SOCIOLOGICAL

THEORIES OF CRIME
CAUSATION
 SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES
-it explains how a certain individual acquires criminal or
undesirable behavior; it describes how the agents of
socialization such as family, environment, schools, mass
media, and peer groups contribute to or affect the behavior of
a specific individual; and it also somehow manifest as to how
a person responds or reacts with regard to the conduct
displayed by other persons whom he/she socializing with.
Social Disorganization Theory
-created by Chicago-based sociologist Clifford R. Shaw (1895-1957) and
Henry D. Mckay (1899-1980)- who linked crime rates to neighborhood
ecological characteristics. Crime rates elevated in highly transient,
“mixed use” (where residential and commercial property exist side by
side) and/or “changing neighborhood” in which the fabric of social life
has become fayed. These localities are unable to provide essential
services such as education, health care, and proper housing and, as a
result, experience significant levels of unemployment, single parent
and families on welfare and Aid to Dependent Children (ADC).
- Shaw and McKay’s main contention is that the primary causes of
criminal behavior were neighborhood disintegration and slum
conditions, places which they called transitional neighborhoods or
places ridden by poverty. Such places also suffer high rates of
population turn over and are incapable of inducing residents to remain
failing to defend the neighborhoods against criminal groups.
Concentric Zone Theory
-pioneered by Chicago School Sociologist Ernest W. Burgess (1886-
1966) and Robert Park (1864-1944); however, it was Clifford R. Shaw
and Henry D. McKay (1930) who noted that the distinct ecological area
had develop in Chicago comprising a series of five concentrics cirles or
zones and that there were stable and significant differences in
interzone crime rates. The areas with heaviest concentration of
appeared to be the transitional inner-city zones, where large numbers
of foreign born citizens had settled. The zones farthest from the city’s
center had lower crime rates. Shaw and McKay’s main assumption is
that even though crime rates changed, they found that the highest
rates were always in the central city and transitonal areas.
The Five Concentric Zones
a. Zone I (Central Business Districts)- it is where hotels, offices, businesses,
other activities are in;
b. Zone II (Zone of Transition) -also known as Gray Zone. It has the tendency to
have conversion of land uses. Immediately adjacent to the CBD, it is an area that
may be slated for expansion if the business is good. In this zone land and
properties are held for speculation purposes;
c. Zone III (Lower Income People) It is where homes or slums are;
d. Zone IV (High Income Residence): It is white collar or middle class families
reside.
e. Zone V ( Commuter Zone)- it is reffering to suburbs where people who work
in the center choosee to live.
(Larry Siegel’s book on Criminology (2004):
Theories, Patterns and Typologies (page 193)
ANOMIE THEORY
- introduced by french sociologist David Emile Durkheim (1858-
1917), “anomie”derived from the Greek word nomos which means
without norms. According to Durkheim, an anomic society is one in
which rules of behavior (norms) have broken down or become
inoperate during period of rapid social change or social crisis such as
war or famine. Anomie most likely occurs in societies that are moving
forward mechanical solidarity to organic solidarity.
Mechanical Solidarity- defined as a characteristics from pre industrial
society, which is held together by traditions, shared values, and
unquestionable beliefs.
Organic Solidarity- refers to post-industrial society in which the place is
highly developed and dependent upon the division labor and people
are connected by their interdependent needs for its other’s services
and production.
 -according to Anomie theory, because of sudden shift in tradition
and values social turmoil happens. Hence, the established norms begin
to erode and lose demands become unlimited. With these, obeying
legal codes or laws may be strained, and alternative behavior choices,
such as crimes, may be inevetable.
However, with all these saying, Durkheim maintains that crimes
are not only normal for society but are necessary. Without crime there
could be no evolution in law.
Strain Theory
-American sociologist Robert K. Merton (1910-2003) applied
Durkheim’s ideas of anomie to criminology. He holds that crime is a
function of the conflict between goals people have and the means they
can use to legally obtain that goals. Consequently, those who failed to
attain their goals because of inadequate means would feel anger,
frustration, and resntment, which as referred to as strain and that
those people who are in strain or pressure may develop criminal or
delinquent solutions to the problem of attaining goals.
- in short, strain theory talks about goal-means blockage.
Merton developed what he called Social Adaptation
1. Conformity- individual accepts both conventional goals and means.
Accordingly, conformity is the common mode adaptation for those
balance and stable society.
2. Innovation-individual accepts the goals but rejects the legitimate
means of attaining them.
3. Ritualism-individual rejects the goal but have legitimate means of
attaining them.
4. Retreatism- from the root word “retreat” means to withdraw or
surrender. It is otherwise known as the escapist mode, in which the
individual tends to reject both the goals and means of the society.
5. Rebellion-individuals involved substituting an alternative set of goals
and means for conventional ones.
(Larry Siegel’s book on Criminology (2004):
Theories, Patterns and Typologies (page 193)
Relative Deprivation Theory
-proposed by Judith R. Blau and Peter M. Blau (1918-2002) which
clearly emphasizes that a sharp division between the rich and poor
creates an atmosphere of envy and mistrust. Criminal motivation is
fueled both by perceived humiliation and perieved right to humiliate a
victim in return. Accordingly, lower-class people might feel both
deprived and embittered when they compare their life circumstances
to those of the more afluent. The constant frustration suffered by
deprived individuals because of their economic status may lead to
aggression and hostility and, may result to violence and crime. (Siegel 2004)
General Strain Theory
-sociologist Robert Agnew (1992) formulated the strain theory of
Robert Merton and suggest that criminality is the direct result of
negative affective states- the anger, frustration, depression,
disappointment, and other adverse emotions that derive from strain.
Agnew tries to explain why individuals who feel stress and strain are
more likely to commit crimes and offers more explaination of criminal
activity among all elements of society rather than restricting his views
to lower-class crime. He finds negative affective states are produced by
a variety ofnsources of strains, such as;
1. Strain caused by the failure to achieve positively valued goals. This
type of strain occurs when a youth aspires to wealth and gain, but
lacking financial and educational resources, would assume that such
goals are impossible to achieve.
2. Strain caused by dysfunction of expectations and achievements.
This aspects happens when peoplle comare themselves to peers who
seem to be doing a lot better financially or socially.
3. Removal of positively stimuli.
The loss of positive stimuli may lead to delinquency as the adolescent
tries to prevent the loss, retrieve what was been lost, obtain
substitutes or seek revenge against those respnsible for the loss.
Ex. Jay had a brother and somebody killed his brother. In return, out of
anger beacause that person killed his ever loved brother; Jay might kill
also the person who killed his brother.
4. Presentation of negative stimuli.
Strain may also be caused by the presence of negative stimuli.
Ex. During the first day of board examination, the proctor did not allow
you to take the said exam because you arrived one hour already. In this
case, you as the examinee may feel frustrated or worst you may seek
revenge against the proctor.
Cultural Deviance Theory
-This theory combines the effects of social
disoarganizationand strain to explain how how people living in
deteriorated neighborhoods react to social isolation and
economic deprivation. Beacuse of the draining, frustrating and
dispiriting experiences, members of the lower classs create an
independent subculture with its own rules and values. This
lower-class subculture stressees excitement, toughness,risk-
taking, fearlessness, and immediate contact. In short, those
who are economically deprived and living in disorganized
areas in order to gain success may resort to crime and
delinquency.
Delinquent Subculture Theory
-Albert K. Cohen (1918-2014) first articulated the theory in his
classic book, “ Delinquent Boys”. Cohen’s position was that delinquent
behavior of lower class youth is actually a protest against the norms
and values of the middle-class U.S. culture. Because the social
conditions make them incapable of achieveing success legitimately,
lower-class youths experience a form of culture conflict that Cohen
labels status frustration. Status frustration refers to the state where
youths are incapable of achieving their legitimate goals in life because
of the social conditions that they are into, such as having poor parents
and living in slum areas. With this, Cohen was able to believe that
because of status frustration lower-class boys who suffer rejection by
middle class (rich) people may tend to form deviant subculture and
Cohen called it: the corner boy, the college boy, or the delinquent boy.
1. The corner Boy
The corner boy role is the most common response to middle
class-rejection. He is not a chronic delinquent but maybe a truant who
engages in petty or status offenses, such as sex before marriage and
recreational drug abuse.
2. The College Boy
The college boy embraces the cultural and social values of the
middle class. He actively strives to be successful by those standards.
3. The Delinquent Boy
The delinquent boy adopts set of norms and principles in direct
opposition to middle class values.He strives for independence and that
nobody can control his behavior, he may join gang and willing to take
risks and violate the law.
Differential Opportunity Theory
it is the output of the classic work of Richard A. Cloward
(1926-2001) and Lloyd E. Ohlin’s (1918-2008) “Delinquency
and Opportunity”. This theory is a combinationof strain and
disorganization principles into a portayal of a gang-sustaining
criminal subculture. The main concept of this theory states
that people in all strata of society share the same success
goals but those in lower-class have limited means of achieving
them. People who perceive themselves as failure with
conventional society will seek alternative or innovative ways
to gain success, such joining drug syndicate and any other
forms of illegal activities.
Differential Association Theory
“Tell me who your friends are and I will tell you who you are” a
Mexican proverb and a qoute from Cecil Thounaojam “ Birds with the
same feathers flock together, and when flock together they fly so high,”
would best describe the theory of differential association.
-this theory created by a American criminologist Edwin H.
Sutherland (1883-1950) in his text, “Principle of Criminology”. He
suggest that people commit crime by learning in a social context
through their interactions with others and communication with them.
-He believed criminal behavior is learned by interaction with
others, and this includes learning the techniques of commiting the
crime, and the motives, drives, rationalizations, and attitudes for
commiting it.
Containment Theory
-was presented by Walter C. Reckless (1899-1988) and assumes
that for every individual, there exists a containing external structure and
a protective internal structure, both of which provide defense,
protection, or insulation against delinquency. According to Reckless;
Outer Containment
• a role that provides a guide for persons activity
• a set of reasonable limits and responsibilities
Inner Containment
• a good self concept
• self-control
• a strong ego
• a well develop conscience
• a sense of responsibility
Social Bond Theory
-also called (social control theory), articulated by Travis W. Hirshi
(1935-2017) in his 1969 book, Causes of Delinquency, now the
dominant version of control theory. Hirshi links the onset of criminality
to the weakening of the ties that bind people to society. He assumes
that all individuals are potential violators, but they are kept under
control because they fear that illegal behavior will damaged their
relationship with friends, parents, neighbors, teachers and
employers.Without this social ties or bonds, and in the absence of
sensitivity to and and interest in others, a person is free to commit
criminal acts.
Hirshi identified four elements of social bonds; Attachement,
Commitment, Involvement and Belief.
Labeling Theory
-was created by Howard S. Becker (1963) who explains that
society creates deviance through a system of social control agencies
that designste (label) certain individuals as delinquent, thereby
stigmatizing aperson and encouraging them to accept this negative
personal identity.
Consequencesof Labeling
• Stigmatization-labels are believed to produce stigma.
• Self-labeling-refers to the process by which a person who has been
negatively labeled accepts the label as a personal role or identity.
• Self-fulfilling Prophecy- deviant behavior patterns that are in response
to an earlier experience.