Chapter 8

Altruism

What is altruism?
Why do we help?
When will we help?
Who helps?
How can we increase helping?
ALTRUISM
motive to increase another's welfare without conscious
regard for one's own self-interests

WHY DO WE HELP

(1) SOCIAL EXCHANGE

human interactions are guided by social economics
social goods: love, service, information, status

Social Exchange Theory. Human interactions are transactions

that seek to maximize benefits while minimizing costs
WHY DO WE HELP

REWARDS
can either be external (give to get) or internal (guilt-driven
or to reduce stress)

Feel-bad-do-good. Help because of guilt/ stress.

Feel-good-do-good. Happy people are helpful people.

GUILT
painful emotion people seek to relive
eagerness to do good after doing bad
motivates to get rid of guilt and recover self-image

EGOISM
self-interest motivates all behavior
WHY DO WE HELP

(2) SOCIAL NORMS: We help others because we have to.

RECIPROCITY NORM: Universal Moral Code

people will help those who have helped them
"social capital"
balance giving and receiving

SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY NORM: People those who need help

give people what they deserve

(3) EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGY

contends that the essence of life is gene survival
WHY DO WE HELP

MECHANISMS FOR OVERCOMING SELFISHNESS

Kin Selection- favoritism toward those who share our genes
Reciprocity- one organism helps another because it expects
help in return
Group Selection- groups of mutually supportive altruist
outlast groups of non-altruists

EMPATHY
vicarious experience of someone else's feeling

Collapse of compassion. Decreasing concern as the number of

suffering people increase.

Empathic concern. Felt when we value another's welfare,

perceive the person as in need, and take their perspective.
WHY DO WE HELP

Helpful acts are either egoistic (done to gain rewards or avoid

punishment) or subtly egoistic (done to relieve inner distress).
WHEN DO WE HELP

(1) NUMBER OF BYSTANDERS

presence of bystanders decreased intervention

Noticing: we are less likely to notice an incident when we are in

a group than when we are alone

Interpreting: we are less likely to interpret an incident as a

problem when we are in a group than when we are alone

Pluralistic Ignorance. Assumption that others are thinking and

feeling what we are thinking/feeling.

Illusion of Transparency. Tendency to overestimate others'

ability to read our internal states.
WHEN DO WE HELP

Assuming Responsibility. We are less likely to assume

responsibility for taking action when we are in a group.

Bystander Effect. People are less likely to provide when there

are other bystanders.
WHEN DO WE HELP

(2) HELPING WHEN SOMEONE ELSE DOES

Prosocial models promote prosocial behavior

(3) TIME PRESSURES

We are more likely to help when we are not in a hurry

(4) SIMILARITY TO THE VICTIM

We are more empathetic and helpful to those similar to us
WHO HELPS

(1) PERSONALITY TRAITS

No definable set of altruistic personality traits influence
willingness to help
Attitude and trait measures seldom predict a specific act

Personality researchers found:

1. Individual differences in helpfulness
2. Emotionality, empathy, and self-efficacy are traits that
predispose a person to helpfulness
3. Personality influences how people react to situations

Those high in self-monitoring are attuned to the expectations

of others and we are especially helpful if they think helpfulness
will be socially rewarded.
WHO HELPS

(2) GENDER
In potentially dangerous situations in which strangers need
help, men more often help (Eagly & Crowley, 1986).
In safer situations, women are slightly more likely to help.

Gender difference interacts with (depends on) the situation.

HOW CAN WE INCREASE HELPING

(1) REDUCING AMIBUITY AND INCREASING RESPONSIBILITY

Assisting people to interpret an incident correctly and to
assume responsibility should increase involvement

Personal appeals (to assume a form of relationship):

1. eye contact
2. stating one's name
3. personal approach

(2) GUILT AND CONCERN FOR SELF-IMAGE

People who feel guilty will act to reduce guilt and restore
their self-worth
Guilt-laden people are helpful people
HOW CAN WE INCREASE HELPING

(3) SOCIALIZING PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOR

HOW CAN WE INCREASE HELPING

Moral Inclusion. Regarding others as within your circle of moral

concern.

Moral Exclusion. Perception of individuals of groups as outside

the boundary within which you apply moral values and rules of
fairness.

3.1 TEACHING MORAL INCLUSION

Those outside our "circle of moral concern" should be
regarded as deserving of our concerns of favors

3.2 MODELLING PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOR

If we see or read about someone helping, we are more likely
to offer assistance
HOW CAN WE INCREASE HELPING

3.3 LEARNING BY DOING

Children and adults learn by doing
Attitudes follow behavior

3.4 ATTRIBUTING HELPING BEHAVIOR TO ALTRUISM

1. Overjustification effect
2. Unanticipated compliment
3. Tentative positive commitment

What to do when you need help

Get attention of a specific person;
make eye contact; and
make it clear through words that you need help