong resilience and develop a healthy sense of
competitiveness.
Ć An effective and quality education system can contribute to making Malaysia

a centre for educational excellence.
Consumer-based approach Strategic planning

Process-based approach Transcended approach
Product-based approach Value-based approach
Brownell, M. (2006). Defining teacher quality in special education: understanding

the practices, knowledge and beliefs of effective special education teachers.
CEC Conference 2006, Salt Lake City, Utah.
Deming, E. (1989). Out of crisis. Cambridge, MA: Massachusetts Institute of

Technology

Garvin, D. A. (1984). What does „product quality‰ really mean? Sloan

Management Review, 26(1), 25ă43.
Juran, J. M. (1988). Juran on planning for quality. New York, NY: Free Press.
United Nations ChildrenÊs Fund (UNICEF) (2000). Defining quality in education.

Paper presented at the meeting of the International Working Group on
Education, Florence, Italy.

Topic  Schools and the
Future
10
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. List the environmental changes that affect schools;
2. Discuss the impact of constant change of environment on schools;
3. Debate on the need for curriculum change due to environmental
changes; and
4. Suggest strategies for facing current and future challenges.
 INTRODUCTION
Society has high hopes for the countryÊs education system. Its members hope that
the education system will be able to ensure their children are successful in studies
and in their social environment. In reacting to the dynamic environment of today
in all fields, society constantly pushes for changes to be made within the schools
to fulfil its emerging needs and wishes. Schools are being pressured to prepare
students for future challenges, so that they can secure jobs that are yet to be
developed and technologies that have not been invented.
10.1 ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCE

A dynamic environment creates multiple requirements from schools and acts to
influence and challenge organisational development. Change in the environment
occurs as a result of development in various fields, especially in commerce, science
and technology; this change affects organisations in many ways.

TOPIC 10 SCHOOLS AND THE FUTURE  203
Organisational environment can be divided into two, namely internal

environment and external environment, whereby both environments interact
mutually with one another, as shown in Figure 10.1.
Figure 10.1: External and internal environment of the school organisation

Source: French & Bell (1984)
Based on Figure 10.1, it can be seen that an organisationÊs external environment

takes on the role of a supplier of resources and as a consumer of certain
organisational products. By contrast, the internal environment is an environment in
which the process of transforming resources occurs from the external environment
for product output to consumers who exist in the external environment. Mutual
interaction and dependence between the external environment and internal
organisation influences the development of the organisation (French & Bell, 1984).
The internal environment of a school is related to its role of teaching, learning and
preparing students for society. The internal environment also includes internal
aspects of an organisation such as leadership, administration, prestige, income and
service quality, organisational tradition, culture, organisational members, financial
resources and existing facilities. The external environment is an aspect which is
beyond organisational control and includes demographic change, change of size,
cohort age composition, expectation of accreditation as well as change in the
economic, political, technological and social aspects.
204  TOPIC 10 SCHOOLS AND THE FUTURE
Widespread advances in technology, communication, commerce and other areas

have affected education in so many ways. One of the best examples are the online
courses that you are taking right now in OUM. In this interconnected world,
students are becoming more active, creative and are always using computer
technology in their homes and in their social interactions.
In order to function normally in modern life, nearly all of us cannot afford to be

separated from our gadgets anymore. These gadgets, such as smart phones and
tablets have become extended cognitive tools for us. Cognitive tools are mental
and computational devices that support, guide and extend the thinking processes
of their users (Derry, 1990). Since these tools are beginning to be used extensively
in the school context, it has implications for school leadership too. Hence,
technological leadership is a vital area in which every school principal needs to be
adept in.
Principals need to embrace technology. They need to be able to adapt to the new
technological challenges and be willing to continue learning and also to have the
capacity to accept change as a constant factor. In fact, they need to be lifelong
learners of technology and promote it in school management and instructions.
Principals are also expected to be visible in terms of establishing the vision for
technology in schools, to model the utilisation of technology in professional
activities, to engage and provide resources for continual professional development
focusing on technological integration in teaching and learning and to promote the
idea of technology as a way of life. This cannot be done unless access to technology
is broadened. In spite of all the efforts, the most crucial thing about the education
system is whether or not it is capable of fulfilling the needs of employers.
Sponsored by Google, The Economist Intelligence Unit (2015) set out to study the
extent to which the skills taught in education systems throughout the world are
changing. The following is what the study found out:
(a) Problem solving, team work and communication are the skills that are
currently most in demand in the workplace.
(b) Education systems are not providing enough of the skills that students and
the workplace need.
(c) Some of the students are taking it into their own hands to make up for
deficiencies within the education system.
(d) Technology is changing teaching but education systems are keeping up with
the transformation rather than leading it.

Another external environment that affects education is migration. Migration can

be internal or international, and legal or illegal. It can be economic, social, political
or environmental in nature. This fact surely has implications on any education
system, and, from many angles too. You may wonder how well local students are
coping and being prepared for employment and life in an emerging culturally
diverse and globalised environment.
Without a doubt, principals ought to be aware of changes that occur in the

organisational environment. This is because they play an important role in
adapting such changes into the school organisation. They are expected to bring
about positive changes in the physical, mental and behavioural dimensions within
the school context. Having awareness on environmental changes is simply
insufficient. They also need to develop the ability to respond to these changes.
One of the ways is to adopt the idea of „21st century learning‰, a concept that
includes knowledge of traditional core subjects (literacy, numeracy and
arithmatics) and contemporary themes like global awareness, financial, economic,
health and environmental literacies. Trilling and Fadel (2009) summarises this
concept as follows:
(a) Learning and innovation skill ă creativity and innovation, critical thinking
and problem solving as well as communication and collaboration
(b) Digital literacy skills ă information literacy, media literacy as well as
information and communication technology (ICT) literacy.
(c) Career and life skills ă flexibility and adaptability, initiative and self-
direction, social and cross-cultural skills, productivity and accountability,
leadership and accountability.
ACTIVITY 10.1
Discuss with your coursemates how meaningful changes in schools

can be brought about for the benefit of students in the 21st century.

10.2 PLANNING FOR CHANGE

Among the questions that often arise in our minds is why the performance of one
school is better than that of another. What are the factors that lead to this scenario?
What are the differences that exist resulting in a lack of efforts in making changes
and bringing about constant improvement (Kaizen)? Is it because there is no
mission, vision, commitment or role model, either in the aspect of the individual
or school management which can create inspiration and direction that are clear,
proper and accurate?
Changes in schools or other organisations are inclined to occur from top to bottom.
This situation depends on the creativity and initiative of a principal towards
change that he wishes to be made. The more creative a principal is, the better the
school that he administers.
A creative principal is also capable of influencing societyÊs acceptance towards the

governmentÊs policy changes. Examples include the publicÊs acceptance towards
the establishment of vision schools, smart schools, computer usage in classrooms,
different school designs and so on. In fact, the principal who is creative can create
school designs that are not uniform, different from those at present. Table 10.1
shows the paradigm shift in school administration, such as curriculum as well as
teaching and learning as a result of environmental influence cited from Sharifah
(2000).
Table 10.1: Comparison between the Old and New Paradigms of School Administration
Old Paradigm New Paradigm

 The Role of the School  The Role of the School
- Selecting, labelling  Equalising educational opportunity
- Place for student learning - Learning organisation for its whole
population
 Learning  Learning
- Teachers teach students - Teacher guides, students motivate
- The teacher and textbooks are themselves to study
sources of learning - Various learning resources
- Progressive learning - „Multi-faceted‰ learning
- Ability to gain accurate answers - Understands concepts and problem
is more important than ability to solving
understand the concept of a
certain problem
- Self-study

 Intelligence  Intelligence
- „Normal curve‰ distribution ă a - Increases with effective teaching-
few have high IQ, the rest learning process
possess average and low IQ - Everyone is able to learn
- One type of intelligence is - Seven kinds of intelligences can be
measured using the IQ test nurtured
- Only measures logical
mathematical intelligence
 Teaching-learning organisation  Teaching-learning organisation

- Students need to be streamed in - Students need not be streamed
different classes based on - A small group for specific subjects
„ability‰
- Cooperative learning
 Teacher  Teacher
- Is regarded as a semi- - Craft teacher who produces a
professional or technician, in balanced learner
other words, a production - Encourages students to think
teacher creatively and critically, and to
- Emphasises studentsÊ mastery of learn based on self-interest
subjects - Expects students to be responsible
- Expects students to passively for their personal learning and not
accept what is taught be too dependent on teacher as a
- Works alone source of information
- Cooperates and is open to help
from partners
SELF-CHECK 10.1
Contrast the old paradigm with the new paradigm on school

administration.
Not many parties and individuals like and can accept change easily. This is
because every individual feels that he is not capable of changing in tandem with
the progress made in science and technology. Thus, the principal must ensure that
a „comfort zone‰ does not exist within himself, teachers, support staff and
students under his supervision. However, even though certain changes begin from
the top, success often starts from the bottom. Therefore, cooperation between
parties at the top and those below is important to ensure success in the
implementation of changes.

To face potential changes, a principal should implement planning by analysing

factors of the external environment and those within the organisation which have
the potential to create changes in the school. However, usually the external
environment influences the internal organisation. Therefore, planning within the
school organisation that is done by the principal is a preparation and feedback to
changes that occur outside.
To ensure that all matters that have been planned can be realised, the principal has
to specify the vision, mission and school goals. This specification can help efforts
to make changes within the school to be more focused and not skewed. However,
the principal should ensure that the vision, mission and school goals are
understood by the school community. Therefore, decision making at the planning
stage should be made together with teachers so that its implementation can be
successfully done.
Planning that is carried out can be divided into various elements, namely:
(a) Organisational aspect such as school climate and culture;
(b) Principal as leader and teacher as support staff;
(c) School infrastructure and facilities; and
(d) Relations with the external society, particularly parents.
ACTIVITY 10.2
What is meant by principals, teachers and the support staff being in

the „comfort zone‰?
10.3 CURRICULUM CHANGE TO FACE FUTURE

CHALLENGES
Curriculum is one of the thrusts of the school system. Thus, changes should be
made from time to time to the curriculum offered in schools to increase
organisational effectiveness.
Curriculum refers to everything that is taught and learnt in school. It reflects the
educatorsÊ trust in knowledge that is considered as necessary and good for the
formation of a perfect society, the way knowledge should be acquired and how far
it should be explored.

Murphy (1993) stresses that in order to change a school; the curriculum should be
given serious attention. A study of effective schools usually considers the
curriculum as a factor that is given and should not be changed. Aspects that are
changed are leadership style, evaluation and monitoring methods and so on.
Murphy (1993) also estimates that at least seven changes should be given attention:
expanding the thrust of subjects, increasing curriculum integration, emphasising
in-depth coverage, usage of natural sources, focusing on high level thinking skills,
multiple evaluation methods and expanding choices for teachers.
Two approaches can be adopted to identify the objective of curriculum in

education, namely the classical approach and the romantic approach. Both
approaches have different focus and emphasis in the teaching and learning process
as well as in studentsÊ education (see Table 10.2).
Table 10.2: The Classical and Romantic Approaches
Classical Romantic
Subject-centred Student-centred
Skill Creative
Teaching Experience
Information Discovery
Obedience Awareness
Conformity Originality
Discipline Freedom

The aspects emphasised in both the approaches are explained in Table 10.3.
Table 10.3: Aspects Emphasised in the Classical and Romantic Approaches
Aspects Classical Romantic

Objective Gaining knowledge Attitude and values in life
(process)
Content Subjects Real topics and projects
(experience)
Approach Didactic teaching, differentiation Participation and cooperation
Examination Using tests that are determined by Self evaluation (self-improvement)
teachers and public examination
bodies
With reference to the table, it can be seen that the romantic approach facilitates the
process of interaction between teachers and students and is more student-centred.
This approach has attracted educators who want to change the curriculum so that
it will be sensitive to studentsÊ needs and inculcate skills, attitudes and values that
are relevant at all times.
Integration of value into the curriculum that is taught in school is in line with the
needs stated in the National Educational Philosophy which intends to develop
students in all aspects including spiritually and emotionally.
ACTIVITY 10.3
What are the essential changes needed to make a school effective?
10.4 THE PRINCIPAL AS A CHANGE AGENT

Generally, a school is a conservative institution in our society, and radical and
drastic change has never been an educational feature. However, it is clear that
schools cannot continue to exist if they cannot adapt to changes in the society
where they exist. Therefore, one of the main leadership functions is to determine
when changes are necessary or otherwise. Most decisions should be made in the
way they are expected, whereby the leader should try to anticipate social change
before it arrives, and consider feedback (if any) first.

However, the administrator will face pressure of conflicting changes from various
groups: teachers ask for less time to communicate with students and more time for
preparation, the employer asks for more elements to be included in the curriculum
to prepare students for the working world, universities want additional
preparation in foreign languages and scientific fields and so on. Every group
usually proposes its needs in a forceful and abrupt manner. This shows that
nothing is sufficient if inspection is lacking.
On the other hand, students try to achieve stability. They need to continue with the
programmes that begin in the year and continue the following year. Educational
leaders improve the situation by being the people who admit the need for change,
but also admit the need for continuation and stability in any educational institution.
An administrator must maintain focus towards the main objectives of schools and
other determining elements. He must ascertain when changes can guarantee loyalty
towards these elements and when these changes will happen.
10.4.1 Paradigm Shift for Successful Change

A principal cannot realise changes that he wants to make in the school without
support and help from school teachers. The success of making changes in school
does not lie 100 per cent on the shoulder of the principal but on the group
cooperation that exists between the principal as a leader and teachers as followers.
Hooser (1998) in Hamzah (2006) found that there are three important elements in
determining success. The three elements are closely related to one another and
they are known as "triangle of success" (which encompasses knowledge, skills and
behaviour). Let us take a closer look at each:
(a) Knowledge
What is knowledge? Is knowledge alone sufficient? Hooser (1998) stated that
knowledge is not a manifestation of certificates and diplomas, and it is also
not an accurate measurement based on average grade or seniority and how
long someone has been at a workplace. Real knowledge is an understanding.
In leadership, understanding towards what is required and expected by
followers from leaders is practical work knowledge.

(b) Skills
Knowledge and skills are equally important. Both are needed to develop
personal leadership. In brief, skill is defined as application. Ability to apply
a concept or idea to certain tasks is a leadership advantage that cannot be
questioned. Special skills include boldness, professionalism, decisiveness
and patience as well as listening skills.
(c) Attitude
Attitude is the key to everything. Attitude can be compared to desire.
Anyone can aspire to have knowledge and skills to undertake great projects,
but without the necessary motivation and drive to act, one will end in failure.
There are also individuals who lack knowledge and skills but they have the
right attitude, and strong motivation to face obstacles and they prove to be
successful.
A schoolÊs success and excellence depends on the effectiveness of its overall

system, value, belief, climate, spirit and culture that are practiced and portrayed
at all times by every student, teacher, non-teacher staff and also administrator and
curriculum manager. Effective teachers are among the main contributing factors
in ensuring success of change in school. How and what are the characteristics that
are meant to ensure the effectiveness of teachers? Abdul Shukor (1994) listed
characteristics of effective teachers as follows:
(a) Acting professionally;
(b) Displaying characteristics of theoretical strength;
(c) Knowledge-rich;
(d) Acting based on work code ethics;
(e) Having strong morals;
(f) Always attempting to increase teaching quality;
(g) Sensitive to the needs of students and their parents;
(h) Capable of evaluating studentsÊ strengths and weaknesses;
(i) Equipping themselves with skills that are in line with current demands;
(j) Portraying a commendable character as in an iconic image, noble personality
and visionary as a superior educator at all times;
(k) Ensuring that the „teacher teaching student learning‰ situation exists in
classrooms;

(l) Capable of producing „schools of character‰ so that students have powerful

knowledge, healthy personalities and are all-rounded;
(m) Capable of developing minds of students who excel academically;
(n) Capable of creating characteristics of students with various stable personal
values (moralistic, having noble characters, are competent, are capable of
adapting themselves to certain situations);
(o) Obedient and loyal towards his service, defending his prestigious
professionalism;
(p) Displaying undivided loyalty towards the Government, and possessing an
independent view; and
(q) Focusing attention on teaching and learning in school.
Blanchard (1983) states that it is normally hard and difficult for us to accept change.
He says the following:
(a) When thinking of change we often think about things that we have to let go,
rather than things that we will achieve.
(b) Everybody has different levels of tolerance towards change, but those who
have a high level of tolerance have a point where change is unbearable.
(c) Even if change has been made, we still have the natural tendency to place
things back to their original condition.
Change will not occur without the motivator or agent, and the toughest and most
difficult change is personal change. Covey in Hamzah (2006) states two levels of
change process that should take place to achieve the status of „most effective
personalities‰, namely the levels of „private victory‰ and „public victory.‰ Three
habits that are fundamental to achieve private victory are:
(a) Be proactive;
(b) Begin with the end in mind; and
(c) Put first things first.
Success certainly does not happen naturally without factors motivating and
encouraging every teacher and student to work hard to achieve goals and high
personal gratification after the hard work as well as considerable sacrifice in time
and energy.

Therefore, school and teachers should initially do something to destroy or to

reduce internal factors that hamper the progress of studentsÊ lessons. Efforts to
improve progress and educational excellence in school must focus on teaching and
learning in classrooms. All these require change in attitude and trust among
teachers (including students).
According to Hussein Mahmood (1993), even though it is at the level of the school,
generally the way of life and the way of working ă what is said as school culture
as well as certain systems that hinder the schoolÊs success - should be reviewed
and corrected immediately. Otherwise, every effort to develop the schools
expected goals may not be achieved.
According to him, efforts to develop schools should focus on:

(a) Achievement of school goals, namely studentsÊ academic achievement and
lessons;
(b) Resolving sources of problems;
(c) Forming or creating a new culture to replace the existing culture through (b)
or by strengthening productive culture; and
(d) Moving the workforce in school and outside the school in order to achieve
school goals through principal leadership.
A study on the Programme of Curriculum Improvement and Educational

Development by the Pahang Education Department mentions that the following
factors are obstacles to improvement, and therefore need to be eradicated and
avoided:
(a) Shared visions that are not explained and not appreciated by each member;
(b) Meetings or discussions about strategies that are limited;
(c) Having an uncaring attitude;
(d) Members who still do not want to move from the „comfort zone‰;
(e) Being easily satisfied or overly satisfied;
(f) Organisational leadership is not involved and does not participate in making
change;
(g) Lack of additional effort or no sacrifice;
(h) Being too quick to declare victory; and

(i) Lack of short-term victory that can induce organisational pride which causes
loss of momentum to change and leads frustrated members to join groups
that resist change.
10.4.2 Current Approaches to Change

TodayÊs education and schooling demand that teachers fulfil their duties and
responsibilities in ensuring that every student masters reading and arithmetic.
They also make sure students have relevant knowledge and new skills. Therefore,
duties and responsibilities and also teachersÊ commitment should also be
increased. This certainly requires a new attitude and new perception towards
achieving total academic excellence.
In order to achieve this goal, teachers must have a high level of self-awareness that
whatever factors hinder this achievement should be eradicated. Teachers need to
make changes in approach, strategy and technique as well and adopt positive
thinking.
One of the important aspects to achieving success is to have a positive approach

regarding discipline to improve the quality of work as well as teaching and
learning, and eventually, the quality of output, namely studentsÊ achievement in
examinations and assessments.
One of the approaches and concepts that can be practised is the Shewhart cycle, or
better known as PDCA (Plan-Do-Check-Act).
(a) Plan
All school activities (school, class, co-curriculum, zone and district) must be
well-planned. Avoid an entirely ad-hoc mentality, doing things or simply
following because others are doing it.
(b) Do
All that have been planned must be implemented completely. This is the
most important aspect because this stage determines success at the planning
stage. What is the meaning and use of planning if it is merely planning? Ask
yourself whether what was planned has been implemented? Look at Folio B
in the PKKP Programme to see whether they have been implemented as
planned. Be honest, otherwise, this will be the reason why it is hard for us to
overcome weaknesses and deterioration.

(c) Check
Checking is very important because all planning and implementation need
to be evaluated to find out their effectiveness or reasons why they have not
achieved the objectives that have been ascertained. Many teachersÊ work
should be checked properly and well. These include whether studentsÊ
exercise books have been checked, corrections made, subject diagnosis done
and follow-up action made as well as whether decisions on teachersÊ
meetings or subject committee meetings have been made, observation of
teachersÊ teaching in classrooms made, or scheduled reports asked by the
local education authority are prepared and sent according to schedule. An
effective way to ensure a practical checking system is by creating a
comprehensive check list involving all planning activities in school.
(d) Act
After checking is done and answers known, whether positive or otherwise,
the next important step is to take action. Find the source, where the mistake
and find out who started it. Is the source due to human attitude or system
and procedure or unclear scope of duties? The next action is to ensure that
unsatisfactory matters are not repeated. Personnel involved must be made
aware through advice, criticism, guidance and counselling and even warning
and further action if it has reached a critical and serious stage.
It is not impossible to become effective teachers, have effective schools and to

achieve academic excellence and distinction. The main and first pre-requisite is
teachersÊ preparation and willingness to make a paradigm change, a change in
style of thinking and acting as professionals, and most importantly, for a teacher
to not give up easily.
Teachers, who are professional always display characteristics of strength in

knowledge and behaviour, possess high level of work ethics as well as demand
clear and in-depth understanding, earnestness and high level of commitment to
fulfil tasks in school at all times. Teachers who have a strong spirit will not easily
submit to failure in their work in school, and will be optimistic in all actions, as
well as be willing to learn from mistakes and weaknesses.
Those with an optimistic attitude and thinking will not over-react, complain and
blame others and situations. Optimistic individuals will see everything from all
angles for possible success and progress, either from the personal aspect or from
the organisational aspect.

 This topic discussed environmental influences towards a school organisation.
 The environment also influences the curriculum taught in school.
 Therefore, the school should plan its activities so that it will become more
effective in facing changes.
Curriculum Internal environment

External environment Triangle of success
Abdul Shukor (1994). Penilaian semula situasi pengurusan sekolah. Jurnal

Pengurusan Pendidikan, 4, 1ă7.
Covey, Stephen R. (1989). The seven habits of highly effective people. New York,
NY: Simon & Schuster.
Derry, S. J. (1990). Flexible cognitive tools for problem solving instruction. Paper
presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research
Association, Boston, Massachusetts.
French, W. L., & Bell, C. H. (1984). Organisational development: Behavioural

science interventions for organisation improvement (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Hussein Mahmood. (1993). Kepimpinan dan keberkesaan sekolah. Kuala Lumpur,

Malaysia: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.
Murphy, J. (1993). Restructuring schools. London, England: Cassell.
Sharifah Maimunah. (2001). Pengurusan dan kepimpinan kurikulum di sekolah.

Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: Pusat Perkembangan Kurikulum.

The Economist Intelligence Unit (2015). Driving the skills agenda: Preparing
students for the future. London, England: Author.
Trilling, B. & Fadel, C. (2009) 21st century skills: Learning for life in our times. San
Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Van Hooser, P. (1998) Triangle of success. Ocala, FL: Van Hooser Associates.

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1. E-mail your comment or feedback to modulefeedback@oum.edu.my
OR
2. Fill in the Print Module online evaluation form available on myINSPIRE.
Thank you.
Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

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HPGD2203

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Developed by Centre for Instructional Design and Technology, OUM.

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 1 Management Concepts and Process 1

Topic 2 Management and Leadership Functions 14

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Topic 3 Educational Planning 59

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Topic 5 School as a Place for Teaching and Learning 103

Topic 6 Organisational Culture and Climate 118

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Topic 7 Communication in School 145

Topic 8 Classroom Management 163

Topic 9 Quality Management in Education 190

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Topic 10 Schools and the Future 202

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Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION

As an open and distance learner, you should be able to learn independently

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Figure 1: Student Learning Time

COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES

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Topic 1 discusses the important concepts and principles in management. It also

Topic 2 emphasises the importance of leadership skills and the application of

Topic 3 focuses on the importance of planning in education. The approaches,

Topic 4 discusses the important elements in budgeting. Approaches, preparation

Topic 7 discusses the communication process as well as challenges in

Topic 8 discusses the procedures and exemplary classroom practices.

Topic 9 focuses on the characteristics and basic elements in quality. It also

Topic 10 highlights the environmental influences and challenges in school. It also

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TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE

Self-Check: This component of the module is included in strategic locations

Activity: Similar to Self-Check, the Activity component is also placed at various

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References: A list of relevant and useful textbooks, journals, articles, electronic

Hoy, W. K., Miskel, C. G. & Tarter, C. J. (2013). Education administration

Seyfarth, J. T. (2005). Human resources management for effective schools. Pearson

Cangelosi, J. S. (2014). Classroom management strategies: Gaining and

Mukhopadhyay, M. (2005). Total quality management in education (2nd ed.). Sage.

Ubben, G. C., Hughes, L. W. & Norris, C. J. (2011). The principal: creative

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TAN SRI DR ABDULLAH SANUSI (TSDAS)

Figure 2: Among the Online Databases Available at TSDAS Digital Library

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4. Identify some of the responsibilities in managing school curriculum

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1.1 PROFESSIONALS VERSUS MANAGEMENT

Professionals are indeed very different from management. Management, in a

1.2 PRINCIPLES OF MANAGEMENT

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1.2.1 Henry Fayol’s Principles of Management

Fayol's „14 Principles‰ was one of the earliest theories of management to be

(c) Discipline ă Discipline must be enforced in organisations, but methods for

(f) Subordination of individual interests to the general interest ă The interests

(g) Remuneration ă Employee satisfaction depends on fair remuneration for

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(l) Stability of tenure of personnel ă Managers should strive to minimise