John B. Conway Functions of One Complex Variable Second Edition Springer-Verlag New York Heidelberg BerlinJohn B. Conway Deparnent of Matberatis Blom 1 47401 oral Board Y ll PR. Halos F.W. Gehring ©.€ Moore Berm ate Orth GaheonyeCaena | Am [MS Suh Cations 2-0 Liar of Cong Casing Pon Dat at) Fecta of ompec vaste 1 Tike Guilds wm sissy mite the nd So ptf hi Dak may ead repr eral pms fon Sponge 1 77 Speen New Yr Ie «hy Speer, New You ‘SRN NSM W0I2R-1 Speier Ve 4PREFACE This book i intended as a textbook for ft course in the theory of functions of one complex variable for students who are mathetaticaly ‘mature enough to understand and exeeute «arguments. Theseus pre quite for reading this took ae quite minimal: not much more than & sl course in basic ealeuus ana fe fact abou util decvaives The “opis from advanced clei that are wed (e, Leb’ role fr ifer- Entiating unde the itera sig) ae proved in det Comes Variables suet whihhas something forall mathemati. 1nadkition to having applieaons to other pars of analysis, can sgl aim to he an ancestor of say aress of matherstis(e,horoton thor, ‘manifold, This view of Comples Analysis a: "An Introduction fo Mathe ais” hsialuenced the wrtingandslstion of subject mater for his book The eter aufing prineple alowed y tha ll denon, theorems te, should be clearly and preel sated. Proofs ae given with the ude mid Most are presented in detail and when thi sat the case the ear i told precisely what ming and asked to fil inthe gap as an ere The ‘teres ave varied in thei depres of dificlty. Somne are meant tof the ideas of the setion in the reader’ rind and sine eaten the theory or te applications other parts of mathemati. (Oseastonaly termiglogy ed ‘nan exeee which not detned~e., group, integral dora) ‘Chaplets through V and Sections VT and V2 are basi. His posible to cove this material in single semester only i umber af proae are ‘mite. Except for the material atthe Binning of Section V1.3 on eonex neon the rest ofthe books independeat of VIS and Vi ‘Chapter VIL initiates the sudest inthe consideration of feetions as points na metric space. Theres af the fist tre setons ofthis chapter reused repeatedly inthe remainder ofthe Book, Sesion four and fe esd no defense: moreover, the Weierstrass Fictoriation Theor is necesary for Chapter XI Setion sx is an appition of the fitoriaton theorem The lst Wo sections of Chapter VI ate tt sled in the rest ofthe book although they are a part of cltsial mathematics which no one shoul compli disregard The reining chaplers are independent opcs and may be covered in any onder dese Runge’s Thorom isthe inspiration for mich ofthe theory of Funston ‘gcbis. The prot presntl in sction VHLL i ower the elastealone invoting “pate posing” Schon to spies Runge’ Theorem to on nore ger fren of Cauchy's Phere The a reals etions thee An four shoul fe Fea By eerie. enon the pro are ‘Chapt IN studies analyte continuation ad ines the eA 0 analyte minfolls ard coven sfues Sets ethos hice it be omar ay a ait and wll oe te veal & hte of atcContinuation without necesitating bis going through all of Chater 1X. ‘Chapter X sts harmonic funtion eluding sation of he Dice Problem aod the introduction of Green’ Funetion. I this cane called ppd mathomnin i pet of applied mathematics that everyone sould ow: *Rthoug they ate independent, the last to chapers cowl Have Bee combined into one eed "Entire Function” However iis that Hadaman’s Factoiation Theorem and the Great Theorem of Pant are olen diferent that each mers its owe chapler AIO, other result Aependsupon the ober. With aud to Prad’s Tore i should be mentioned that another proofs available The poof presented here ues only elementary arguments ‘ile th poo found inmost ther Books uses the modula Function, "There ae oer topic ha could have heen covered. Some conieration ‘vas en fo ineluding shapes on some oF allo the Following: conforma Tnanpin,funcions on the disk, lip faneons, applications of Hilbert {hace methods to comple functions, Bu the ine ad tebe drawn omer hd the topics were the isn. For thse readers whe would ike fo explore this materia otto furterfvenigte the topics covered in this book the ‘ibliopranty contains a nanber of appropriate ens. Most ofthe notation used ie stanard. The word “iti se in place of| the pase “irand only and the snbal Ms use fo india the nd of 2 pron When a fonetion ter than a path) 5 being discussed, Lain eters [ic forthe domain and Goek eters are sed for he rage ‘This bok evlved fom clases aught a Indiana University I would Ike to than te Department of Mathematics for makings resources avalible {ome ding its preparation, I would especialy tke to thank the stents nm elses: tes actual teiresetion omy course Complex Variables that nade ne decide to take the pangs sad write «book. Parte thanks ‘ould go to Marsha Meret Tor pointing ot several mistakes in an eat tat, o Stephon Berman foe string the materi for several extees on “ath anto Larry Curt or asisting me with he al correction ofthe nance. Emus als thank Cel Sheba fr typing the ial daft of the hans under unusual dreumstanee. Finally, Ist thank my wife to whom this book is decnted, Her encouragement was the mast valuable asistane I receive John B, Conway PREFACE FOR THE SECOND EDITION [have been very plese with the success of my Book. When it was apparent thatthe aedond printing was nearly sid out, Springer Verlag tiked me 0 prepare a st of corrections fora hie printing. When ‘mentioned that T had some ideas for more substantial revisions, they ‘eacted with characteristic enthusiasm, "There are four major ferences benween the present edison and is predecesior. First Joh Disa’ teatment of Cauchy's Theorem has been Incladed This has the advanage of providing & quick proof ofthe theorems {nit fll generis. Nevers, T have a stong attachment to the Fomotopic version that appeared ithe Fst eiion dave proved this form of Cauchy's Theorem sit was done there. This version is very sometic and quite easy to apply. Moreover, the notion of homotopy heeded forthe lterWestment ofthe monodromy theorem: Nence, ilu Sion of this version yields Denes Tar in exces of the time needed to acon it ‘Second, the prot of Runge’ Theorem is new. The present proot it due to Sandy Grabinerand docs not use “pole pushing”. Ina sense the “pole Dshing” i buried in the concept of usiform approximation and some "less ftom Banach algebras, Neverthles, shoud be emphasized that the ‘too! eniely elementary in tht i relies only onthe material presented this tex [Next aa Appendix B has been added, This append contains some biographical material and a guide for further reading Tilly, several adional exercises have been aed, There re slso minor changes that have Been made. Several colleagues in the mathematical community have Belped me greatly by proving Constraive erties snd pointing out (Spographial eos. I wish to {hank publly Earl Berkson, Louis Brickman, James Deddens, Gerard Keough, G. K. Keistancen, Andrew Lenard, Join Maichubee, Donald C. ‘Meyers, Jeitey Nunemacher, Robert Olin, Donald Perlis, John Paster, Hans Sagan, Glenn Schober David Stegengn, Richard Varga, James P. Willams, and Max Zar, Filly 1 wish to thank the staff at Springer-Verlag New York not only for thi tstmeat of my. book, But also forthe publication of s0 many fine books on mathematics In the preent time of shrinking graduate cnvllments an the consequent reluctance of so many publishes to print “iUvanced texte and monographs, Springer-Vevlag is making a contibution {ivr dite by inreasing sts efforts to casemate the recent devlop- tment in mathematics Jobe Conway‘TABLE OF CONTENTS Prelace “The Complex Number System 1 The eal numbers {2 The et of comple numbers 1B: The compte plane |B Poke represnatio and rot of ciples munis 55. Lies ang ha pses nb complex pane 6 Thrextendod plead is perc epeseation Metre Spaces and the Topology of © | Denton ad eae of mt Sse © Comazetne| FS Sequence and completes H. Compacines| $5 Comin 4. Union conerene emenary Properties and Examples of Antic Functions Power seis 2 Anabie fanctons |B: Ame incon ae mappings, Matis warsormations CConples tegration $1 Riemann Steer nears [2 oversees reprecntion of ani Facons 3 Zeros ofa arate uncon He Theindes ofa dost carve 15. Cauchy Theorem and neg Forma 6. The homotopic vernon of Cauchy's Theorem at Simple connec $7, Counting rr: he Open Mapping Theorem 1 Gour There Singatritis Slat seMI vu. xt ‘The Maximum Modulus Theovem The Maximum Peni i Schean's Lena 5: Comer fncne and Hadar Three Cis Theorem 1. Phmgmen Lindl Tear Cmpactness and Convergence the Space of Analyte Funions Fi The race of contuna anton C1G) 52. Spe ofan intone 1 Space of meomare functions Fe The Ramana Mapoing Team IS. Wokteas Factrzaton Theorem ff: Fastonzation of he ne encton 7 The gems fc The Riemann st fncon ung's Theorem G1 Ranges Tare Sine conrectaoess BF Mitap eters Tce Annyic Continuation and Riemann Surfaces ir Stare Reece Prine [2 Amale Comination Along A ath [5 Mosdromy Theres [Topol Spicer and Neighborhood Stems {5 The She of Gee of Annyic Fusions on an Open Set 46 Amaiye Manos Covering spaces Harmonie Functions i: Ble Properer of hamenic functions [2. Hurmoni fotos on «dik 4 Sutharmons ana spetharmoni eto The Diener Pater 55 Gre’ Funcione Entire Functions AI denen Forma 88. Hadamard Factorvation Theorem My ry 1 ret re 22 XIl, The Range ofan Ansytc Function 41 Bets Tear The Lite ard Theorem 55 Schorny’s There [HO The Geet Peed Toor ‘pent: Calas or Complex Vast Functions om “Appendix B: Suggestions for Further Study and ‘Bitiographical Notes, References Indes List of Symbols Bag8 a aChapter 1 ‘The Complex Number System 1. The real numbers We denote the set ofall el numbers by BI is assumed that each reader sequnnted withthe eal number sytem and alls properties. Iv parscular we srume a knowledge of the ordering af the definitions and Properties ofthe supremum and infimum (sp ad if). and the complete rest of (overy st im R which bounded above has a supremum) tis tlso assed that every render is fait with sequential convergence in end with infinite snes. Finally, no one shovld undertake a study of ‘Compler Varabls unles be has «thorough grounding i functions of one real variable. Although st hasbeen raditona to study functions of several ‘eal variables before studying analytic Function theory. this is not an {seal prerequisite for ths book. These will ot be any ozcasion when ‘he deep result of this area are needed. 2. The fl of complex mambers We define ©, the complen numbers, to be the set of all ordered pais (,8) vbste and haze real numbers and where adiion and molllicsion ate defied by: (0. Hed) ~ (are, bed) (Bod) = edd, Bead) Isis coy checked that with thes definitions C steal the axioms for 4 feld Phat ty € sais the associative, commutative and disnbative laws fe adiiton and’ multipicaon: (0.0) and (1.0) are identities for sdiion and multiplication especively, and dere ae additive and mult pleats sere for each nonzero element in © We will rite forthe complex number (0). Ths mapning a>, 0) etines fl somorphis of ita 30 we my consider Basa subse of {©-Itwe put = (01) then a) ~ abi. From this point om we abndon the ordered pair notation for complex numbers. Note ta = 30 that he equation 2-41 = O has a r00t in C. In fact, for ech =n G, 2 4a) ef Moe geen 02 and w are mile numbers we waa bet era inBy len = acd be eal mubers aad B we can obtain (wih both «and ” wo (ets) 50 that we hive a form forthe reciprocal of a complex, number: ‘When e nite: ~ ath (a, beR) we all aand there! and imaginary ‘port of and denote this by @™~ Reb = Ins We cone this seton by inoducing two operations on © which are rot eld operations ts = x,y © R) then we deine |=) — (4) 10 be the abelize cue of: and? = ip the conigte of, Note that are” 2 bP = In parca, if © #0 then ‘The fllowing are basic properties of absolute values and conusutes whose verifeations are let othe reader. 2 Rez e42) and tm 23 a 2s 26 ‘he reader should try to avoid expanding z and w into thei el and imaginary parte when be tres to peove these last tre, Rather, se 2.1), (22),and 3), 1. Find the real and imaginary parts of each of the following Stam 25 32, (“EB Dn (MEF ow 2ene 2. Find the absolute vale and conjugate of exch of the following are erndem 4s cane ‘The con ne 3 23. Show tat: cea number ifand only f= 4 IFS and are comple sumbes, prove the flowing equations Re 26 enw}? = [22 -2Re om Iw P= 2a + be), 5. ncn wove tt fr == 4 EG et inal aioe of Stow ta soa a 8) a a eta +h ial the {84.The comple plane rom the definition of complex numbers is cea hat egeh in C can ‘beidented withthe unique plat (Re 2, m2) athe plane R*. The adion of complex sumbers is eracly the addon lw af the vector space sand w are nC then daw the sept ines rom = an 10 0(=(0,0) Those form to sides ofa purlelogram with 0, >and w as thre verces The fort yen tars out fo Be 2 "Note ao that [wi exacty the distance heteen# and w. With this in mind the last equation of Execs 4 in the procsling section ste the ‘araleogran ow: The sum ofthe squares of the fengths of the sides of prllelossm equils the sum ofthe squares ofthe lengths ofits diagonal. A lundamanial propery of @ diane function is that i sates the teange megan (ee the net eae In this nets inequality Becomes =I for complex numbers 2, 22 BY using 2)—29 = (2)~ cay tose that we need aly show )ees-ahitis et] = f+ [nl weoy, ‘To show ti fist observe that for any z in C, 32 nll Rez sb es] gimz = bel Hence, Re (ci) [c= [Iw Thus, [rt = fF + 2Re (om)? fll fe eb Som whic (1) flows (Thi ale the lanl nequaiy Boe, i we represent = in the pla, (1) says tha the Sotho one side ofthe {etange 1] kotha the sm oth gt oft the tn sd est dotance Bets fv pssst bine.) On cower‘ne an inequality one shold always atk for necessary ascent conitons that eainlity obtains, From looking at a tangle and considering the wo- incre sgnieatce of (1) we ate fed to consider the condition == by for some ff, f= 0. (or w = af w =O) Teas clear that equality wil ceca en the two pons ae cline withthe eign. In fat, if we ook tthe proof of G1) we see that a necessary and sulkient condiin for sl ni that this 8 = Oe, 2 fa eal tuber ands non septic). Molipbing ths by wwe We Bet [Pte 2 Outw 4 0.17 then = Oand = By induction we abo ge a one Alo ofl he nity M a-i| & =md [Now tat we have given a gsometic interpretation of the absolute valve tet uy sce what taking «complex conjugate does (0 @ point inthe plane. “Tiss aso cays in fat, Hs the point oblaned by reeting = across the sau (i the Fel a). Exerciet 1. Prove @) and give icessry and sfiet conditions for equity, 2 Show that equality occurs a@3) i and only => O or any bers Band r= kel 2m fornhich =) 20 Jb Cate Rand ¢ > Obe fixed. Describe tbe et of points = satisying I-[e+a) = 20 for every possible ehoive of and c, Now lta be any complex number find, ting rotation ofthe plang, dseibe he locas of point satisfying the hove equation 4 Polar representation and rot of complex ambers Consider the point 2-4 im the complex plane ©. This point has pat coordinates (9) x = eon y= rin 8. Clearly = le) and i The angle tewcen the poste eo axis and the line segment ffom 0 to 3 ‘Notice hit play any mile of 2 ean be suttated for 8 in the above uations he angle Mele the angument of sani denoted hy 8 as ecane of the ambity "arg eno ation. We into the a repetion dons of ope amor, : Let sy yo Oy ry =r i fy, Then 2.2) ~ rs cs Bt — rr [cos @, cos #,—sia', sn 8) 1 (in , cos Byesin 8 cos BY the Formuls Yor the sine snd coe of the sum of two anges we gst a Bey rcs 46) Ateratly, arg) = sep, +are zy (What fancon of a real vatiable takes prot ino sms?) By induction we gt for = nc =k =m a 4 Sri nest) 1n patel “a Fares, for every integer 0. Moteover if # # 0, £°* cls (—0] = 1: so that, (44) ao olds for al integets positive nga Special ese of (44) we pet de Moire’ forma: sand 210,12 20. AS a {cos 0+ sin = cos nin We are now in a poston to eons the flloming problem: For given complex number @ 20 and an integer n = 2, can you find a number = stfying =" a? How many such # can you find? In light of (8) the Suton easy. Lea jew by (4), 2 [a cis (nfl the bl However thie not the only sluion Bsstuse x” = a! cis (22) ao satisfies 277 = a. In fet each ofthe numbers “ wieleraay0 shen jm an th root of. By means af (4) we sive atthe following: for each nonzero number in © there ae m dint mi oot fa they are ven by formula 5. — Ses 1 Laan dwn exeches2. Calelate the folowing: (a) the square roots of (0) the cube 10018 of (6) the square roots of 3-430 3.8 primuice nth root of iy is a. complex umber 0 sich that Tana are distinct th roots of unity. Show that and B are Pre hand mh oot of unity, respectively. then abi a Kt rot of Unt for some integer k, Whats the smallest vale of k? What ean be sid {Fa and b are nonprinive roots of unity? 11 Use the binomial equation Gover = ke () =m and amr he el and ia) of ch ie of de Moines ‘ma tne ora wont = cor -(6) so where >to) ort = sinnt = (7) cos' asin d—(3) cos" 8sint 0. 5. Let == cs foram integer m= 2 Show that 14-42. 42°" = 0 6 Show that x)= cis 8 8 group homomorpiim of the ave group By onto the mulipticative group T= (2 = 1) Tits ©€ and Re(2")20 for every postive imteger , show tha =i 2 Poste rel number. 5. Lines and al planes nthe complex ple Let L denote stright line €. From elementary analytic geometry Lis desmined bya pont in Landa direction vector Thus if 2s any pon in and bis direction vector hen La nat: -w 0}, b= ch 8 I> = cis then 2b = ris (88). Thus, 16m My ifand only ifn (0—P) > O: that when 2 <0 ap. Hence Hy is te half pane lying tothe lt of the line oi ‘we are “walking along in the cretion of." I we put {en it is sy 0 Se that Hy = a Hy = fartn: we Hy) that, H, the teanslaion of My by a. Hence, 1 8th bal plane ying tothe ll of Similar, Js the tall plane om the ht off 1 Let Ce the ice 25 5 Ostet be gs and putnbom()-4 were 6 = otf Pind necessary and sulientcontons in terms of B that Trp be tanget to C ato 6 The extended plane and its spherical epresetton Cones in complex anys we wil be concered wih functions that te come inte ay the Variable approaches given point To discus this iar ‘lone intrduee the extendal plane whichis CU [co] = Car We abo ‘eth Yoouce a dines function on C. inorder to dscsé ontimity wen ies of functions asiuming the vale ify. To accomplish this indo ge a concrete piture of C, me repesent Cy as the wait sphere $= Guan edeBedhdts = Let W = (0,1; hats Wis the north ple on. Als, Heat with (eon oysne ts ¢ Ry so that € cute § along the equator. Now foreach AG Fin € eater the tagline i RP through = and, This intersects the ph in xy one it 2 # NEL > he Zi i he note reigns aad I |e then Z is in te southern hemisphere; also for Ereiez =z What happens to Z 38 [> 207 Clay Z approaches Face ‘ac identify Nand the pot o> in Ca. Thus Cf epreted fhe ante 5, Telus eaplote this represetaion, Patz = rip and It Z = (x #2.23) be tc coeponding pant om S. We willl equations exPesing XX Tere, temme of wand The fine in B® through = and. i gen by Gwiiensi as er ahorby oa Wl-ma tenn on ere ene, we ca find the enlinates of ZF we ci Gin the sale at ‘The etonde pln abit pe rotation ° which this ine itersets SE this val then La d-oted-airee = doer ee From which we ee no Gy He fri BRET“ EL ca aa] 63 oe ee peer "rer Ae he pin 2 i gen (@ 4) and we witht fad # then by se és and using (6.1), we arrive at 7 “ aa fetes Im Now kt us define # distance function between poins in the extended plan inthe following manner for >i C, define he dsance from #102, 1G, tobe the distance between te corresponding pints Z and Z” ia WZ = Gey ty 33) 308 Z = (eh Mh 8D) the 6s 2.2) = [esp HAD HA Using the fst that Z and 2” ae 08; (6) ses 66 be, 297 = 2-200 baad By using equation (6.2) we st = Be? ar Ina simiar manner we gt for zn © 67 ra) Gro os as.) “This comespondencebetmeen pins of Sand ©, i ala the strogranle projeton» “The Comps Numb ten Exerc 1. Give the details inthe dation of (6.2) and (68). 2, For cachet the following pints in C, give the corresponding point of S:0.14, 3421, 3, Wich sists of S correspond tothe real and imaginary axes in: 4, Lat bea ciceIying im S-Then there isa usique plane P in RY such that PAS = A. Real fom asiyue gomety that, = ste 89) bP =D where (Bs Ps #3) isa sestoronhogoeal to P and 1s some ral number Tien br astumed that 8-+22+85 = 1. Use this information to show tht it Acoma the point W the ts pesistion on Cisa straight line. Otherwise, A procs onto a ile in C. §.Ket.Z and 2 be points on $coresponding to = and 2 respectively. Let 1 be the point on coresponding Co ++" Find the coordinates of Win terms ofthe coordinates of Zand 2" Chapter I ‘Metric Spaces and the Topology of © St, Definition and examples of mete spaces [Armeric space sx pir (4) where Xi set and ds a fonction fom xe Vint ealed dance mcton or mets which sass the following ‘eondiions for), and 2 in! ae) 20 (As, ») = Oi and only ix = » x3) = ly.) Gommetey) es, 2) © ae») +d, 2) (ingle noua) x and > Ot Bxed then define Bei) = (eX deen) Borin) ~ eX: day =n) tx; 1) and x1) recall the operand closed alls, respecively, with eter and ats Examples LA Let X = Ror € and deioe a, ) = [2—wl This makes both (Bd) ‘and (Gd) metic spaces, In fet, (Ca) ll be the example of rica interest fos, the reader has never encoustered the concept of metic Sacetfore thi, he shoud continually Keep (Cd in mind during the ay this chapter. 12 Ler (hed) be a metre space and et Y ©; thn (a) also metic 13 Let X= C and define det a8) = xma-+ly—b. Then (Cy di 2 eti spce La Let X= C and deine e+, a 48) ~ ax {ix [y~B)) US Let ¥ be any sat and define 9) = O3€ x = y and dey) = Lif A ‘To show thatthe function J sates the tragle Inequality one merely omer all posites of equality among x,y and =. Notie here that ‘ta: eonst only ofthe point xe = T and Blas) — Nite > 1. This hee spas doesnot appest inthe study f analyte fonetion theory Me tet R= rand ort (siecee ah = Oyeoe snd) im BP die wor [Soon2 Mec pean th Topol of 1L7 Let Sb any set and denote by B(S) the set of ll functions f+ © sock that la = sp (fs 8©8} < hat is, IS) consis ofall complex valved functions whose rae is con {sind ise some disk of inte ras. For fand gin BS) dene 2) = Iifeg}e, We wll show that sates the rangle equality I fet [Eat aren BUS) aos fay pont ia then J) =H) = AOD Fh at 1)" Me) +a] = hl hme Tha, when the Supremam is taken overall sin, (f=Ela © [Blan whieh the rangle equality ford 18 Delniton, For a metic space (Xd) a st G-& Xi open i foreach sin G there isan > O uch that BG) ©. “Thus ast in © is open ic has mo “edge” For example, G = (2° © ‘aces dy is open; bat fe: Rez = 0} (0) snot Beatse BIO; is not ontined inthis set no mater how small we choose « "We denote the empty othe st eonstng of no elements, by. 1.9 Proposition, Let (Xd) be a mere space; then (a) The sets X and [reopen ; (yrs Gy are open sets X then 101) Gs (0. Gy: Jed) iva collection of open sets in X, J any Indexing se, then G =O (Gyci64} 1 also open. Proof Ue root of (ais a trviity. To prove (6) et G = (Gx then 1x6, fork = hyse- sm Ths bythe defsition, foreach thee an o> 0 Shek that xs) © Gy Butife= min (eye epe--ve) then for 1s KS Div: 9) © Bless) © Gy, Ts Bix) © 6 and @ open, “The proof ofc) i eft as an exercise forthe ener ‘These sanother i ofsubuts of «mtv pace which are dstingished “Thee ae theses which otiain all their “edge alternately, the es whose complements fave no ede 140 Detton, A set F © Xs sland ts complement, X= Fs open ‘he fallowing proposition Is the complement of Proposition 13. The proof whose execution i kf othe reader, is accomplished by apie Ee Morgue tothe preceding proposition. LA Proposition. Let (X, 0) Be @ metre space. The: (a) The sete X and are close: 7 (Ress Freed ei X the 010) is (0) FA: fo am election of ease stein XD ay nding el then Pe 3F 34. Shin se the meat evn eto de sp een ope aM le et intosimeroet the inn of hn bean at et AS Defi and examples of et es a lose This ofcourse, i fase mean be sees by looking at {2¢C: Rez > 0) U's either open nor closed 1LA2 Definition. Let A be subst of X. Then the iteror of Aint A. the fet U (Gi @ is open and G ©) The clone of 4,4. the set (| (FF [eval and F 4). Note that at A may be empty and A may te X, I= far: a and bare ational umber} then smaltancouly A” = C fad iat A 5, By Propotions 1.9 and 1.11 we have that is closed and int Ais open The oundary of ls denoted by £4 an defied by 24 = A near 1.13 Proposilon. Let A ond Be subsets of mete space (X, dy. Ther: (a) Aopen if and ony fA ~ iat As (0) Ais clsed f and only fA = A: (©) int = X=(m a); A> = XInt =A); 64 @ Um 4 Ow: (e) xpcint A ifand ony if there & an « > Och that Bx; 6) © A; (© xyed™ and only If for ecery «> 0, Bagi JOA ® O. Proof The poets of (2}40) ae left to the readee. To prove (0) assume eed” = Xeiat (KA); this, xy 6100 (=A), By pet (Oy for every [S0"aies os not contained in XA. Thats here point ye sys) Weigh ip ot ia X= As Hees, © Bz: 0) 0-4. NOW’ suRPOSE Noe rine (Y=). Then so int (—) and, by (0), thre an ¢ > 0 such that Bhi, ) © NWA, That iy, BGSps «) A =o] 30 that xg does not sathly th condition Finally, one list deison ofa dininguished ype of se. 1.14 Defiton. A subset A ofa metic space X's dene if A~ = 2 "he set of rational numbers Qs dense io Rand (rly: x ye) dense in. Exerses 1, Show tht each ofthe examples of metric spaces sven ia (.2)-(16) is indeed mie space, Example (1,6) i the only one hikely Io give any fica. Abo, deseribe Br) fe each ofthese examples 3 Which of the following subsets of are open and which are losed: (a) Teilst= 1: 0) the real ani: (@) or some integer 921): (d) [2eCe2 rel and 05 2c): (@)(2eCoe ween and 0251)? 5 fk d) any meee space show that eery ope bal Fact am open ‘et Abo, show that even closed tll a else se 14 Ginette deals of the proo! of 1.90. 5. Prone Propenition [IL {6 Prove hata set 5 open and only YG is lose 4 Shwe tha (aD whore epen by, fsP abd 4A a mete oe, A artieaf Bes mein spac aml Fo A Sappine GX open ow“ Mec pace ad the Topo of that G9 ¥is open in (% d}. Conversely, show tht if Gy < Ys open ia (adh thre isan open set @ = X such that G, = GY. 5. Do Execs 8 with "ose in pace of “open 10, Prove Proposition 113. TH Show that (eisk :k3=0) is dense ig T=(2€C:|e|=1). For which ‘als of #6 (esd) A220) dense in 7? $2. Comectedacee Let us srt this tion by svng an example: Let X= {22s 5 1b U feiss} Hand give X the matric i iaberis fom C, (Heneeonvar, ‘ehevever we consider subulsX of or Cas mati spaces we wll sume {ries state othe conta, that X asthe inerted mete 9) ~ == Wh) “Then the set 4 = (= 2] = 1) nsimultaneousy open and closed slowed trease iy complement in X, B= XA = (2-3) <1) 8 opens Ai ‘pen bese if ae A then Bla; 1) A. (Nie that it may aot happen fat (2c: al < 1} conned in for example, fe = 1. But the tion of Be! 1) is (ee: fe-aj <1) and ths 1 contained in A.) Simiay 2s alo oth ope and closed in X: "This isan example of a omconnected Spice 21 Defiin, Artec space (X,d) is comected if the only subsets of X tehich ae hath open aad cloned a) and X.1F 4 & A then isa comected [et of Wal the met space (i connected, "Av caualent formulation of connectedness is fo Say tht X is not connected there are dist open sets and Bin X, neither of whichis fey sch chat X= -A'U Btn fat shi condition holds then A = XB [ia clo, 122 Propoitlon, A set X © R i connected Uf Xi an nea. Proof Suppose X ~ [aba abd b elements of @ Let A © X bean open Sone of such that a= 4, and A #¥. We wll show tat ean lo be ‘osed—and hence, ma be eosected. See Ap open and as there is fave > O such tat (a, 44) © 4. Let sup (ef 040) ©} Coin la.ar) © A.tnfoshifa = x < asrthen puting = ar—x > 0, fhe defniton of supeemim implies there i an « with rhc e O sich that (2tr—A G41 Becontadicing the above lin. “The ro that eat gps itrsals ate cnet sina ai be Ie a am exetehe tld yopprmopel eee ace wand z are nC then we denote the srg line segment fom #1 by Lvwl= (w4(l-o 0< 11) A polnonfrom 010.6 isa set P= (J 4, ml where wy = b and mes bel sk sm 08 Pe Te 25.2 Dh 23 Tacrem, An open set GE C i connected if for any to pins a, 8 there ta polygon from a ob big entirely nid Proof. Soppose that Gsatsies this condo and et us assume that Gis tot conned. We will obtain a contradiction. From the defiaiton, G AUB whore and B are both open and closed, A 0.2 = (and neither ‘4 or Bis empty. Let a's A and be B; by hypothesis thee isa polygon P ftom ato b such that P © G, Now a moment thought wil show tat one fof the seients making up wil ave one pont in 4 and another ia So we can assume that P= [a 2}. Deine, S = (£610: +3124) T= (eet: pee) ‘Then SAT = SUT = [0,1 0¢ Sand 167: However it can be shown tt both Sand Fare open (Exerise 2), contacting the connectedness of [0. Uh Thos, G must be consected Now suppose that Gis cece and fix a pois ain G. To show how to ‘onsruct» polygon (ying G) fom a o' pot bia G would be il, But we doa have to perform ssh meostustion; we merely show tat one exit Fora Sod in G dee A= (heG: there ins polygon P = Grom 210} The plan to show that A is simultaneously open and closed in 6. Since aed and Gi conneced this wll ive that A ~ G andthe theorem will be Prove. "To show that A is open It be and kt P= [6 ti. -s+3q 6] bea polygon tom ato b with P = Since Gis open hi was nat heed ia the Fst hal) theres «> Ouch that (bi 6) =. Bat «Bhs «) them [h.2] © B:4) © G. Hence the polygon Q ~ PU [bis inside G and goes from at 2. This shows that BU; «) = A, and 80 A is open To show tat Ais closed suppose thee isa point zn GA and let « > 0 ‘be such that B{z«) © 0 here sa pint Bin A Bt: 6) then as above, ‘re ean contract a polygon fom ato. Thus we mist ave that tei) 4 wor Bis) © GA. Tha GA open so hat is closed. 224 Carry If G © € is open and connevted anda and ore pots in ‘hen there i pon i fem ta whic mae 4p of fit sezments pve sith the rue imaginary aei yaad he Topo Tygon G from to b and hen mod each ofits ine ements otha ra abide ested proper Howser, hi ot ew el core sng compacts (oe Exe 57), Ante prot me Spael y modying he poof f Theorem 23. Def he et 4 5 cart chai Sy bute th nets Ca the gg een’ ae ao eae the acs The reainet the poo wl be vali ith cara cs BOs) hen be many nt be ral (an ax Bet i Peay sine csv b= pe he paygon B 24S ps sp and bas ements paral oan Pe vill now be shown that any set S in a metric space can be expressed, in acon way, a te nin of connected EGS 125 Definition, A subset D ofa meitic space Xs. component of Xf iin 2 2s cred st of HTHat i, is connected and there is no Conngwed subst of X that propery contains D rth render examines fhe example at the begining of this scion Be wil note tat both A and are components and, frtermore, thse ae Te 2a oponents of. For another example let X= (0 1 4 4s. aoe tery component of Xia poi and each pot componet Tesi sv scone espa cone 2.6 Lemma Let te ¢X and et (Dj: JJ} Bea colton of connected ses Fee hn te Dy foreach 3. Then D =U) (Dye J} 6 comes ‘Prov, Let A bea subse ofthe metic space (Dd) which i both open and Freeh Maa duppose that 4-2 Thea A %, is open i (Dy fo exch J set bao dove (exercises 18 and 1.9). Since Dis coaneted we tht Mier APD, = Chor dD; = Dy Since Am C there is at less one & rane Ar dA Dy (Dy ence, A.D, = Dy In particular xo = 30 that See CAD, for every Thus A'% Dj Dy. ot D, © Ay fo Gach inde “Ths gs that D = A, so that D is connected. 227 Theorem. Lat (XA) be amet space. Ther: (@) Bach ng in Xi contained ina component of X (0) Dine! components of Kare dijon. ‘Ree tha ae (a say hat the Union a ts component ‘roo (a) Let be the clleton of connected subsets of X which contain Fee int xe, Notice that (sq) © 2 30 that 7 (ABO note that Me Bree fee of he preceding lemma apply to the collection . Henee CE RPios be 1m conaced and ty C- But C mt be a componen Cal Pte connect and € © D then sys D so that Ds 7; bat then Dee, wothat C= D.Thas Cas sanimal and par (a) is proved {ih Seppe and Crave compoens. Cy 7 Cin abd ups tEE eee se npn the mma ways that C7 Cy connected Sequences a comes » Since both Cy and Cy ate components, this gies C= CU C= Cia contradiction. ROS EV ESE 28 Proposon (a) A © Xitcomecedond A= B= A~ then Bis consected () Clea componant of then Ci lane. The proof is eft as an exes 2.9 Theorem, Let G be ope in thn the compen of are open and ‘there are only a countable number of them, . ' ‘roof Lt Che component of Gand et 9. Sine Gs open there an PD ih ese) 26 By Lemna 28, sys UC comes abd 50 nat be 2 Tht Bago) © Cand Cb, thereto, ope. “To se thal the numberof componens i come It $= (e+ aan eral nde Ten coated cc oe foment of G conte 8 point of S30 tha the mabe of componente ‘countable, i . Eeracs 1 The aps sce to show hat comms suit of Rian (2 Show that ast A © Risa neal for ay two points 9 and in A with a < b, the interval (a, B) © 4. 7 Ue te A&R hen a B"Show hat he sts and i te poo f Therm 23 ae ope. 3 Wiehe faving Wot areconms ot coma hat aria componense(@) t= ti = No geal eT) thou fishies | x=e-Us noha 4= Bho Bo wreatir 4028s a)t prow ie folosng tation f Lema 26. 1 (Ds Jed) ea San of conor subcw of and if freehand i eave Binds in b= (ip Jos) m cme 5 'Sh ttt Fe Stan coc efor yp of ots bia uneath > Oth ae png spose fo foe ‘and dz. 24) < «for 1 = & = m Is the hypothesis that ised Cred? IT AS tlic nies i rope en Fr ot esa Sone nH Fen Ge an camp o ae he 2, Sequence and completeners (neo he ont get enneets in metric puke is that of convergent seadense, Ti centa ol in eels I epics in the study of metric Space nd complex asl (MI Defaom. 16 (435-003 4 64 nse tm wate spa (Nf to8 etic Sac nthe Topo of (4) conerges 9 in symbols = lim yo 4, > «if for every « > © there an integer such that de, x) whenever > “Alternately, = bin x, £0 = lim ts, x) IX =C then: = lim z means that foreach « > O thre an W such that ea] ce when n= A Many concepts it the theory of mete spaces can be phrased in terms of sequences. The following san example. 32 Propoion, A st F< X i closed Uf foreach sequence (sy) in F with elim, we have oF ‘Proof Suppose Fisclond and x ~ lim x, whee each is nF, So for every 120, thee isa pint sn BCC: that les) 9 PC So that ve Fe ‘= 'Fby Proposition 28 "Now suppose isnot closed; 40 there 3 point xy in F whichis not in F. By Proposion LIM, for every «> 0 We have Bly: OF YC Tato ney inept A!) 0 Ts Asan) < aih np ht -e SH £448 hy ecm cn 33 Defnion If 4 © X then a point x in i 8 lint pin of A if there Ba sequence {s,} of distinet points i A sich that x = lim “The reason for the word “dintint” inthis definition canbe lusrated| bythe following example Let X= C and let A= (0, I} {/} 30h pot 0,1] sa lit pont of Abt 4 not, We do aot with fo cl a point such 3643 limit point; but i istine” ete dropped from the definition we oul taken Ay = Hor each (and have = Ui 3 Proposition (2) Ast closed UF contains al sli pos (VIAN thon A ~ AU (x: x teal pn of A “Te profi ef as an crs. rom real analyss we ow that tase property of is that any sequence whose terms get clos together as ps lp, must be convergent. Such ‘ssuenees ae called Cauchy sequences One their attbus that You Know th init wl ext eventhough you ant produce i [35 Defaltion. A soueace {5} i called s Cauchy seguance i for every ‘> O there isan integer N such tht diy) = «forall mm = F(X, d) has the property that each Cauchy sequence has lini in X then (Yd) compte 6 Proposition i comple Prof I 4) fa Caueby sequence in © ten (4) andy) are Cauchy Sequences in R Since Rik complet, ty aml ys 29 for poo x9 Be Tefotlows that «tip ln (ogi and 90 © comp, (Consider, with sme (1167 a 1,6), Lt 2 Desi € it canbe shown that diy 2)-»0sf and omy if |x~2| 0 I spite ofthis, any sequence (3) wi im [5 ~ cis Cavey IC, but of course, isnot (Cauchy in, TEA © X we define the dameter of A by diam A = sup (as, 9): aed y aren} 7 Cantr's Theorem. A ore space (X,d) is complete if for any sepunce 1) of oven ese se wih F, 2 F, 2a dam Fo fF ito al pt f Proof. Suppose (X, ds compte and let (F} bea sequence of closed sts having the propetin (@) Fr Fy >. and G)lim diam = 0, For each ‘eles, be am arbitrary pot nfm me = 9 then sg ae in Fy 30 hay ‘by definition, x4) = iam Fy. By the hypothesis N can be chosen ficient Inge tha lam Fy «this shows that sy) ra Cauchy sequence Since complete, xy = lim x, ext Also, m5 ia Fy forall "= W since F, © Fu Bence ni Fy fr overy Wan this ges ¥5 ©) F, = So F contain teas ne pit; if lo,» isin Fthen both andy are in foreach mand thin sve re») = dam Fy». Therefore.) = 0, Now let us show that X's complete if it sates che stated conto, Let fig be a Cauchy sequence in Vand put Fy = (ay yey) he Fo Apa... Ie > 0, chose N such that day 5) 2 for each ‘n/N; this gives that dim (iy yy yoou2) 5 ¢for = and so dsm Fs eforn © N (Exercise 9). Tus tae F, 0 an, by hypothe there S's point i ith (xp) = Fy 8 Fe os. In parila ist Fy snd So aise. 5) © diam f.->0 Therefore, So lim yl "There iva standard exec associated with this theorem Ii 0 find @ sequence of sett (F,] in Rich sts two ofthe conditions (@) cach Fis losed, Wahoo ( dam F 0: Dut which has'F = Fy 9. F, 9... either empty oF coming of more tha ‘one point. Everyone should et examples satihing the posible combina M8 Propoion, Let (X.d) be a complete metic pace and let YX. Then (aya complete meine space HY i hosed in Proof eile as an exeese show tha (Yad) ommplee whenever Ys a closed subsets Now assume (a be Compt; fe het point SEY" Then thee ios selene (15) of poms sm ¥ seh that yl enue fis} st Cauchy sequen (ereme 8) 309 mat converge 10 Dvn yt Yin (Pf) m vt Hole tt y= ty a tao ll As amt pts Hee Dv cn Propet 44» eu pean he Toso of © Evers 1. Prove Popsiton 314 2, Far th dtl ofthe proof of Propston 38 5. Show that dam 4 = dam 4 {ENS poms in Cand tbe the merc on Cx Show hat = 0 if and day 2)-> 0. Ao show that "2 hen) Cauchy in'C, (st (conver in Cx) 5 Sow that ey Comer sequence in (Xi Cab sgh {Give the examples of om complete ti spaces 5: pura mene don Bch tat fs] 7 and only Hdl 2) =>, Tati Ga sa Cuchysesuore fo (Rd) hem > 2 (Hin: Take Inopiaton fom C.) Pippen} rs Cauchy sequence and fxg} 1 2 subsequeee that omer Show tht [s} must be comer 4. Compacness Te conpt of compactness is an extension ofthe Benefits of items to infinite sets Most properties of compact sets are analogues of roretes Unite sets which are quite vial For example, every sequence na finite Ser hmss convergent subsequence, This is quite rival since there must Be at Het Soe point wich i epated a fie numberof Ces. However the ‘me statement remain true "ink replaced by “compact “41 Defaiion, A subst K of met space Xs compact if for every calle tion @ af open set in X withthe property a Ke: Ges, there is fnite numberof sts Gy.» Gein $ such that K = GVO, ‘UG, A collection of ses stshing (42) is called a cover of Kit ach meiner of i an ope set ti ale an open coer of Ke ‘Chery the smpty se and al fie sets are compact, An example of 8 7 ‘noncompact set is D = (2: le} < 1-106, = fe: [el <1 ~ Zh form = 2, 3g them (Op, Gye-esh 8 a0 open cover of D for which there is no ite saver 43 Proposion, Let K be a compat subst of X then (a) Kir closed, (0) 1 Fis else ond FE K thon Fis compas. ‘Pra. To prove pat (a) We wil show that K = K°. Let x96 "3 By Prov Fron Benin oe tt A) and sopene that suf A: Ther each Gs open and K'« [J Guten ee aes) To prove pat (bet be an open cove af F. Then, since Fis lod. Gu (EOF) wan open cover of Kr bat Go Gy Bests im such that KEG)U..-UG,Uk-P) Cleary, FO G01 UG, and 90 Fis compact. IF ia collection of sbics of X we sty that has thesia inter- ston property Cap) where (Fy, Foe BA) FANE 2 FF CL An exstple of such a collection is (DG, BGy..--) where Ue sts 6, ae as i the example praceing Proposition 43 4A Prop, 4 set eX compact Uf sry alection & of coed ‘ita of Rh the fap. hs (VE Fo hf Pro. Suppose Kis compact and F i sliston of closed subsets of K tov he Taps Asume ta () (00 Foo Toe andi Se Oo PoP tan Qe POF =~ QUE Peal ak Oy the Pye F such that Ke {) C=) =~ Qh. Bt hisses that fF © =K and ince cach ina ut of Rit mtb hat f= Ch Conrad the ip fi hep fe conve is a an exe. 445 Cartary.Ecery compact mene space is complete Proof Tis olows easy by applying the above proposition and Theorem a 446 Conary. 1 Xi compact then every infest hata int pont bX, Proof Let S be an infiite subset of X and suppose $ has no Hint pins, Let Taj dy on) be a sequence of distinc points in S; then Fy (ay sys} iso has no lia pos But ia set has it pois it contains si tis its pnts and ust be closed! Thus, each F, i closed and. (F 1s Ii asthe Lip. However, singe the points a, ay... are distinct, Fe entraitng the above propesition. Wl . -£7 Definition. A mete space (is sequela compact if ever sequence ‘wa convergent stbegices: Tew be shown that compact and sequently compact metre spaces ae the sane, Td this th flowing iy msc AN Leben’ Covering Lemma, F(X lh 1 squeal compacted2 ei paca he Tel of { team open cover ofX then thre is a «> Ouch hai 1s nN, there a set in 8th BCE) ©. Proof The prof is by sootadistion; suppose that is an open cover of X Endnote > O canbe found, In partiaay, fr every integer n thee is sequently compact tere plat xy in and 8 sobseguen® (5) Socata 8 such nt oy a hone «> MER aU Bla; on Ge Now lt Be sch tht i,q) = a2 fr al M2 A La be any tee lrg tha Doh N ao 2 an ey Bs Na Tes ce 9) eer) de 9) Pe lm eT RS Hing Biot © Gp. sonadating the chase of Na. hee ate wo coomor midntpraions of Lebegu’s Covering Len ot ipsa cy authing and th te tha tas to mh Six aan open conrng of follows tat exch xX icone fo Sei in 9 Thos there nan «> Ouch hat Dies 0 = G since Gt open. AU Gota however: pes one «© O such that for any «BG: ) i cone Inline meme of # The other astern 1 0 belie that orte\e 0 obaied inthe lon, Bes) eonaied in each G i seni see. 49, Theorem, Let (XA) be a metric space the the following are eae (a) Xi compoer (0) ery ite sete bas. it pot: (6) Xirsequntaly compat (Xie complete and for esery «> 0 there re afte numberof pos ecsen Sad Xu tha raG mun = ‘Proof That (a) imps (the statement of Cola 4. “(5 imc): Let fe] bea sequence i X apd suppose, without os of| seo, that the pote xy, y= ae all dtnt, By (8, the set > seas lint pot Thus tere fa poi xy, © ACs 1 ial {tere ip a integer ny > mth « Bl! V2). Coniuing we get teers Ire my corse wih gh Hl). Ths, = ti ny andi sequen tal compact (© implies (8): Tose that X is comple it seqtence apply the delintion of sequential compat Enenhe 38 ‘Now ite = Oana x 92 XIE Ate then we are done: tes vse ebine tp Boel ABR AEA ce) Bt) Weare Gone 5) be a Cauchy sea appl 10 Snot, xy ©¥—[Bl 0) Bay: Hts process sever stops we Bad 2 sequence (x) such that ‘But this imps tha for n # mds) 2 «> 0. Ths (x) cam have no convergent subsequene, contradicts (0) {0 implies (Tis pat ofthe proof wil we 2 variton of the “pigon hole rien" This pine sates that i you have more ebjets than you have reeepaces then atleast one receptacle must hold more than one object. Mercove, if you hive an lafiaite number of points contained in a fie number of balls then one ball contains ine many pois, So ut (dys that for eery« > O and any infinite set ia, theres» point, {ye such that tps «contains ately many points ofthis et, Let Lx, bea sequence of ditnct points. Tere 2 point in Xand a wubsequence (2) of (4) such that (9) = Bly: 1) Also, thee isa pint ys in and a subsequence (4) of e) such that (x2) © Bs 3) Continuing, foreach integer k > 3 thee iv pointy, Wand a subsequence (a) oF Co) that (8) i Le = (APs hen diam 2k and Fy > Fy > +. «By Theorem 34 FF, ~ (she We lai tat 9» (and fa isa subsequence of) Im fat, © 5 that ca) = Siam Fy <2), and xg = lina (pis a) Let bean open cover of X. The preceding emma gives ane > Osuch that for every ¥ there Isa Gin # with B(x) © 0. Now (@ ‘abo implies (2); hence there are pola... MX such that X= Boi). Now for 1 s & 5 there isa set Gy «9 with Bo) © Ga ence X= Gy: that, (Gyo Gy) fie subeover of A 4.10 Helo-Bore Theorem. A subset K of R*(0 = 1) compat if K's closed ud bounded Prof. WK is compact then K is tally bounded by part (4) of the receding theorem. It follows that K mutt be closed (Prposiion 43): iho it east show that a totaly Bounded set also bounded. "Now suppose that Kis closed and bounded. Hence there are ral uber ny aBd By such that Ke Flay by) Lab) ean be Showa that Fis compact then, because Kis closed, it olds that 1 compact (Proposition 4b), Siace Rs complete and F is closed it fotlows tha F's complete. Hence. agais using part (2) of the preceding ‘eorem we aced only show that Fs totally bounded. This is esy hough wmewhat "messy" to write down. Let ¢>0: we now will Write ts the union of madmen retansen each of diameter less than « An ‘ing ths we wal have Fs (J AC 4ie) where each 6, Belongs 40u Mic pce ad th opty of © ‘one of the aforementioned rectangles. The execution of the details ofthis Strategy lef fo the eeader (Exereise 3) erect 1 he poo of Ppstion 44 art ang eta fe pie ohn < Becht iP et ose lth howe im n= 4.0~ [§, 0-70] -F- ._- show tha there Rand dam 2 < efor each, If 52 he it follows that Ry © Bs: 4 Show that the unin ofa Brite number of compact set is compt. 5, Let te the set ofall bonded sequences of complex numbers. That is Ged if sup (ss n> l) < Ihe = (5) andy Duh define S9) = sup (sepa w= D- Show that foreach in X and «> 0, BGs) ‘Snot coly bounded although iis compete (Hit: You might have an taser tine of ii you fst show that you can assume x = (0, 0,...3) Show tha the clowure of toally bounded Sets totaly bound 6 eetangles Ryo Ry sch that Fo $5. Contig (One ofthe most elementary properties ofa function i comin. The presence of contautyguarantss a certain degree of repularity and snooth> hess without which dificult o obtain any theory of functions ona metic Soe, Since the main sult of this book tthe heory of Tunctions of 3 ‘ompix variable which poms dvivatives (and soar ontinuos) the study ‘oF continlty base ‘51 Definition. Let (Xd) and (0, p) be metric spaces and let fi X-» 8 be {Mancina eX and 1 hen im fs) = wor every « > Other is 15» Ouch that p(/(2) 0) < « whenever 0 < dx a) < 8. The function fis continous othe point ai in fs) ~ fla fs contauoes at cach pint of LX then fis @ continuous function from X to. |$2 Proponion. Lt fd) (0, 7) be a faction and aX. 2 = (0 The following are equivalent statement (@) fs commeus ar: (0) Forsvery «= Of M(x) contains a al wih center at: (= limfls) wherer a — in "The prot wl beet a a exes forthe reader. ‘Tha was the last prpestion concerning eominity of a fanetion at a pot From now on we wllsonser ourselves onl wth funstions continous nal of, 153 Propasin, Let fi (X, d)—=(0, 7) Be a finction, The following ae ‘puto sates: (@) fi conta: (8) 115 is epen fn then f°") is open in Xs (0) IFT closed be 2 thon fC) eased X Proof) implies (8): Let be open in O and let xf"). Mw = ft) then wind; by definition, thee i an « > O wth Bor «) = 8. Since fs onzinuous, part (t) ofthe preceding proposition pives a > 0 with Be: 5) SF MB) 0 and 9 Sequence (% such that (Js), JC) = « for evry while « — lim sy Let P= 2 Biste; 0s then Py coned and 20h i inf). Sine Gy (6) F~'M0) ie lsed we have © of), Bat {is implies (0, fa) > «> 0, 8 contradiction. Ml "The following ispe of rsul i probably well understood by the reader 0d 50 the peo is fel a an exces 4 Propose. Let f and g be continuous futons from X fto © and let Bee Then af and fy ove both continuous. Abo, fig it continnes rode xs) #0 for every 218%. 55 Proposition. Let: -» Yond: ¥-»7 be continous futons. Thon of (here tof) = UJ) Ha continous fatetion fam X into Z. Proof HEU is open in Z then g°*(U) is open in Ys Benes, f-*GE™HUD) = Gf) "W)s open in S46 Deion. A function J X, )-» 9) unformly continous i for vey > Othe isa > O (pending only 002 sch ha ff). /0)) <¢ Suhonevers9) <5. Wesay tht isa Lipscteonctoni theres constant ‘Mf Osuch tbat (J) QD) = Maks for all ad yin 1s enn to see thal every Lnshite funciona uray continuous Infact. ire given, tke — Mf Teineven ene toe hat every uriformiy ‘continuous function is continous. What ate sore examples of sh Fn tions? 1F-X == B then fx) = x7 is continuous but et _unformly continous. 1X = 2 = (0, 1] then fl) = 11 is uniformly continuous but IN'not a Lipschis funtion. The following provides wealthy supply of ip anton etd eH and x Xs deine the diane rom «1 he ser A ds A, by Ay i 187 Proponin, fet AX: the GRAY AS A By (S48) = sada A