STM 007: General Biology I

Reviewer

Module #1 (The Theories About The Origin of Life)

Theories on the Origin of Life

1. Divine Creation Theory
- created by a supernatural being called God.
- it states that God created all life forms and water within 6 days.
- 6th day - God created human
- 7th day - he rested
- Bible
2. Theory of Catastrophism
- assumes that every round of catastrophe is the evolvement of different types of
organisms on earth.
- life on earth originated from a catastrophic event.
3. Cosmozoic Theory
- states that life originated from earth resistance spores (cosmozoa) propelled by
radiation pressure, reached the earth and started the first forms of life.
- life originated from outer space.
4. Philosophical Theory of Eternity
- believes that life has been right from the very beginning of time.
- life has no beginning and no ending.
5. Abiogenesis Theory
- life starts from the nonliving things such as water, soil, air, and etc
- has something to do with the nonliving matter.
6. Biogenesis Theory
- states that all living things arise from pre-existing living things which has been
supported by the scientific community.
- most popular among the six theories

● the term "biogenesis" comes from "bio" meaning "life" and "genesis" meaning
"beginning."
● Rudolf Virchow
- in 1858, had come up with the hypothesis of biogenesis, but could not
experimental approve it.
● Louis Pasteur
- in 1859, set up his demonstrative experiments to prove biogenesis right down to a
bacterial level.
- 1861, he succeeded in establishing biogenesis as a solid theory rather than a
controversial hypothesis.
● People who are behind those six theories:
a. Divine Creation Theory - religion/Christian belief
b. Theory of Catastrophism - Bishop James Ussher and Baron Georges Cuvier
c. Philosophical Theory of Eternity - Sir Hermann Bondi, Thomas Gold, Dir Fred
Hoyle
d. Cosmozoic Theory - Richter and Arrhenius
e. Abiogenesis Theory - Alexander Oparin and J. B. S. Haldane
f. Biogenesis Theory - Louis Pasteur
Module #2 (The Levels of Organization of Living Things)

● Living Organisms
- characterized by a highly organized structure and arranged in a hierarchical
pattern.
- has the ability to grow, adapt, reproduce, and react to stimuli.
- all made up of cell
- only living things are only made up of cells.

Levels of Organization in Living Things

1. Atom
- smallest scale
- the fundamental unit of matter.
- every matter is composed of atoms.
2. Molecule
- when atoms combined, they formed molecules.
- chemical structure consisting of at least two atoms held together by one on one or
more chemical bonds.
- Macromolecules - molecules that are biologically important. Proteins, Lipids,
Carbohydrates, and Nucleic Acids (DNA). Contains the instructions for the
structure and functioning of your body.
3. Organelle
- a structure that has this effect function within the cell.
- Mitochondria - can be found in both animals and plants. Produce energy to
power cells.
- Chloroplast - is present mostly in plants. Enables green plants to utilize the
energy in sunlight to make sugars.
4. Cells
- all living things are made of cells.
- is the basic building blocks of all organisms.
- structural and functional unit of life.
- some organisms consist of single-cells and others are multicellular.
- continuously multiplying/cell division
- Ex: RBC, brain cells, skin cells, liver cells etc.
- classified as prokaryotic and eukaryotic.
- Prokaryotes - are single-celled organisms that do not have membrane-bound
organelles (bacteria, some fungus, protozoa, algae).
- Eukaryotes - have membrane-bound organelles like nucleus (animals such as
humans, plants, and some fungus).
5. Tissue
- cells combine to make tissues which are groups of similar cells performing
specific function within an organism.
- nervous tissue, muscle tissue, connective tissue
- Histologist - the one who studies the tissues.
6. Organ
- collection of tissues grouped together performing a common function.
- present in animals and plants
- lung, kidney, heart, brain
7. Organ System
- group of organs combined
- higher level of organization that consist of functionally related organs.
- Physiologist
- expiratory system, digestive system, etc.
8. Organisms
- living individual entities.
- simply defined as any living thing that is composed of various organ systems that
function altogether.
- has organized structure can react to stimuli, reproduce, grow, adapt, and maintain
homeostasis.
- organism is recognizable
- self-contained individual
9. Population
- group of organisms of the same species living together within a specific
area/habitat.
10. Community
- group of organisms composed of different species living together and interacting
in certain area or habitat.
11. Ecosystem
- a group of organisms living having an interaction or interrelationship with the
non-living environment such as air, nitrogen in the soil or rainwater.
- Ecologist
12. Biosphere
- is the global sum of all ecosystems and represents the zones of life on earth which
means a part of the planet that is capable of supporting life.
- land, water, and even the atmosphere to a certain extent.
- most complex
- all of the ecosystems on earth
- Non-biologist (meteorologist and geologist) - can help the biologist to answer
questions at this level of biology organization.

● Democritus
- greek philosopher
- history of the atom begins around 450 B.C.
- wondered what would happen if you cut a piece of matter, such as an apple, into
smaller and smaller pieces.
- he thought that a point would be reached where matter could not be cut into
smaller pieces.
- "uncuttable" pieces atomos
● Robert Hooke
- first scientist who discovers and identifies cells.
- cell was first discovered in 1665
- look strangely like cellula or small rooms which monks inhabit.
- Micrographia - where description of cells was published.
● Anton van Leeuwenhoek
- first man to witness a live cell under a microscope.
- described the algae Spirogyra in 1674.

● An adult has approximately have 60 trillion cells

● Each of your eyes has 125 million light sensitive cells that are connected to 1 million
nerve cells
● When you donate blood, you give up 5.4 billion cells
● A square cm of your skin is made up of 155,000 cells.
● There are 30 billion cells in your brain.
Module #3 (The Development of Cell Theory)

● Cell
- basic unit of life
- all organisms are composed of cells.
- the discovery of cells was made possible by the development of the microscope in
the 17th century.
● Robert Hooke (1665)
- use a microscope to examine a thin slice of cork.
- describe it as consisting of "a great many little boxes."
- "little boxes" - reminded him of the cubicles or "cells" in which monks live.
- discovered and named the cell
● Zacharias Janssen and his Father Hans
- two Dutch spectacle makers.
- 1590 - two of them started experimenting with lenses.
- they made several lenses in a tube and made a very important discovery.
- the object near the end of the tube appeared to be greatly enlarged, much larger
than any simple magnifying glass could achieve by itself.
- they observed that viewed objects in front of the tube appeared greatly enlarged,
creating both the forerunner of the compound microscope and the telescope.
● Anton van Leeuwenhoek
- a dutch scientist
- first man to witness a live cell under a microscope.
- 1674 - describe the algae Spirogyra in the name of the moving organisms
"animalcules" - "little animals."
- Protozoa - single-celled organisms known as animalcules.
- first to observe and describe bacteria.
● Matthias Schleiden
- a german botanist
- 1869 - show that the development of all vegetable tissues comes from the activity
of cells.
- he emphasized that structures and morphological features, not processes, give
organic life its character.
- also prove that a nucleated cell is the first element of the plant embryo.
● Theodor Schwann
- a german physiologist
- 1839 - proposed that in animals has every structural element is composed of cells
and cell products.
● Schleiden and Schwann worked together and proposed the first two principles of cell
theory.
● Rudolf Virchow
- a german pathologist
- 1855 - published biogenic law coined the phrase "omnis cellula e cellular" - cells
originated from cells.
- he concluded that all cells arise from pre-existing cells, which became the third
principle of cell theory.
- Pathology
The three principles of cell theory are:
1. All living things are composed of one or more cells
2. Cell is the basic unit of life
3. all cells arise from pre-existing cells

● Importance of the development of the cell theory…

- allows us to understand how organisms are created, grow, and die.
 -helps us understand how new life is created , why organisms take the form they
do.
- cells help us understand fundamental issues such as life and death.
- an organism whose cells are living is considered alive, while one whose cells are
dead is considered dead.
● How do viruses violate the cell theory?
- viruses are not made of cells and do not use cells in any of their processes, they
are not related to the cell theory.
- viruses are not living things
- they are complicated assemblies of molecules, including proteins, nucleic acids,
lipids, and carbohydrates, but on their own they can do nothing until they enter a
living cell.
- without cells, viruses would not be able to multiply.

Module #4 (Introduction to Cell Structure and Functions of Animal and Plant Cell)

● Cells
- "the building blocks of life"
- all forms of life, from simple bacteria to human beings, are made up of cells.
- plant and animal life are made up of cells that are the same in most aspects.
● Cell Wall
- the first organelle
- it is the covering of the plant cell which is present only in plants.
- predominantly made up of cellulose.
- has a rigid covering that protects the cell, provides structural and support, and
gives shape to the cell.
- present in plant cell
- provides rigidity and gives shape
● Plasma Membrane
- gate keeper of the cell
- guards the entrance
- a phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins that separates the internal contents
of the cell from its surrounding environment.
- semi-permeable membrane that controls the passage of organic molecules, ions,
water, and oxygen into and out of the cell.
- waste such as carbon dioxide and ammonia also leave the cell by passing through
plasma membrane.
● Endoplasmic Reticulum
- another organelle that can be found in the cell.
- is series of interconnected membranous sacs and tubules within the cytoplasm that
collectively modifies proteins and synthesizes lipids.
- this two functions are performed in separate areas of the ER: the rough
endoplasmic reticulum (RER) and the smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER).
1. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER) - for protein synthesis. Has
ribosomes attached
2. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER) - is a network of tubular socks
without ribosomes on the membrane. Synthesis of carbohydrates, lipids,
and steroid hormones.
● Cytoplasm
- is the entire region of the cell between the plasma membrane and the nuclear
envelope.
- it is the fluid portion of the cell approximately 70% to 80% water where all
organelles appear to be floating
 - Cytosol - fluid portion of the cytoplasm. Maintain shape to the cell, bear cell
organelles and carry out different metabolic processes such as glycolysis, cell
division, protein synthesis, and many more.
- if cytoplasm is not present in the cell, there would be no metabolic process.
- it is very important to sustain the life of every organism.
● Ribosomes
- another cellular organelle found in the cell.
- appears either as clusters (polyribosomes) or single, tiny dots that float freely in
the cytoplasm.
- the ribosome is for protein synthesis.
- Protein synthesis - an essential function of all cells including enzymes,
hormones, antibodies, pigments, structural components, and surface receptors.
- particularly abundant in cells that synthesize large amounts of protein.
- if the ribosome would not function normally or not present in the cell, there will
be no production of proteins.
- most important macromolecules in the body to support daily activity of the
organisms.
● Golgi Body/Golgi Apparatus
- has a series or stacks of flattened membrane bound organelle that forms a
complex structure.
- Camillo Golgi - an Italian physician who first identified them.
- sorting, tagging, packaging, and distribution of lipids and proteins destined to
leave the cell and for use within the cell takes place in the Golgi bodies.
- has a front and back
- cis face - the front or the receiving end. Receive proteins and lipids from the
endoplasmic reticulum.
- trans face - the opposite side. Releases golgi vacuoles which contain modified
enzymes or proteins
- where lipids and proteins enter and exit to allow further modification.
● Lysosomes
- a membrane bounded digestive vesicle.
- arise from Golgi apparatus contains high levels of degrading enzymes, which
catalyze the rapid breakdown of proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, and carbohydrates.
- this organelle can only be found in animal cells.
- use their hydrolytic enzyme to destroy pathogens that might enter the cell through
phagocytosis or endocytosis
- Lysosomal - breakdown old organelles, and recycle their component molecules,
this makes room for newly formed organelle.
- Peroxisomes - are small, round organelles enclosed by single membranes, it
carries out enzymes which involve oxidation reactions that break down fatty acids
and amino acids.
- detoxify many poisons that may enter the body, like oxidation reactions
that release hydrogen peroxide which could be damaged in to the cell
- release hydrogen peroxide
- is called “suicidal bag” of cell because it contains hydrolytic enzyme that capable
of degrading or breaking down macromolecules, destroying pathogens that may
enter the cell and breaking down all the organelles and apoptosis to recycle.
- similarity of the two organelles, both use enzymes for the degradation and
breaking down of chemical components.
● Mitochondria
- the powerhouse of the cell or energy factories because they are responsible for
making adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
- the cell's main energy carrying molecule.
 - Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) - represents the short-term stored energy of the
cell.
- is produced through cellular respiration, the process of making ATP using
the chemical energy found in glucose and other nutrients.
- an oval-shaped, double membrane organelles that have their own ribosomes and
DNA.
- has two membrane layers.
- an outer membrane and an intricately folded membrane that encloses the
mitochondrial matrix.
- Mitochondrial matrix - where DNA that encodes protein essential for
mitochondrial function.
- Cristae - the folds in the inner membrane which houses the enzymes that catalyze
reactions of cellular respiration.
● Chloroplast
- have their own DNA and ribosomes
- chloroplasts have entirely different functions.
- are plant cell organelles that carry out photosynthesis.
- absent in animal cell
- contain the photosynthetic pigment chlorophyll that gives most plants their green
color that use in photosynthesis.
- Photosynthesis - it is the series of reactions that use carbon dioxide, water, and
light energy to make their own food in the form of glucose.
- plants (autotrophs) can make their own food like glucose.
- animals (heterotrophs) must ingest food.
- have outer and inner membrane, which lie in close association with each other.
- Grana - have closed compartments of stock membranes, which lie inside the
membrane.
- may contain a hundred or more grana and each granum may contain from a few to
several dozen disk-shaped structures called thylakoids.
- Stroma - surrounding the thylakoids, which you can find the enzymes used to
synthesize glucose during photosynthesis.
- Autotrophs (plants)
- Heterotrophs (animals)
● Vacuoles
- specialized membrane bounded structure
- Large central vacuoles - occupies the 90% of the cell volume.
- Tonoplast - the membrane surrounding this vacuole. Contains channels for water
that are used to help maintain tonicity, or osmotic pressure.
- place a major role in regulating the cell's concentration of water in changing
environmental conditions.
- when the water concentration in the soil becomes lower than the water
concentration in the plant, water moves out of the central vacuoles and cytoplasm.
- when the central vacuole shrinks, it leaves the cell wall unsupported.
- central vacuole also supports the expansion of the cell.
- when the central vacuole holds more water, the cell gets larger without having to
invest a lot of energy in synthesizing and cytoplasm.
● Cytoskeleton
- network of protein fibers
Three types of fibers within cytoskeleton:
1. Microfilaments
- narrowest component of skeleton
- a long rod composed of protein actin.
- the function in cellular movement such as contraction, crawling, pinching, during
cell division and formation of cellular extension.
 - provides rigidity and shape to the cell.
- can depolymerize (disassemble) and reform quickly, enabling the cell to change
its shape and move.
2. Intermediate filaments
- are made of several strands of fibrous proteins that are wound together.
- has no role in cell movement.
- they're function is purely a structural
- maintain the shape of the cells and anchor the nucleus and other organelles in
place.
3. Microtubule
- composed of protein called tubulin assemble into hollow tube.
- help the cell to resist compression, provide a track along which vesicles move
through the cell and pool replicated chromosomes to opposite ends of dividing
cells.
- can dissolve and reform quickly
● Nucleus
- surrounded by a nuclear envelope
- known as the governor of the cell.
- controls all the activities of every organelle inside the cell.
- houses the DNA and directs the synthesis of ribosomes and proteins.
- Nuclear envelope - a double membrane structures that constitutes the outermost
portion which separate the nucleus from cytoplasm.
- Phospholipid bilayers - both inner and outer membranes of the nuclear envelope.
- Nuclear pores - punctuated the nuclear envelope, which control the passage of
ions, molecules, proteins, and RNA between the nucleoplasm and cytoplasm.
- Nucleoplasm - the semi solid fluid inside the nucleus, where we find the
chromatin and the nucleolus.
- has the genetic material which the DNA containing the instructions for the
structure and function of all living organisms.
- Nucleolus - a region where intensive synthesis of Ribosomal RNA is taking
place.
● Chromosomes
- structures within the nucleus which are made up of DNA.
- the hereditary material
● Centrioles
- responsible for cellular division
- not present in plant cell
Module #5 (Introduction to Cell Structures and Functions of a Bacterium)

● Bacteria
- are single-celled organisms that lack nucleus or any membrane-bound organelle.
- have also cellular components as well as unique names.
- most names of bacteria came from their shape.
- spherical, rod-shaped, star-shaped, spiral etc.
- prokaryotic
- unicellular
- contain DNA and RNA
- microscopic
- not all bacteria are pathogens
● Cell wall
- bacteria have cell wall
- cell wall of a bacteria is composed of peptidoglycan.
- Peptidoglycan - a protein sugar (polysaccharide) molecule.
- gives the cell its shape and surrounds the cytoplasmic membrane protecting it
from the environment.
- the main function of this is to help in providing support, mechanical strength and
rigidity to cell.
- protects cell from bursting in hypotonic medium.
● Capsule
- is a protective covering of bacteria made up of polysaccharide.
- its role is to keep the bacterium from drying out and protect it from phagocytosis
(engulfing) by larger microorganisms.
- has a slime layer which covers the outside part of the cell wall.
- works also as food reserve and sticks the cells together.
● Cytoplasm
- the function of this is for cellular growth, metabolism, and replication of genetic
material of bacterial cells.
- also called the store house of all the chemicals and components that are used to
sustain the life of a bacteria.
- where all organelles are embedded
- Cytosol - fluid portion of the cytoplasm
● Plasma membrane
- also called the cytoplasmic membrane.
 - a semi-permeable membrane which allows only selected materials to move inside
and outside of the cell.
- it is composed of phospholipids, proteins and carbohydrates, forming a fluid
mosaic.
- hopes in transportation of substances including removal of wastes from the body
and providing a mechanical barrier to the cell.
● Ribosome
- can be found in eukaryotic and prokaryotic organisms.
- functions for protein synthesis
- Protein - molecules that perform all the functions of cells and living organisms.
- the difference between bacterial ribosomes and eukaryotic ribosomes is that some
antibiotics will inhibit the function of bacterial ribosomes, but not in the case of
eukaryotes.
- helps in transferring the genetic material of bacterial cells.
● Flagella
- a cellular component that can only be found mostly in prokaryotes like bacteria.
- it is a hair like structure that provides a means of locomotion.
- helps a bacterial cell to move in clockwise and counterclockwise, forward and
helps the cell to spin.
- can be found at either or both ends of a bacterium or all over its surface.
● Pili
- small hair like projections emerging from outside of the cell-surface.
- assess the bacteria in attaching or adhering on a surface or sometimes to host.
- involved in gene transfer mechanism called sex pili or fertility pili.
- Conjugation - the process where the gene is transferred through the pilus from
donor to recipient cell.
- without pili, many disease causing bacteria lose their abilities and effect because
they are unable to attach to host tissue.
● Plasmid
- another bacterial cell component that is related to gene transferring.
- they are small circular DNA
- exchange DNA between bacterial cells.
● Nucleoid
- the irregularly shaped section of the prokaryotic cell where DNA is housed.
- it lacks the membrane found in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells.
- also contains RNA, proteins, and enzymes used for cellular processes.

● bacteria are considered living things and are made of cells.

● bacteria are unicellular organisms belonging to the domain Eubacteria but now call
Bacteria and Archaea.
● they are ubiquitous on earth and while they often have a bad reputation for causing
disease.
● viruses are not in the organism classification scheme as they are not considered living
things.
● they are not made of cells, instead they are generally composed of a protein quotes
around a genetic material (DNA and RNA)
● though bacteria are small, viruses are much smaller still. They are said to be
ultramicroscopic.
● bacteria can be more than 10 to 100 times bigger than viruses.
● viruses are generally parasitic in some way.
● most tend to damage their hosts, but many do not.
● bacteria reproduce by binary fission, while viruses must use host cells to create more
viruses.
Module #6 (The Difference Between Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic Cells)

● Prokaryotic Cell
- a prokaryote is a simple, single-celled (unicellular) organism that lacks a nucleus
and membrane-bound organelles.
- prokaryotic cells are not divided up on the inside by membranes, but consist
instead of a single open space.
- contains lesser organelles.
- contains a tail, pili, capsule, and other unique structures.
- Bacteria - simplest type of prokaryotic cell, the oldest life form on earth.

● Eukaryotic Cell
- are defined as cells containing organize nucleus and organelles which are
enveloped by membrane-bound organelles (multicellular).
- are much more complicated than those of prokaryotes.
- they are packed with a fascinating array of subcellular structures that play
important roles in energy balance, metabolism, and gene expression.
- contains mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, golgi, chloroplast, etc.
- e.g. fungal cells, protozoans, animal cells, and plant cells.

● DNA
○ Prokaryotic Cell
- the genetic material DNA in prokaryotes is not bound within the nucleus
which is found in nucleoid region.
- their DNA is less structured and usually a single loop.
- the DNA of prokaryotes is not located in nucleus or bounded within the
nucleus, it is less structures and usually a single loop.
○ Eukaryotic Cell
- have a membrane-bound nucleus that encloses its genetic material.
- the genetic material in eukaryotes is contained within the nucleus within
the cell and the DNA is organized into chromosomes.
- the genetic material of eukaryote is bounded with the nucleus and
arranged into chromosomes.
- include both animal and plant cells.
● Ribosome
- one of common cellular component that can be found in all cell types.
- it is composed of both RNA and protein present in both prokaryotic and
eukaryotic cells.
- Prokaryotes - smaller than eukaryotes with the size of 70s, consist of 30s and 50s
subunits.
- Eukaryotes - are made up of 40s and 60s subunits.
- evolved in the process of protein synthesis.
● Plasma Membrane
- both present in eukaryotes and prokaryotes.
- it is the outer boundary of the cell, isolates the cell's content from the
environment, and serves as a semi-permeable barrier that determines which
nutrients are allowed into and out of the cell.
● Cytoplasm
- can be found in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
- it provides turgor pressure to plant cells as fluid inside the central vacuole,
it is site for all metabolic process or reactions and the region where all the
organelles are located.