BSPH101

CE/ME/CSE/IT

Dr. Nripati Chakravortty

Associate Professor and HoD
Department of Physics, JGEC

January 3, 2022

1 Lecture I
The dipole moment of a neutral system of N point charges is:
p~ = ΣN
i=1 qi r
~i . (1)
Problem 1: Charges −q, −q and 2q are at the vertices of an equilateral triangle of edge
a. Find the diploe moment of the system.

Figure 1
q
From the Fig. 1.: p = p02 + p02 + 2p02 cos( π3 )
or √
p = 3p0 , where p0 = qa.

Task: Find the dipole moment of the system using formula given in Eq. 1.

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 Problem 2: Four point charges are located as Q(0, 0), −Q(1, 0), 2Q(1, 1) and
−2Q(0, 1), where charges are in Coulomb and positions are in meter. Find the diploe
moment of the system.

Soultion: p~ = Q(î.0 + ĵ.0) + (−Q)(î.1 + ĵ.0) + 2Q(î.1 + ĵ.1) + (−2Q)(î.0 + ĵ.1)

or
p~ = −Qî + 2Qî = Qî

Hence: |~
p| = Q Cm and direction is along +ve X-axis.

Task: Prove that p~ = Σqi r~i is independent of the choice of the origin of the co-
ordinate system.

Gauss Law of electrostatics:

It states that the total electric flux emerging from a closed surface containing N
point charges Q1 , Q2 , ...., QN is:

Z Z
ΦE = ~ S
D.d ~ = ΣN Qi (2)
i=1
S
~ = K0 E.
where D ~ [D
~ is the electric displacement vector.]

Considering the units of both sides D is also charge density (i.e. charge/unit area,
Cm−2 ).

K is the dielectric constant of the medium and

0 is the permittivity of vacuum (= 8.854 × 10−12 F m−1 ).

Polarization:

Let us consider a capacitor with a dielectric material of dielectric constant K.

Now let us suppose a cavity cut inside the dielectric material, of sides dx, dy and dz.

Outside the cavity the flux density is Do and that inside is Di .

As per Gauss law a change in the flux density occurs if the surface contains an elec-
tric charge.

The infinitesimal charges −(Do − Di )dydz on the left surface of the cavity and
+(Do − Di )dydz on the right surface of the cavity constitute an electric diploe.

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 D0 D0

Di
dz
dy
dx

D0 D0
-(D0 - Di)dydz

Di

+(D0 - Di)dydz

Figure 2

The dipole moment of the cavity is (Do − Di )dydzdx.

The dipole moment/ unit volume is known as polarization.

(D~o − D
~ i )dydzdx
P~ = ~o − D
=D ~i (3)
dydzdx
~ o = K0 E
Now, D ~ and D
~ i = 0 E.
~

So

P~ = 0 (K − 1)E
~ (4)
Also

~ = 0 E
D ~ + P~ (5)
[D is the flux density in the dielectric material. In this case D = Do ].

Electronic polarization:

Let us consider an atomic model with nucleus of charge +Ze. The electrons of total
charge −Ze move in different close orbits.

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 Now the radius of the nucleus is ∼ 10−15 m (1 fm)

and the radius of the atom is ∼ 10−10 m.

+Ze

E E

x
+Ze -Ze +Ze
a

Figure 3

Thus we can assume the nucleus as point charge +Ze and the electrons distributed
homogeneously throughout a sphere of radius a (of the order Å.)

Prior to the application of the external electric field E, the centre of the nucleus and
the centre of the electron-cloud coincide; but when an external field is applied the centre
of the electron-cloud drifts opposite to the electric field and that of the nucleus along
the field. Let the shift between the two centre be x.

Now the force on the nucleus due to the electric field is ZeE.

Again the force on the nucleus due to the electrons (within the sphere of radius x)
is:

1 Zex3 /a3
4π0 x2
.Ze.

At equilibirium:
1
ZeE = Zex.Ze (6)
4π0 a3

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 or

E
x = (4π0 a3 ) (7)
Ze
So, due the application of te external field E, the atom carries an electric diploe
moment:

p = Zex = 4π0 a3 E (8)

or

p = αE, (9)
where α(= 4π0 a3 ) is called the polarizability.

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2 Lecture II
We know that the potential at a point P (r, θ) due to an electric dipole of moment p is:

1 pcosθ
V (r, θ) = (10)
4π0 r2
Hence the radial component of electric field (Er ) is:

∂V 1 2pcosθ
Er = − = (11)
∂r 4π0 r3
and the tangential component of electric field (Eθ ) is:

1 ∂V 1 psinθ
Eθ = − = (12)
r ∂θ 4π0 r3
So,
q 1 pp
E= Er2 + Eθ2 = 1 + 3cos2 θ (13)
4π0 r3
Hence the electric field on an axial point (Eaxial ) is:
2p
Eaxial = (14)
4π0 r3
Clausius-Mosotti relation:

Let us consider a linear atomic arrangement with inter atomic seperation 0 a0 [See
Fig. 4].

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...............

a A

Figure 4

Thus field induced at the atomic site A due to all the dipoles on both sides of it is:
1 p 1.2p
2× Σ∞
n=1 3
= (15)
2π0 (na) π0 a3
[Here we have used Σ∞ 1
n=1 n3 = 1.2]
Therefore the net electric field experienced by the atom A is:

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 1.2p
Ei = E + (16)
π0 a3
Ei is called the internal field (also known as Lorentz field) in the dielectric.

Fo a 3-dimensional solid we write:

γP
Ei = E + (17)
0
Where γ is known as internal field constant and P is the polarization.

Now for isotropic dielectrics γ ' 13 .

Hence

P
Ei = E + (18)
30
Let us consider a dielectric material having N atoms/m3 with polarizability α. So,
dipole moment/ unit volume i.e. polarization is:

P = N αEi

P
or, 0 (K − 1)E = N α(E + 30 ) | [As P = 0 (K − 1)E]

K−1
or, 0 (K − 1)E = N α(1 + 3 )E
or,

K −1 Nα
= (19)
K +2 30
Eq. 19 is known as Clausius-Mosotti relation. Thus experimentlly determining
the macroscopic dielectric constant K we can find the polarizability α.

Problem I:
An atom having polarizability 10−40 Fm2 is at distance of 10Å from a proton. Calculate
the dipole moment induced in the atom.

Soln.:
1 e 1.6×10−19
Here, E = 4π0 r2 = 9 × 109 × (10×10−10 )2

or, E = 1.44 × 109 NC−−1

Hence, p = αE = 10−40 × 1.44 × 109 = 1.44 × 10−31 Cm.

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 Frequency dependence of polarizability:

Let us suppose an alternating voltage is applied to a dielectric material. During

the +ve half cycle the centre of mass of the electron cloud (at the atomic level) shifts
toward the left then in the −ve half cycle it will shift toward the right; i.e. the motion
of the electron cloud will be osscilatory. But the osscilation will be damped due to
elctromagnetic radiation. The equation of motion of the electron cloud will be:

d2 x dx
M = −sx − K − ZeE0 cosωt (20)
dt2 dt
where, M is the mass of the electron cloud.
1st term on right hand side is the restoring force.
2nd term on right hand side is the electromagnetic damping force.
3rd term on right hand side is electric force on the electron cloud due to applied electric
field E0 cosωt.

or,

d2 x dx Ze
2
+ 2b + ω02 x = − Re(E0 ejωt ) (21)
dt dt M
k
where,pb(= 2M ) is the damping constant.
ω0 (= s/M ) is the natural angular frequency.

Let us assume:
x = Re(Aejωt ) (22)
where A is in general a complex quantity.

So, from Eq. 21, we get:

Ze
  
2
Re − ω A + j2bωA + ω02 + E0 ejωt = 0 (23)
M
or,

−( Ze
M )E0
A= 2 (24)
(ω0 − ω 2 ) + j2bω
Therefore, the induced dipole moment is:
2 2
( ZMe )E0 ejωt
 
p = −Zex = Re (25)
(ω02 − ω 2 ) + j2bω
But, dipole moment = polarizability × electric field.

So, we see that under the application of an alternating electric field the polarizability
becomes a complex quantity, i.e.

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 Z 2 e2 /M
α∗ = (26)
(ω02 − ω 2 ) + j2bω
or,
α∗ = α1 − jα2 (27)
where,

Z 2 e2 (ω02 − ω 2 )
α1 = (28)
M (ω02 − ω 2 )2 + 4b2 ω 2
and

Z 2 e2 2bω
α2 = 2 (29)
M (ω0 − ω 2 )2 + 4b2 ω 2
Now, since the polarizability is related to the dielectric constant K (vide Clausius-
Mosotti equation) so under an alternating field it becomes a complex quantity K ∗ (=
K1 − jK2 ).

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3 Lecture III
Dielectric loss:

Let us suppose that an alternating voltage V0 cosωt is applied to a capacitor having

dielectric charecterised by dielectric constant K ∗ . Now,

dQ
i= (30)
dt

V0cosωt
A ±Q

K* d

Figure 5

As D is numerically equal to charge density so,

d(AD) dD
i= =A (31)
dt dt
 
jωt
But D = Re 0 K ∗ V0 ed

or,

0 V0
 
D= Re (K1 − jK2 )ejωt (32)
d
From Eq. 31

A0 V0
 
i= Re (K1 − jK2 )jωejωt (33)
d
or,
A0 V0 ω
 
i= K2 cosωt − K1 sinωt (34)
d
[ejωt = cosωt + jsinωt]
So average power dissipated in the dielecrtric material is:

A0 ωV02
Z T Z T
1 1
 
H= iV dt = K2 cosωt − K1 sinωt cosωtdt (35)
T 0 T 0 d
[V = V0 csωt]

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 or,

A0 K2 ωV02
H= (36)
2d
So, the amount of energy absorbed by the dielectric material /sec/unit volume is:

0 K2 ωE02
H= (37)
2
where, V0 = E0 d and V = Ad is the volume of the dielectric material.
This absorbed energy will be manifested in the form of heat produced in the dielectric
material. This is known as dielectric loss. The loss increases as K2 (the imaginary
part of the dielectric constant) increases.

Eq. 38 can be written as:

A0 V0 ω A0 K2 ωV0 A0 K1 ωV0
 
i= K2 cosωt − K1 sinωt = cosωt + cos(ωt + π/2) (38)
d d d

1st term on the right hand side indicates current through the resistive element.
2nd term on the right hand side indicates current through the capacitive element.

Thus a lossy capacitor is represented by a parallel R − C cobination [see

Fig. 6].

R C

Figure 6

where
1 A0 K2 ω
= (39)
R d
or

d
R= (40)
A0 K2 ω
and
A0 K1 ω
ωC = (41)
d

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or
0 K1 A
C= (42)
d
iR K2
tanδ = = (43)
iC K1
tanδ is known as the loss-tangent. As K2 (the imaginary part of the dilectric
constant) increases the dielectric loss also increases. Thus the physical significance of
K2 is that it indicates the absorption of energy in the dielectric material.

iC i
δ
iR

Figure 7

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