GROUP 4

A. ANCIENT TIME

• HEALTH

Invention:
1. Antibiotics (Invented in 1907)

The era of Antibiotics began with the synthesis of Salvarsan (now called
Arsphenamine) by Alfred Bertheim and Paul Ehrlich in 1907. The drug was used as
the first effective treatment for syphilis, marking the start of antibacterial treatment. In
1928 Alexander Fleming noted the antibacterial effect the fungus Penicillium caused
(killing bacteria in a Petri dish), marking the beginnings of Penicillin. Antibiotics started
being popularly used only after 1945 when bulk production methods for manufacturing
Penicillin became available.

Discovery:
2. X-ray
Diagnosing and treating injuries would be incredibly difficult without an X-ray machine
that is until German physicist Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen discovered the X- ray

At the time, it was so miraculous that many people didn’t believe the initial reports. In
fact, a New York Times journalist sarcastically referred to it as an "alleged discovery
of how to photograph the invisible." Today X-ray is a powerful imaging technique we
see used in many medical examinations, treatment and during surgery. CT, radiation
therapy and fluoroscopy are all based on X-rays.

• AESTHETICS
The definition of aesthetics is the perception of beauty, art, or design. The term aesthetics is derived from the
Greek word "aisthetikos," which means a perception of the senses.

Invention:
Eye makeup
Ancient Egyptians knew all about the power of a smoky eye. Way back in 4000 B.C.,
they started making kohl to line their eyes by mixing soot with galena, a mineral with
a metallic bluish, gray or black hue. In some ancient paintings, Egyptians are depicted
wearing green eye makeup, a shade they achieved by mixing another mineral, malachite,
with the galena. Both women and men wore kohl eye makeup in ancient Egypt. They
believed it had healing properties, as well as the power to protect the wearer from the
evil eye.

Discovery:
Pigments 400,000 BC
Cave Paintings in Zimbabwe
Naturally occurring pigments such as ochres and iron oxides have been used as
colorants since prehistoric times. Archaeologists have uncovered evidence that early
humans used paint for aesthetic purposes. Pigments and paint grinding equipment believed
to be between 350,000 and 400,000 years old have been reported in a cave at Twin Rivers,
near Lusaka, Zambia. Most of the pigments in use were earth and mineral pigments, or
pigments of biological origin. Pigments from unusual sources such as botanical materials,
animal waste, insects, and mollusks were harvested and traded over long distances. Some
colors were costly or impossible to mix with the range of pigments that were available.
Blue and purple came to be associated with royalty because of their expense.
 • ANCIENT ENGINEERING

Inventions:
1. Concreter
Concrete came to be with the invention of cement back in 3000 BC in ancient
Egypt. Ancient Greeks and Romans also used a form of concrete made from aluminum
and silica mixtures. These early inventions lead to the creation of Portland cement in
1824 by Joseph Aspdin.

2. Watt Steam Engine

Watt steam engine, steam engine invented by Scottish engineer James Watt in
1769. The Watt steam engine is considered the first truly efficient steam engine, as it
solved the problem of energy wastage by a separate condenser.

Discoveries:
1. Nilometer
A nilometer was used to predict flood levels. This instrument was a method of marking
the height of the Nile over the years. Nilometers were spaced along the Nile River. They
acted as an early warning system, alerting these early people that waters were not
as high as usual, so they could prepare for drought or for unusually high floodwaters.

2. Shadoof
Shadoof, also spelled Shaduf, is a hand-operated device for lifting water. The shadoof
was a long tool on a seesaw type of bottom, with a weight on one end and a bucket on
the other. The bucket could be lowered into the canal and filled with water. Then, the
bucket could be rotated around to the area in need of water. The ancient Egyptians
used it to help move water from the canal to the fields.

• ANCIENT ARCHITECTURE
Ancient architecture refers to the architectural styles and structures that were built by various civilizations in the past.
These architectural designs and techniques have played a crucial role in shaping the history and culture of different
societies.

Discoveries:
1. Angkor Wat
Angkor Wat, Cambodia Angkor Wat is a massive temple complex located in Siem
Reap, Cambodia. It was built in the 12th century by King Suryavarman II and is
considered one of the most impressive architectural achievements of the Khmer
Empire. Angkor Wat was originally constructed as a Hindu temple dedicated to
the god Vishnu, and later it became a Buddhist temple.

2. Machu Picchu
Machu Picchu, Peru Machu Picchu is an ancient Incan citadel located in the
Andes Mountains of Peru. It was built in the 15th century during the height of the
Incan Empire. The architecture of Machu Picchu is characterized by precisely cut
stones that fit together without the use of mortar.
Inventions:
1. Arch and Vault Construction
The ancient Romans are particularly known for their mastery of arch and vault
construction. They developed techniques to create elaborate structures like aqueducts,
bridges, and monumental buildings. The Roman arches enabled the construction of large,
open spaces like the Colosseum and the Baths of Caracalla.

2. Concrete and Mortar Formulations

The ancient Romans are also credited with the invention and refinement of concrete
and mortar formulations. Concrete is a composite material made from aggregate (usually
gravel or sand), binder (cement or lime), and water. The Romans used a type of volcanic
ash called pozzolana as a binder, which reacted with water to create a strong and durable
material.

B. MODERN AGES/ INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

Industrial Revolution (1760-1840)
Inventions:
1. Spinning Jenny
Spinning Jenny is an invention created by the Carpenter and weaver James
Hargreaves during the industrial revolution around 1764 (Bellis, 2021) Compared
to a normal spinning wheel which can only spin and weave one spindle of yarn per
person, a spinning jenny could spin up to 8 or more spindles depending on the size
but it was originally made to spin 8 spindles.

2. Steam Engine
The steam engine had been one of the most critical innovations in the Industrial
Revolution. A steam engine's heat source operates mechanical devices using steam
as its working fluid. In the steam engine, a piston must be pushed back and forth from
one cylinder to another by the force generated by thermal pressure. It is possible to
convert that thrust force into rotational energy for your work by connecting rods and
cranks. Without worrying about the less frequent presence of waterways, steam
engines made it easier to operate, live, sell, market, specialize, and viably expand.

Discoveries:
1. Coal as a source of energy
Coal has always been used for cooking, smelting ores and for heating up and
warming places in a cold environment as well as other industrial uses such as brick
and ceramics making. That is until the industrial revolution in which the invention
of steam engines in the industrial revolution helped discover coal’s potential
as an energy source. (O’Rourke, 2022).

2. Horsepower
The origin of the term horsepower dates back to the 18th century. Horses had
been the primary means of working and were similar to modern tractors in terms
of their use. At this time, an engineer called James Watt was trying to find a way
of selling his steam engine. Watt has devised a test for measuring the amount of
work that can be done by means of a mine pony. Watt found that the mine pony
could perform around 22,000 pound-feet of work in a minute. After a few
calculations, he decided that the full-sized horse would be capable of performing
around 33,000 pound feet of work, which led him to call it horsepower.
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