S22 labs UNIT-I Theory of Vibrations : Introduction — Elements of vibratory system — Degrees of freedom — Continuous system — Lumped mass idealization — Oscillatory motion — Simple harmonic motion ~ Vectorial representation of S.H.M. - Free vibrations of single degree of freedom system — Undamped and damped vibrations — Critical damping — Logarithmic decrement — Forced vibration of SDOF systems — Harmonic excitation — Dynamic magnification factor — Phase angle — Bandwidth. UNIT-II Introduction to Structural Dynamics : Fundamental objectives of dynamic analysis - Types of prescribed loading — Methods of discretization — Formulation of equations of motion by different methods — Direct equilibration using Newton's law of motion / D'Alembert's principle, Principle of virtual work and Hamilton principle. Single Degree of Freedom:Systems : Formulation and solution of the equation of motion — Free vibration response — Response to harmonic, Periodic, Impulsive and general dynamic loadings — Duhamel integral. UNIT-IIL Multi Degree of Freedom Systems : Selection of the degrees of freedom — Evaluation of structural property matrices — Formulation of the MDOF equations of motion - Undamped free vibrations — Solutions of Eigen value problem for natural frequencies and mode shapes — Analysis of dynamic response — Normal co-ordinates ~ Uncoupled equations of motion — Orthogonal properties of normal modes ~ Mode superposition procedure. UNIT-IV Practical Vibration Analysis : Introduction — Stodola method — Fundamental mode analysis — Analysis of second and higher modes — Holzer method — Basic procedure. UNIT-V .quake Analysis : Introduction ~ Excitation by rigid base translation ~ Lumped mass Introduction to Earth 1.8. Code methods of analysis for obtaining response of multi storeyed approach — SDOF and MDOF systems buildings.aE THEORY OF: VIBRATIONS SIA GROUP “1 INTRODUCTION - ELEMENTS OF VIBRATORY SYSTEM - DEGREES OF FREEDOM- —* uous SYSTEM —LUMPED MASS IDEALIZATION - OSCILLATORY MOTION ~ SIMPLE ___, HARMONIC MOTION - VECTORIAL REPRESENTATION OF SHM Q1. Write short notes on theory of vibrations. Answer: Model Papert, ara) ‘Theory of Vibrations ‘Vibrations are the properties of elastic bodies observed when any force is applied on them. The basic examples of vibrations @ —Atuning fork struck with ahammer. —~ GA spring subjected to a load (and removed). ‘There are two types of vibralions based on application of load, © Freevibrations __ Gi) Forced vibrations. _— @ Free Vibrations Ifa body is subjected to any force and it starts vibrating even after the removal of that force) the body is said to be urider free vibration, feqeney nd poof virion ner ate ae ows a jency and natural time period,) Gi) Forced Vibration ae nea av If. body is set in vibration by an extemal peiodic force (which is consmwously acting on it) it is said tobe under forced vibrations. In this case, the frequency and period of vibration are generally equal to the frequency and period of applied force. The force vibrations stop when the periodic foree is removed. ‘The vibrations of any stature can be damped or undampd: Damped vibration are the vibrations which gets ceased afer certain amount of time due to some imaginary instruments called damy Q2. What are the basic elements of a vibratory system? cle Tage L ---ahile elements of vibratory system are, Inertial elements" 5 Restoring elements <>” ‘Damping elements. ~~ Inertial Elements _— “These clements are used to indicate the lumped masses for rectilinear motion and lumped moment of inertia for angular motion. Restoring Elements “These elements are used to indicate the mass less linear or torsional springs for rectilinear and torsional motions ‘Damping Elements ‘These elements are used for dissipation of energy in the system. _—~1.2 STRUCTURAL Dyna) . j For a spring mass vibrating system, the spring is assumed to be massless only when its mas is of less quant, comparison to suspended mass shown in figure 1(a). Likewise, if a beam consists of mass ‘m’ which is negligible as compar, lo the end mass then itis possible to have lamping inthe system shown in figure 1(b) Fora distributed beam, mass contains in eguy quantity hence lumping is not posible in this ease as shown in figure 1(¢). Mics Masts ‘Spring 4a, Mates Bean eae Set o © ‘ @® Figuro (1) Q3. "Define degree of freedom of any section. Give an example. Answer: Degree of Freedom. Itis defined as “the number of independent displacements that are required to specify the position of any system at any {ime after ithas been displaced from its ofiginal position. Tarn = 7 A reine system (SDOF) require a single displacement to define the position of system with respect to its original position si ingle degree of freedom systems commonly defined with the help of a model shown ‘elon nay ee e) i‘ Sete eS} Figure jon It consist of the following elements, A @ Mass ‘The mass clement represents the mas of the sytem and is responsible forthe ina fore formation @) Spring” OAR ) ‘The spring’ (cogent represents the elastic restoring force and is considered to store potential energy of the system. a, Damper ‘The damping elemeny{Dash pot) represents the frictional resistance and energy dissipation characteristics of the system. s) Exciting Force ‘The excitation force (Fl) represents the external forces (time dependent or Q4. Give the relationship between force and displacement. Answer: Relationship Between Force and Displacement Consider a single degree of freedom system shown in figure below, independent) acting on the system. = a Figure Look for the SIA GROUP LOGO {fon the TITLE COVER before you buyUNIT-1 Theory of Vibrations 1.3 I _____________ Itis subjected to a static force (F) along the Direction Of Displacement (DOD). Let ‘y’ be the displacement of structure due to this force. This displacement is resisted by an equal and opposite force '’. The relationship between the applied force and the deflection of the structure is linear for small deformations. However, when large deflection occurs, the force displacement graph become non-linear. ‘The relationship between applied force ‘F” and resulting deformation ‘y’ for small deformation is given by, Feky Sa RA) k ostttoy Craken 5) 1 Ky Where, K= stiffness (lateral in kN/m. [eekal Q5. Explain briefly about lumped mass and continuous mass systems. Answer: Model Paper.i, a2 Lumped Mass Systems ‘Systems in which the distributed mass is lumped at the nodal coordinates (defining the translational displacements) are oy ize mie ss i bi pose lie i. dante to total mass of any element to its nodes. The * fegree of freedom at thé nodes is assumed to be zero in lumped mass systems. Consider a cantilever beam as shown in figure below, ‘The beam is divided into three segments having 3 nodes. Each node camry2" (2" degrees of freedom (one rotational and one translational). The lumped mass matrix ofthis beam is diagonal matrix (with rotational degree of freedoms neglected) given a8 follows, m0 000 oooo00 0 0m 00 ' = Ps*19 0-00 0 (i. Le ~@ 0 0 0 0 ms GY ooo0o0o0 1 r 4 Where, ake “c1.4 STRUCTURAL DYNAN > Continuous Mass Systems or Consistent Mass Systems iti i ic displacements (accelerati Tin this type of systems, itis assumed that the deflections caused by unit dynamic displace’ si coordinates of ey elonent ae given by te shape functions ofthe element. These systems consider both the translations rotational degrees of freedom for obtaining the mass matrix. The coefficients “m,” of the matrix are known as consistent ng coefficients and are obtained from the following expressions (for beam only). L age freomeon oar > Where, imi(x) = Distributed mass N(x) = Shape function at node i 'N(2) = Shape function at node j L =Length of beams. However, dynamic analysis of system using a consistent mass matrix involves large computations and hence lumped mas ‘matrix are preferred. Q6. Define the terms oscillatory motion and simple Harmonic motion. Give the vector representation of S.HM. Answer: Sad pee Crepe ded ly Mode! Paper, ce baby woe © Oscillatory Motion dena bok) ‘When a body moves to and fro (repeatedly) about a mean position, then it is said to be i o oscilla motion) ‘Time Period (1): Time period is defined as the time taken by a particle to complete one oscillation. aes ae Time period, T= 2 ay a 3 a el Oe Sa hoes aor at oy ‘Armplitide (A): Amplitide defined the msxjmom displagement ofthe pail on either sides ofthe man positon. = displ ee an z _Pomplade{A)=Masimun displcement,) ae Capel @\ so oon Ar splace cok] Gi). “Frequency (v): Frequency is defined as the number of peri ry o™ Ae Noda x of I Ut es Gv) Phase (or) Phase Angle (8): Phase ofa particle at any instant is defi . : pier eet alirn abt ing asthe state or condition with espect = : Lene ee ae’ Phase (op Phaeangle,0=ar=24(F) oo)” Qe TSA A\e Vector RepresentationofSHM ce Consider a particle ‘P” moving in a circular path about the center ‘0. i The rotati yvement of cle is said 10% in S.H.M ic., the particle completes one rotation in given time and repeats ty eee ie Movement in equal intervals of time. f ‘The vector representation is shown in the figure below. Look for the SIA GROUP Logo Qf onthe TITLE COVER bolore you buyIT-1, Theory of Vibrations, “od Figure: Vector Representation of S.4.M +2 FREE VIBRATIONS OF SINGLE DEGREE OF FREEDOM SYSTEM - UNDAMPED AND DAMPED. VIBRATIONS - CRITICAL DAMPING - LOGARITHMIC DECREMENT - FORCED VIBRATION OF ‘DOF SYSTEMS - HARMONIC EXCITATION - DYNAMIC MAGNIFICATION FACTOR - PHASE s ANGLE - BANDWIDTH Q7. What do you understand by damping? Explain. Answer: 9 kcabit Model Papecll, Q1(a) be eh Sheek, del Paper Damping ‘The process due to which the free vibration steadily diminishes in amplitude is known as damping) The structure that vibrates can be simulated with the help of tuning fork. The structures are not in resonance with the purity of the tuning fork due todamping. ‘The extent of damping depends on the following factors, (@) Construction type. (©) Material used for construction. (© _ Existence of non-structural elements.. — It is measured in terms of percentages of critical damping. The critical damping is the minimum damping required for preventing oscillation. The energy of the vibrating system in damping is dissipated by different mechanisms, Q8. Write the equations for underdamped system. Answer: ae *) ‘Underdamped System AAsystem is sad t be underdamped, ifthe damping coefficients less than the critical damping value. ie, (c in \ 2m. om © Where, Also, @)=0i—E a9 . = On solving equations (6) and (7), the expression for undamped natural frequency () is obtained as, e i -(8) “EH ramping coefficient Cq-= Coefficient of critical damping ‘On substitution of initial conditions of velocity (V) and displacement (u), the general equation is transformed into, Vo + Ugo 4 ure >[senoy 222882 oy] : @, ers KW ee BE > eu cota yh tt gone Th Me —O 1¢ above expression can also be written as, pyre wy a UG) = Ce cos(yt <2) Where, x eS ue 2 a) wk Cm Jug + Mo tuobo” a o's © t |v ae tant { Yotob@ v And o-=tanrt (“esse ‘The response of an under damped system when graphically represented under several records starting with zero velocity ) and initial displacement wu. This can be clearly seen from figure (1), Wo Ttundergoes oscillatory motion and the amplitude of vibration does not remain constant during motion and gets decreased for successive intervals. It occurs at equal intervals of time. Look for the SIA GROUP LOGO QBion the TITLE COVER before you buy. JNIT-1 Theory of Vibrations 1.7 De “The time interval for damped period of vibration is given as, Figure: Free-vibration Response for Undamped System In real structures, the value of damping coefficient is to 10% less than critical damping value, ‘On substitution of extreme value =0.10 in equation (7), we get, ©, =09950 In general, the natural damped frequency system may be taken to be equal to undamped frequency. _ Q9. Write the equations for critically damped system. Answer: Critically Damped System Critical damping can be defined as the minimum damping for which no sellin ooo) A system is said to be critically damped ony if damping coeficient is equal trial damping vale") Model Paper-il, 03 ie, [e 2G a \ Ch c2¢ leg \ ~ fae ave + ‘This exists only in the case when system acts as a damped oscillating system. ‘We know that the roots of the characteristic equation for a system is give ere ~@ -@) Foracritically damped system, the expressi ‘And hence, the equation formed is, ~@) > 4) SIA GROUP QEi STRUCTURAL DYNAMic, I Where, E ¢,,=Critical damping value. We know that, the undamped natural frequency of the system is given by «= ,—~ and hence, equation (4) can expressed alternatively as, o, extes Senge me kw Gq = 2m es “S Conn? ae iz @) at 6 ‘The oot’ ofthe characteristic equation ina critically damped system are equal and hence the equation is given as, — pot a As the two roots are being equal, the general solution has only one independent constant of integration i.e., = GerPar ~@) By using the function, another independent solution is given by the equation as, 4O=C, tu = Cyt elmer Gt (9) Equation (9) satisfies the equation ic., mii + cia +ku =O Where, ii - First derivative want i - Second derivative wart ¥Hence, the general solution can be obtained by superposition ofthese two solutions and is given a, UO) = (CFC). oP? Q10. Write short notes on overdamped system. Answe: | OverDamped system ‘A system is'said to be over damped if the damping coefficient is greater than critical denping val ( In over damped system, the expression under the radical is Positive. us aa “ich re epee as, J ars ftp ss Kge 2m ™ “oF 1) | Look for the SIA GROUP LOGO {i onthe TITLE coven before you buy Hence, the roots of the characteristic equation are real and distinct,1, Theory of Vibrations fey _e ® 2° dm \\2m) m 7 ‘The general solution of the sum of forces that gives the differential equation of motion in ‘u’ direction, ie.. mii + cu +hu =O and hence, the genefal solution can be obtained directly which is given as, u(o) Get + Cae! 0) ‘The resultant motion obtained is not oscillatory in case of both overdamped and critically damped system. ‘The magnitude of oscillations delays exponentially with time and reduces to zero value. ‘The following figure (1) which is graphically represented below gives the responses of critical damping for a simple oscillators system. uo) Figure: Free-vibration w.r.t Critical Dampi But, a the damping gets increased, it needs more time to get back again towards the neutral position. Q11. What are the different types of damping mechanisms of structures? Explain each one briefly. Answer: “The different types of damping mechanisms of structures under earthquake disturbances are as follows, 1. External viscous damping 4 i 2 Body friction damping (coulomb damping) exten (@)_Intemal viscous damping (©) Hysteresis damping | 3. Radiation damping. 1 External Viscous Damping ~~ ‘When the structure is surrounded by either air or water, then external viscous damping is caused. Due to low viscosity of air or water, extemal viscous damping has less importance when compared to the other kinds of damping. 2. Body Friction Damping (Coulomb Damping) ~ Body friction damping is caused due to friction at connections or support points. It is constant irrespective of the velocity or amount of displacement. When the displacement level is high, it is considered as hysteresis damping and when the displacement level is small, itis considered as internal viscous damping. (@) Internal Viscous Damping (Material Damping) Internal viscous damping is related to material viscosity. When the damping ratio increases, then the natural frequency ‘also increases. Internal viscous damping is directly proportional to velocity. (b) Hysteresis Damping When the structure is exposed to load reversals in the elastic range, hysteresis damping is caused. The hysteresis damping is usually substituted with equivalent viscous damping. yleaous. aaa STRUCTURAL DYNAMics | 3. “Radiation Damping (Material Damping or Internal Viscous Damping) |When the radiation damping increases, then the natural frequency of the structure also increases, Itis generally used | aeasure loss of energy from the structure through radiation of waves away from footing which is purely a geometrical effect. ‘The radiation damping is large for horizontal and vertical translations, whereas small for rocking and twisting (usually neglected for practical design problems). : - @ 12. What are undamped and damped free vibrations? Explain briefly. Answer: ‘Undamped Free Vibrations In many structures the frictional or damping forces generated by the structure itself are neglected and also the motion of structure is cowsidered tobe free from any extemal foree, Such vibration of structure (with no extemal force and no damping) is known as “Undamped free vibration’ Itis also referred as simple undamped oscillator. The analytical models that represent such vibrations are shown in figures below, 7 k am 77 fem ‘The models represents the mass 'm’ whieh is restrained by spring with spring constant 'k. The equation of motion of an ‘undamped free single degree of freedom system is given by, mitkx=0 ~() Where ‘x’ represents the displacement of structure which is time dependent. Damped Free Vibrations Friction forces or damping forces which are neglected in undamped vibrations are always present in every system in state of motion. The vibrations of system which assume these forces are known as “Damped Vibrations”. In case if no external force is applied for excitation, this vibrations are called as “Damped Free Vibrations”. “The frictional forces are assumedto be proportional to the velocity of system and act opposite to the direction of motion. “The mechanical energy of the system (cither kinetic or potential) is converted into heat energy due to these forces. An analytical ‘model representing such vibrations is shown in figure below, k Wl in| amma ‘The model shows a mass ‘m' which is held in its position by a spring (spring constant = k) and a damper (damping coefficient = c). The equation of motion of damped free single degree of freedom system is given by, | EtG ‘5 Q13. Explain in detail about logarithmic decrement. : » | Answer: ~ ‘Logarithmic Decrement gk Itis defined as the natural logarithm of the ratio of any two successive peak amplitudes 1 and u, in the free vibration. ‘This i a practical method which is experimentally determined to know the damping coefficient ofa syste ing i free vibrations. ping coefficient of a system occuring inthe Iemaintains the records of oscillatory motion and itis a measure of rate of decay of amplitude of motion which is shown in the figure. Look for the SIA GROUP LOGO & on the TITLE COVER before you buy “a y"UNIT-1. Theory of Vibrations 1.11 ‘The decay is expressed by logarithmic decrement ‘8. ein S=in os on (l) mn i . Tangent poi {couegt 0) = 1 Figure Consider the graphically represented and analytically given damped vibration motion as shown in figure. ‘The damping vibration from logarithmic decrement is assessed by, \ Sooremnent tf \ H) =Ce-™ cos(apt—0) wl 2 CO Eas pt * ~-@ From the above equation itis known that the displacement ison the points of exponential curve u(t) = Ce-®™, when the cosine function is unity. 4 The points on the exponential curve are not equal to the positions of maximum displacement but they are nearer. ‘They appear slightly to the right of the points of peak (or) maximum amplitude. For practical purpose, the displacement curve at points is assumed to coincide at the peak amplitude with the curve u(t) = Ce when the cosine function is unity. ‘The equations for two consecutive peaks u, and u, at time r, and T., seconds later respectively. y= Cee Cez2ttTo) w~ ~@) Substitute equation (3) in equation (1), we get, at uy ce = b= neat cee = bein Ceti Ce TO 1 en => b=In > 800%, b=c0T, @ SIA GROUP YS‘Equation (5) can be modified for small values of damping ratio as, d ue, e i tions with ‘The logarithmic decrement can be calculated experimentally as the ratio of two consecutive peak acceleration ‘measuring the displacements. du da 7 oy Ce c0s(@yt—0)] du a TCE [eos{apt ~ a) (~-200)] -Ce-™sin (pf —0)] (p) du Fp 7CE™ [= (C0) cos(,f—a)—aysin (at-@)] o ‘Again differentiating equation (7). dui @ oa, Peo GF (COMI 20(608 1-0) — ay sin(yf a} , = Ce {[-20(c08 wp — &)— a, sin(as 0] (em) + [ete sin(wpt- ct) a3, cos(w,t—a)}} . ® Atr=f,c08 (@pf, —@) = 1 and sin(a,f,—a) =0 . @u r= CO (L-20(608 yf, ~ a) ~ ay sins, 0) 20) + [eam, sin@,s, a) -«} cos(wpt, — a)}) @u EE Co {[-e0(1) — @9(0)] (20) + [eaomn, (0)— 3, (1)]) au cue o Fe Oe (C00) Cem) + -a5) i = Ce [e*a?— =7,+Tp coslo,(T, + Tp) ~ of] = 1 and sinfo,(7,+7,)—a] =0 “O a = Co“M*T (F209 (608 Olt, + Tp) ~0]- Op sin(@,(t, +74) ~e0) (200) + [ety sin (@p(1, +7,)- 0) ~ a} cos(wt, + Tp)—c)]} Look for the SIA GROUP Loco on the TITLE COVER before you b, ju buytoh sTp) {{-€0(1) -«,(0)] 20) + [eao,(0)- 0 (1)]) = Co) (20-20) +- 3,)} T= CeremT fete ghy (10) ‘The ratio of acceleration a r, and is, Ce (ew -@}) 5” CeO Fa? ay Ce (¢?g? -@}) © Ce a? a) xCee (a? aby (1) =In (ec) cone (12) Fromequations (4) and (12). =e, ‘This is the logarithmic decrement in terms of displacement. Q14, Define the terms, (Frequency ratio (i) Damping ratio (il) Dynamic magnification factor (Ww) Phase angle () Bandwidth. Answer: (Frequency Ratio Frequency ratio is defined as the ratio of applied loading frequency to the free-vibration frequency of the body (or , structure). tis denoted by the symbol (B) and is given by, — Applied loading frequency e el ibration frequencySTRUCTURAL DYNam, C ~Given damping ‘ a : Coy~Critical damping Q mw ‘ ©, 22m Ge a Where, ae m~ Mass ye os © ~ Free vibration frequency Er euy (for undamped system) ii) Dynamic Magnification Factor ‘Dynamic magnification actors theratio of maximum displacement (or maximum dynamic displacement) to static displacement Tecan also be defined as the ratio of resultant and response amplitude to the static displacement that would be produced in the system due to force (F,) @¥) Phase Angle ‘The angle by which the response lags behind the applied loading is defined as the phase angle. Itis given by, ote] ets Joo Where, e) © ~Damping ratio B — Frequency ratio ) Bandwidth Bandwidth is defined asthe difference between the frequencies at which the response its peak value. | Re Itis mainly used to determine the damping ratio. Yo we \o SN ft rm sept pepe any B, -Bandwidth B. e ~ Damping ratio. Look for the GROUP Loco on the TITLE Coven before you 5 uy whUNIT INTRODUCTION TO STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS AND SINGLE DEGREE OF FREEDOM SYSTEMS SIA GROUP 2.4 FUNDAMENTAL OBJECTIVES OF DYNAMIC ANALYSIS - TYPES OF PRESCRIBED LOADING - METHODS OF DISCRETIZATION - FORMULATION OF EQUATIONS OF MOTION BY DIFFERENT METHODS - DIRECT EQUILIBRATION USING NEWTONS LAW OF MOTION / D'ALEMBERT’S PRINCIPLE, PRINCIPLE‘OF VIRTUAL WORK AND HAMILTON PRINCIPLE Q1, Describe the fundamental objectives of dynamic analysis. Riser 2 Mode! Paper, Q1(0) 1. The fundamental objective of dynamic analysis is to analyze the stresses and deflections when dynamic loading is applied onit 2. In other words, Dynamic analysis is the application of structural analysis, which not only deals with static - loading but also the dynamic loading on the structure. 3. Im Dynamic analysis, the static loading on the structure is treated as special form of dynamic loading. 4, Two basic aspects of dynamic analysis differ from static analysis, Firstly the dynamic loads are applied as a function of time or frequency. Then the time or frequency-varying load application induces time or frequency-varying responses such as displacement, acceleration, velocities, force and stresses. 5. The time or frequency-varying characteristics make dynamic analysis more complicated and more realistic than statie analysis. 6. To Evaluate the structural response based on the distribution of load and time variation, the following approaches are” apts tt available. @ peers se. (@) Deterministic peta sl & (b) Non-deterministic. @eor 7. When the variation of loading can be defined as a funtion of time, then itis treated as prescribed dynamic, loading and the analysis of resulting responses of the structure is known as a deterministic analysis. 8. «When the variation of loading is not defined then the loading is treated'as random dynamic loading and analysis of the resulting responses of the systems is known as a non-deterministic analysis. 2. Describe briefly about prescribed dynamic loading. What are its types? Explain. Answer t 2 Preseribed dynamic loading is regularly varying loading in which well-defined cycles of loading are repeated after equal intervals of time. Example of prescribed loading is regular vibration of machinery with a certain amplitude and frequency. Prescribed or deterministic loadings are divided into two types. 1. Periodic loading 2. Non-periodic loading. 1. Periodic Loading Periodic loading occurs in well-defined cycles and at ‘equal intervals. It is divided into 2 types based on ve like characteristic of unbalanced-mass effects, hydrostatic pressure and inertial force.2.2 Type of Loading Example (a) _| Simple harmonic ‘Unbalanced rotating machine in building] (b) | Complex * | Rotating propeller at stern of ship 2. Nonm-periodie Loading STRUCTURAL DYNAM, ur » te 20 ‘0 a 2 ‘Non-periodic loading results in the impulsive loading within the short-period or general form of loads in Jong duratcy ‘Type of Loading Example : @ | Impulsive Bomb blast pressure on building s (®) | Long-duration Earthquake on water tank | a Q3. Explain in detail about the methods of discretization. Answer £ Modet Peper 2. Methods of Diseretization 1, Lumped-Mass Method The analysis of dynamic structure has become a complex task because of the fact that structural time-dependd displacements are influenced by the magnitude of inertial forces. This process isa closed system and oyclic in nature. In ord" analyse this problem, partial differential equations are formulated by assuming length of span and time as independent variablS ‘When the mass of beam is distributed all along the span length then displacements and accelerations are calculate! each point on the axis as inertial forces are developed for total span. Where as, when the mass of beam is concentrated at diso™® points then inertial forces are developed at those mass points only where the dispfacement and accelerations are to be calcul ‘The numberof displacement components developed to define the effec of inertial fees of «structure is known a “Number of dynamic degrees of freedom’ (D.0.F) of respective structure. p(t) A a A Fe amptenta Whar Sng oy 5s Look for the SIA GROUP Loco i on the TITLE COVER before you buyUNIT-2. Introduction to Structural Dynamics and Single Degree of Freedom Systems Th the above figure, three masses are fully concentrated and constrained in vertical direction. Hence, itis called as athree degre of freedom system. In case where the masses are not fully concentrated, additional 3 points of rotational displacements are tobe considered for rotational inertial forces. Thus, it becomes 16 degrees of freedom system. 2. Generalized Displacements Method When the mass of system is uniformly distributed all over the system, generalized displacements method of discretization is adopted. In this method, itis assurned that the deflected shape of the structure is the summation ofa series of specified displacement patterns, which are further converted {nto displacement coordinates of the structure. For example, consider the trigonometric-series representation of the deflection of a simple beam as shown in the figure. wha + fe whe na Figure : Sine-series Represontation of a Simple Beam Deflection ‘The deflection shape is the sum of series of various independent sine-waves i.e., 4 He) = ¥ besin ‘Similarly, any arbitrary shape with respective support donditions can be expressed in terms of infinite series of ye-wave components where the amplitudes represent the displacement coordinates of system and degrees of freedom are represented by number of terms in the series. For any displacement functions, the shape of structure generally depends on the amplitude, Z, which are ‘termed as generalized ‘coordinates. v= L2,(¥) (x) ‘This method Of discretization is more preferable than lumped mass concept in accuracy point of view for carrying out the dynamic analysis of the structure. 3. Finite-Element Method ‘This method is a combination of both the lumped-mass and the generalized-coordinate methods. It provides basis for finite-element method of analysis of dynamic structure and is operative in digital-computer analysis. The finite-element concept of analysis is applicabl to any structure. For example, consider a beam as shown in the figure which is divided in appropriate number of arbitrary segments. The ends ofthese segments are joined at nodal points and the displacements of these nodal points are considered as the generalized coordinates of structure. The deflection shape of the structure is defined in terms of generalized coordinates which are a set of prescribed displacement functions. As they define the shapes developed by specified nodal displacements, the displacement functions are called interpolation functions. In the above figure, the interpolation functions are produced for two degrees of freedom ‘of 3" nodal point. Each interpolation function is a curve which is internally continuous and satisfying the geometric displacement function at nodes. Q4. Describe about direct equilibration using DAlembert's principle. ‘Answer : The Basic objective of a prescribed ar deterministic structural dynamic analysis is the estimation of the displacement with duration when itis subjected to the time-varying load of a given structure: Mathematical expressions are used to find the dynamic displacement, It is known as the “equations of motion ofthe dynamic structure” and the solution of these equations of ‘motion resulting in the necessiate displacement time-histories. ‘The expression of equations.of motion of a dynamic system is an important stage of the entire analysis. Direct Equilibration Using D’Alembert’s Principle By using Newton’s second law of motion, the equations of dynamic motion can be expressed. It indicates the acceleration ‘of an object produced by a net force is directly proportional to ‘the magnitude of net force, in the same direction as the net force, and inversely proportional to the mass (m) of the object. By using mathematical differential equation, it is given as, ie bd ADE, ane Where, P(T) = Applied force vector V(T) = Position vector of mass For most of the structural dynamic problems, it is assumed that mass does not change with time, SIA GROUP 2bV(1) = differentiation wert time This equation can also be written as P(ry=mV(1)=0 Where, ‘m V((T)= Inertial force resisting the acceleration of the mass In this case, acceleration is directly proportional to inertial forces produced by the mass and opposite. It is called as a D’Alembert’s principle. Q5. Explain about the principle of virtual work and Hamilton principle. Suggest the best approach to be adopted for the formulation of equations of motion. 2 Answer + Principle of Virtual Work ‘According to this principle, any system subjected to external loads, if continues to be in the state of equilibrium undergoes virtual displacements. The virtual displacements are the one that ‘are compatible with the system’s constraints. The principle also implies that the work done by al the externally applied forces will be zero, Based on ths principle, the work done by the set of forces during virtual displacements canbe defined mathematically by the conditions or statements of equilibrium. Therefore, in case of a dynamic system, the first step involved in the formulation of equations of motion or the response equations is to identify all the forces in the system including the forces of inertia. The next step isthe formulation of equations, which can be achieved by equating the work done to sero separately for each degree of freedom of the system. In brder to obtain these equations, a virtua displacement s applied to each degree of freedom. Hamilton's Principle ‘The formulation of equations of motion using the es into account, the variation in kinetic fand potential energy of the system. Therefore, the inertia and ‘clastic forces are not considered directly, as inthe case of virtual work procedure. Instead, the kinetic and potential energy terms are considered. ‘Of all the three approaches i.e., the D’Alembert’s principle, virtual work - procedure and the, Hamilton’s Principle, the best approach to be adopted majorly depends on en individuals convenience and choice. Generally, the nature of dynamic system isa factor in adopting a particular approach. ‘The D’Alemberts principle is most suitable for simple problems of structural dynamics, However, incase of complex Prevetural system consisting of a number of inter connected odies, using the D’Alembert’s principle may tend to be difficult vot tiresome and therefore, Vitual work - procedure is adopted, i main advantage of using principle of virtual-workis that the came obtained from the equations are scalar quantities that can Model Papert, Hamilton’s principle take ‘praically. Wh Peal rts pn Fe tamilton’s principle CON er quantities and appears tobe the es valations. However. it Us ‘are completely equ tion for 8 approach when it remembered that a — dt jivalent and’give the, three procedures fame equations of Mot 2.2 SINGLE DEGREE OF ranenon SYSTEMS | FORMULATION AND SOLUT IN i OF THE EQUATIO gp teen ‘VIBRATION Ri IMPULSIVE AND HARMONIC, PERIODIC: eT DYNAMIC LOADINGS — IAM GENERAL mic Lome | 6. Derive the equation of ‘motion using Newto second law of motion. ‘Answer ! Equation of Motion using Newton’s Second Law of Mot Ft m PO Figure (1) . PO) . % 5 Figure (2) f fk T u Figure (3) f fe Figure (4) Took for the SIA GROUP LOGO @¥B on the TITLE COVER before yo 1 buy.y yNIT-2_ Introduction to Structural Dynamics and Single Degree of Freedom Systems 2. The forces that act on the mass at some specific time yerval are shown in figure (2), including the external force “py the elastic or inelastic resisting force f, and the damping resisting force fj, ‘The external force is +ve in the x-axis direction. ¢ - Displacement u(s)] Velocity u(t) > + ve in the direction of x-axis. q ‘Acceleration iit) : ‘The elastic and damping forces act in the opposite direction to the applied force P(0) as they are internal forces ) resisting the deformation and velocity. t ‘Therefore, the resultant force along the x-axis is given as, P-fs-Ip ‘Thus, the Newton’s second law of motion gives, i P-f,-fy= mit or mii+fy+f,= PO =) ‘We know that, Sg= ku Ip= eu By substituting the values of f, and f, in equation (1), we get, mii + cit+ ku= PC) -Q), Equation (2) is the equation of motion representing the deformation or displacement u(t) of the idealized structure which is considered to be linearly elastic subjected to an external dynamic force PQ). Force Units of mass = 75 steration j ‘The equation of motion for inelastic system is given as, +41) = PO 7. Derive the solution for the differential equation of motion. Answer : Model Pope, 5 ‘The equation of motion is given as, mii + ku=0 ~(l) The solution of equation (1) is assumed 2s, u=4.cos of ~@ or u=Bsin ot v®) Where, A,B are constants © > Quantity representing a physical characteristic of the system. ‘Substituting equation (2) in equation (1), we get -A.o sin ot ~A.0? cos wt => m(-A 0? cos wi) + k.(A cos of) =0 (A cos wf) (— ma? +k) = 0 As A.cos ot #0, (4) known as the natural frequency of the Equation (4) system. We know that, Wa mg Ww mee g By substituting the value of m in equation (4), we get, k OF WZ /8 kg o=V Ee > W 6) Thus, 0 =| © Uy Ua i . Where, 1, isthe static displacement of the spring due to weight WV. We know that, u= A cos ot +B sin ot aa) By differentiating the equation (7), we get the expression for velocity, tas, W=-A osin ot +B © cos of By substituting r= 0, u = up and (7) and (8), we get, ~@) into equations ‘Therefore, by substituting the values of A and B in equation (7), we get, 11> uycos or + sin ot (9) @ It is the expression of the displacement u of the simple oscillator as a function of the time variable 1. SSS SIA GROUPIscuss briefly about harmonic excitation of undamped systems. - Answer : ‘Harmonic Excitation of U Fsinot Figure (1): Undamped Oscillator Excited Harmonically kA mo Figure (21: The impressed force (1) which acts on the simple oscillator is considered as harmonic and is equal to Fy sind. . FO=Fysin’oe “ey akosn® a) Where, Fy= Peak amplitude. §°° _@ = Frequency of the force in radians/second. From FBD, . . mil + ku= F, sine ~-Q) The solution of the above equation is given by the summation of complementary solution and particular solution, fe, m= 0,0 + ld ® es Where, i u,{0)= Complementary solution —~ u,{O)= Particular solution. But, Complementary solution, u,() is given as, se u,()=4 cos of + B sin ot Where, Particular solution, u,(0) is given as, uO =U sin@r (8) Where, wis the amplitude of the particular solution. STRUCTURAL DYNAN, a ( atusinws)\ -2 a) 1 @? sins) + ku sin@t = F, sin@t. m(- — mud? + ku = Fy E me RR? N-Re ‘Substituting the value oe in above equation, we ge (: elel iy ~O cu the initial conditions for the displacemett including the velocity at time ¢ — one is es “ on Then the constants o equation (7) are, *""*OFitegration that are obtained £0 4=Oand pa atFalk 1--* Look for the SIA GROUP L0G0 { on the TITLE coven Sia ; Pefore you buyUNIT-2_ Introduction to Structural Dynamies and Single Degree of Freedom Systems Substituting the values of A and B in equation (7), we get 1Fajk F UO=7 2,7 sin ort lk aay r I-r Filk UH) = 72 ine—r sino) .@) ‘The above equation represents the response for an ‘undamped system subjected to harmonic excitation, yp oO a———E—EA_E oo 9. Discuss briefly about harmonic excitation of damped system. Figure (tI: Damped Oscillator Excited Harmonically ku-—_ mi ou : <—|-Fosinat ci-—_| Figure (2): F8D In the free body diagram, the differential equation is given by the summation of all the forces. ie, mil-+cii+ ku =F, sine =) ‘We know that, ‘The complementary solution for the under damped case (e mE CHD) + ¢(:. COLG) + kCeT= Fye'D => - mCP + ieGC+kC=Fy > C- mo +iGe+KH=Fy A (k-ma? +i@e) Fre® amo Ths, Mp a +i 7 ‘The complex denominator in equation (6) can be written by using polar coordinate form, Fe™ i nia?) +(caPe® Fre@ xe® ve ee Pe —niarF + (cay Fyel-4l Ve -narf (7) a) ‘The response to the force in F, sini@r (the imaginary component of F, eG) is then the imaginary component of ‘equation (7). ‘tay; lt) 0) or = Usin @t-6) (10) Where, 5 (c-mas?} + (cay : Is the amplitude of the steady-state motion, Equations (8) and (9) can be written in terms of dimensionless ratios as, u,, sin@t-0) Wi) = (1) (12) ‘SIA GROUP {32.8 ‘Thus, the total response is obtained by combining the ‘complementary solution from equation (2) and the particular ‘Solution (steady-state response) from equation (11). u,,sin(@t—8) IF cape yi-7} + ergy Q10. Explain and derive expressions for response of a SDOF system to periodic loading. Answer: Up=e%* (Acoso, + Bina) + A periodic loading can be expressed in the form of a fourier series. Consider an arbitrary periodic loading as shown below, (Applitude) Br) (ime) kK Figure ‘The trigonometric form ofthe fourier series for the above loading is given by, y= 05+ San costint + Fon sin Get (0) Where, @e= 1 = 3 ‘The co-efficients a,. a, and b, can be evaluated using the following expressions, a=4 f yoat a = frosmad n= 123, “ b= Bf yOsindgedt n= 1.230 Response to Periodic Loading Consider an undamped SDOF system subjected to a periodic loading. The individual terms in the trigonometric form ‘of fourier series equation in the equation - (1) shown above represent harmonic loading (when each term is considered separately). Therefore, the response to this type of loading can ‘be expressed as the harmonic response of each of these terms, ‘The steady state response by the n' sine - wave harmonic of, equation (1) is given by =f 1 | (sina, dt) = # ap | (sweep ‘However, considering practically the last term in the response equation is balanced by the damping effect of the system, Therefore, in such ease the equation is reduced to, n(d a 1 ot) |i at 2) ics STRUCTURAL pw ei Similarly, the steady - state response forthe wave is given as, [After balancing or removing the term balan damping effect ofthe system] 0) py the ero the constant 084 08 | tiven by. | 4) total response From the equations (2) (3) and (4) 1 | of the system. “The steady state response dt be directly taken as the static deflection a, uo = pocosecans ‘undamped toa suddenly 3 nse of it. Explain about the resPo" single degree of freedom system applied constant force Answer Response ofan Undamped Single to a Suddenly Applied Constant Force Consider a constant force of magnitude Fy which i applied suddenly to the undamped oscillator at time f= 0s Degree of Freedom Systen ‘shown in figure (1). ‘ “ Li [ie eet 1 mmr Dania = = Figure (1k: Undampod Oscillator Acted upon by a Constant Fost Here, both initial displacement and initial velocity zero. In this condition, the equation of total displacement undamped single degree-of-freedom system with an abi load is applied. 1 a} “Al 1 a [/asaoe-va| \ a RL The integration of above equation leads _fo 7 70 = gH leosene a, * am, X Sy og Fo MO=F (1 - gost) = y,(1 coset) Look for the SIA GROUP LOGo {J} on the TITLE COVER before you bUY“The response for an undamped single degree-of- freedom em to.a suddenly applied constant force is shown in figure ). a Ya ‘—T Figure (2: Response of an Undamped Single Degree-of-reedam Systom to # Suddenly Applied Constant Force It is clear that the equation (2) is similar to that of the solution for vibration of undamped oscillator, only with a slight F difference that coordinate axis ¢ is being shifted to y,,= ee It is also observed that the maximum displacement of ‘a linear elastic system for a constant force applied suddenly is two times the displacement due to the similar force applied statically or slowl 12. Explain the maximum dynamic load factor for the undamped oscillator acted upon by a rectangular force. Answer + . Maximum Dynamic Load Factor for the Undamped Oscillator Acted upon by a Rectangular Force ‘of magnitude F, which is as shown in Consider a constant force suddenly applied only for short time duration f, figure. 20 16 § 12] e f os o4| ope 10 02 05 10 20 35°10 wt Figure: (0LF),, or the Undampod Oscillator Actod upon BY ® Rectangular Force When the equation, 0 -Ba ceoson= crease) () \yT-2. Introduction to Structural Dynamics and Single Degree of Freedom Systems 2.9 __ is applied upto the time /, the ‘displacement and velocity at this point are given as, Yar c0s.0tg) and we Spo sin of; __ The expression of the displacement y of the simple oscillator as a function of time variable tis given as, y=y,cosat + “8sinar 2) © In order to obtain response after time f, equation (2) is applied considering the initial conditions, displacement and velocity att Here, ris replaced by (¢—,) and y, and vo by ¥g and v, respectively. ‘Then the equation (2) changes to, Fy yo=pUl ~casorcosott-1)+ sina, snot 1) --@) Equation (3) can be reduced to, fo dd) = 7p leosa(t— 1,) - cos of] @ Dynamic Load Factor (DLF) ‘The Dynamic Load Factor (DLF) is the displacement at fo k any time interval“ divided by te static displacement, ‘The equation, 1 = 201 coset) =y,{1— coset) can be writen as, DLF= and equation (4) can be written as, cost, tS ty DLF =cose(t~t,)— coset, #2 ty 8) “Time can be easily expressed as dimensionless parameter 21 by using natural period rather than natural fequeney( = =) Equation (5) can be written as, pur=1 costa «f,1tyand ‘The obtained maximum dynamic load factor (DLF) 4. is plotted in the given figure. Thus, ftom the figute itis clear that the maximum dynamic load factor for loads of duration $4 20,5 is equivalent 8 the loud uration was infinite. SIA GROUP SS2.10 STRUCTURAL DYNAMic, ped oscillator acted upon 6 Q13. Explain in brief triangular force. Answer ; ‘about the maximum dynamic load factor for the undam! ree ‘Maximum Dynamic Lond Factor for the Undamped Oscillator Acted upon by # Triangular Fo Consider a system which is represented by undamped oscillator. The system is at rest inal ad hen sje to force F(t) having initial value Fy which keeps on decreasing until it reaches ‘0” at time interval (, 95 5 4 2.09} 1.6 LF)... 12 os} o| 005 01 02 05 10 20 5 10 —T Figure: (DLF)q, fr tho Undamped Oscillator Acted upon by a Triangular force Here, the response is computed in two intervals equation for the total displacement of an undamped single degree-ot freedom system, ie, 240) = cost +~Ssina + 0 Considering the initial conditions, My =0,%9=0 By substituting these values in equation (1) and by integration we get, Fo Fy (sin ot pot comyr B(H8) ey In terms of DLF and dimensionless parameters, si(2nt/T) ot (easier go 28 contami + SORT Fo) Y considera go = 2) Equation (3) indicates the response prior time fy For the next interval (2 1) the displacement and velocity atime using equation (2), we ge,- UNIT-2 «Introduction to Structural Dynamics and Single Degree of Freedom Systems 2.11 For second interval, the above values can be assumed as Y= yocosat+ 2 singe @ © By replacing ¢ by 1-1, and y, and ve respectively by y,and v,. Fy : fy = Frot, {Sint ~ sinex(t—1,)) ~FPeose ‘and considering F(x) = 0, the response is obtained as, Dividing by “2 leads to, 1 DLE = 7 (simor —sinox—1)) —cosor ~O The equation (6) in terms of dimensionless time parameter can be written as, tenant sna! 2) barefeet mea ant me Tr hee is obpered tht the maximum vale ofthe Dynamic Load Factor (OLF)aa Faces? at becomes lage. Q14. Explain briefly about the Duhamel's integral for undamped system. Answer : Duhamel’s Integral for Undamped System ‘The type of load that is applied only for short duration of time is, generally known as impulsive loading and the related inipulse of this load is the product of force and time of its duration. FO) i ZA : Teter t Figure: Load Function as Impulsive Loading ‘The impulse of the force F() shown in figure at time + in time interval dt is represented by the shaded area which is ‘equivalent to F(x) de. When this impulse acts on a body having mass m produces a velocity change. This change in velocity of the body can be estimated from Newton’s law of motion as, md “a FO) av Ftods oD) Where, F(2)dr is the impulse. v is the incremental velocity which can be assumed as initial velocity of the mass at time t, Sia GROUP 25STRUCTURAL DYNAMic, 12 Seated by the undamped O86 itor. Ata pariagy re . | _____ Now, assume that the impulse P(r acts on the structure which is TP! time +x’, the oscillator experiences a velocity change given by equation (1) at time + produces ‘ment y of the simple © a displacement at a later time scillator as a function of ty, _ AS the initial velocity vp along with inital displacement Yo ‘equation (1) is introduced into equation (2). The expression ofthe displace! variable 1, which is given as, Y «i ~Q) vy cosot +2 sinoot Thus, F@de 7 on FO oot of the force F(*) is given ‘Therefore, itis concluded that the complete displacement at time ¢ due to continuous action the integral of the differential displacements dy) from time f= Q to time f 2 10= Lf Fepsinoe oer ~() mo} ‘The integral in the above equation is generally known as Duhame!’s integral. S For including the effect of inital displacement y and intial velocity vy at time ‘= 0, it is mandatory to add the solution given by equation (2) to the equation (4). Hence, the total displacement of an undamped single degree-of-freedom system with an arbitrary load is given as, )=Y% cost + 2 sinor + ay ‘F(a)sinoa((— 2)de. Q15. State the analysis procedure of Duhamel's integral-damped system. “atowees : . Moxa Pope 8 “The response for a damped system in terms of Duhamel’ integral can be obtained in a similar way as that ofthe undamped analysis. . ‘We know that, “The solution of the differential equation of motion for the undamped system (& < 1) is given as, nner) ncosort+ 422 sment! cy ‘ ® J oS By setting =O, y= FCO} and substibting (~#) fr rin equation (1), we ge, Fede | du(ty= ey, 818-2) a By integrating the obtained differential response terms over the complete loading interval leads to. 1_f pepeto”, ° 10) Fag] FOP sino fe— ee . a om (3) is the response fora damped system in terms of Duhamel’ integra A one-storey building as shown in figure Is modeled as a 15-f high ae . ind a rigid beam supporting a total weight of W = 3600 Tarte with two steel columns fst at the bas ». Each ex inertia |= 69.2 int and a section modulus S =/¢ = 17 in (E=30 x 10% pay ‘olumn has a momé! he SIA GROUP LOGO {on the TITLE COVER baie re you buy ‘Thus, equati Look for tlFigure: Idealized Frame for the given Example Determine the maximum response of the frame to a rectangular impulse of amplitude 3000 tb and Guration t, = 0.1 sec applied horizontally to the top member of the frame. The response of interest is: the horizontal displacement at the top of the frame and the bending stress in the columns. Answer : Given that, = 69.2 in' ; E=30 * 108 psi 1470.1 sec; $= = 17 in? ; W= 5000 Ib ¢ . Fy= 300016 (®) Natural Period Lateral stiffness, REQ) e (5x12)? 5832000 | K=8543 Ibvin W=mg 5000 386 = 12,9534 Ib.sec/in iE T=ImMlz (12.9534 3543, T = 0.2446 see (-g=386 inch/sec”) SIA GROUP 2%} en pen oy en ©). / Maximum Displacement " fe _ 04 T 02446 ‘Maximum dynamic load factor, LF) nq. = = 19 From the graph of maximum dynamic load factor for the Fy _ 3000 0.409 undamped oscillator acted on by a rectangular fore, Uae = 1.9 * 0.3511 = 0,667 in (© Maximum Bending Stress ‘The bending moment M in the columns is given as, SEL m=", pie 630 %10° 69.2 © 05x12)? 2 M=256,424 (Ib.in) and maximum stress Gyq, is given by, M._ 256,424 me "SAT Sinae = 15,084 Psi GA7—Develop 2 numerical method to evaluate Duhamel’s integral which gives the response of an undamped elastic one-degree-of-freedom structure modeled by the simple oscillation as shown in figure (1), Assume that the force function F(t) may be represented by a segmental linear function shown in figure (2). x 0.667 Ju 7 WW m i) Figure (1): Structure Modeled by the Undamped Simple Oscillator Fe) Fey df tear Wl eat mental Linear Force Function tes Figure (2) GROUP Loco QJ on the TITLE COVER before you buy Look for theConsidering 2eo initial conditions, the Duhaniel’s integral is obtained from equation (1) as, = mafroosae Dee From the trigonometric formulae, sineo(t— t) = sint cosert — coset sinwt ‘By using the value of sine(¢—1) in equation (2), we get, =sinor!_f i oe u(t) Snot | Fema ~ e080 J F(t)sin onde Equation (4) can be written as, u(y = AOS ot ~B(0) cose) mo AO= [F@cosarde B= frosin ode 2 ‘The numerical evaluation of the integrals A()) and B(i) is required for the estimation intzrations in equations (a) and (b) are expressed in incremental form, it would be ‘more ap . A) Ay.) [Fee a BU)= BU,_,)+ freysi ox a AIG) can be expressed as, Fe) =Fty,_)+ a 4 DG 1Sts4) Where, AF, = Fur,)-Fit,_) = @Q) @ (4) (3) ofa) ob) of Duhame’s integral. When the propriate. “© SIA GROUP %4 Rad lo ane 2.16 STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS ona ‘en. equation (e) is substituted into equation (c) and integrated, we get, A) = 4G,_,) + [Fe a sino, sinor, AF, AF x (sinor, —sinot,, fot =—— ot, At; ~1 + Of; cosor, — of,_ 1 coset, _,)] When equation ©) is substituted in equation (d) and integrated, we get, AF, BO)=BE,_,) + [ery =| * (Cosmf,_, —cosot)/ ot {sinor,— sinor,_ 17 O(, cos@t,—f,_| cost, dI Thus, equations @® and (g) are recurrent formulas for specified time ¢= t = = ‘ the determination of the integrals in equations (a) and (b) at any