SELECTED RUSSIAN PUBLICATIONS IN THE MATHEMATICAL SCIENCES Richard A. Silverman, Editor ABRIKOSOV ET AL. Methods of Quantum Field Theory in Statistical Physics GELFAND & Fomin Calculus of Variations LEBEDEV Special Functions and Their Applications LEBEpev, SkaLsKava & UFLYAND Problems of Mathematical Physics MAaRrkusHEvicH Theory of Functions of a Complex Variable, Volume 1 MaxxusHevicn Theory of Functions of a Complex Variable, Volume I! ‘MARKUSHEVICH Theory of Functions of a Complex Variable, Volume Hl PeTROVSK! Ordinary Differential Equations SHILOV An Introduction to the Theory of Linear Spaces ‘SeuLov & GuREVICH Integral, Measure and Derivative: A Unified Approach Toxstov Fourier Series WAINSTEIN & ZuBAKOV Extraction of Signals from Noise YacLoM An Introduction to the Theory of Stationary Random Functions PRENTICE-HALL INTERNATIONAL, INC., London PRENTICE-HALL OF AUSTRALIA, PTY. LTD., Sydney PRENTICE-HALL OF CANADA, LTD., Toronto PRENTICE-HALL OF INDIA PRIVATE LTD., New Delhi PRENTICE-HALL OF JAPAN, INC., TokyoTHEORY OF FUNCTIONS OF A COMPLEX VARIABLE Volume II A. I. MARKUSHEVICH of Mathematics Moscow State University Revised English Edition Translated and Edited by Richard A. Silverman PRENTICE-HALL, INC. Englewood Cliffs, NJ.© 1967 by PRENTICE-HALL, INC. Englewood Cliffs, N.J. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any means without permission in writing from the publisher. Current printing (last digit): 09876543221 Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 65—12876 Printed in the United States of AmericaAUTHOR’S PREFACE The theory of analytic functions of a complex variable is one of the outstanding accomplishments of classical mathematics. The rudiments of the theory had already ‘begun to emerge in the eighteenth century, in the investi- gations of Euler and d'Alembert, but the full flowering of the subject was only possible in the nineteenth cen- tury, as a result of the fundamental researches of Cauchy, Riemann and Weierstrass. Its methods are widely used in many branches of mathematics, ranging from number theory to fluid dynamics, elasticity theory and electrodynamics. Even in our own day, when young scientists are so often preoccupied with more abstract branches of mathematics, the theory of analytic func- tions remains as significant as ever, both as a treasury of flexible and powerful analytic tools, and as a pro- totype or model of other theories dealing with generali- zations of analytic functions in various directions. It is the author’s pleasant duty to cordially thank Dr. Richard A. Silverman, who translated the book into English, introduced many appropriate changes making the book easier to read, and enhanced the English- Janguage edition with an abundance of problems and exercises, This book stems from lectures given over the course of many years at Moscow University. In commending it to the attention of its new readership, the author would consider his purpose fulfilled if the present edition served to stimulate the interest of young mathematicians in one of the most remarkable branches of exact science, created by two centuries of joint effort on the part ofVi AUTHOR'S PREFACE outstanding scholars of many nations, and if, at the same time, it represented a contribution by him and the translator towards the strengthening of cultural and scientific cooperation between their two countries. AUT. M,TRANSLATOR’S PREFACE It would be difficult to recall in detail the ways in which the present version departs from the Russian original. Suffice it to say that in keeping with my philosophy of “enlightened translation,” I thought it entirely appropri- ate to interact strongly with the initial text, especially since it lies within the area of my mathematical com- petence. This has led to a redistribution of the subject matter over three English volumes (the Russian original contains some 700 oversized pages, many in very small print), an overall restyling both of the typography and the art work (in particular, more theorems, examples, remarks, etc. have been explicitly identified as such), an adaptation of the bibliographic materials to suit the needs of those who do not know Russian (a class which presumably includes almost all the readers of this series), and so on, Certainly the most significant change is the addition of over 700 relevant problems, closely paralleling the text and stemming from a variety of sources, the most important of which is the excellent collection by Volkovyski, Lunts and Aramanovich (Moscow, 1961). The entire manuscript has also been read by Dr. T. J. Rivlin, who made many helpful suggestions. Sections marked with asterisks can be omitted on first reading. However, it is only fair to say that they have been so marked merely because of their relative diffi- culty, and actually contain some of the most interesting material in the book. RAS. vitpart I CONTENTS CONFORMAL MAPPING. APPROXIMATION THEORY, Page 1. CONFORMAL MAPPING: RUDIMENTS, Page 3. 1. Conformal Mapping of Annular Domains, 3. 2. Conformal Mapping of Simply Connected Domains, 8. 3. Basic Properties of Univalent Functions, 14. Problems, 27. CONFORMAL MAPPING: RAMIFICATIONS, Page 32. 4, Conformal Mapping of Sequences of Domains, 32. 5. Curvilinear Half-Intervals, 42. 6. Accessible Boundary Points, 52. 7. Prime Ends, 57. 8. Boundary Behavior of Conformal Mappings, 66. Problems, 77. APPROXIMATION BY RATIONAL FUNC- TIONS AND POLYNOMIALS, Page 80. 9. Locally Analytic Functions, 80. 10, Functions Meromorphic on a Domain, 84. 11. Runge’s Theorem and Related Results, 88. 12. Approximation on Closed Domains, 97. 13. Approximation on Continua, 100. 14, Faber Polynomials, 104. 15. Bernstein’s Theorem, 112.PART 2 PART 3 APPROXIMATION BY RATIONAL FUNC- TIONS AND POLYNOMIALS—Continued 16. Approximation in the Mean, 116. 17. Polynomials Orthogonal on a Domain, 121. Problems, 129. PERIODIC AND ELLIPTIC FUNCTIONS, Page 133. PERIODIC MEROMORPHIC FUNCTIONS, Page 135. 18. Preliminaries, 135. 19. Periodic Entire Functions. Trigonometric Poly- nomials, 141. 20. Elliptic Functions, 146, Problems, 152. ELLIPTIC FUNCTIONS: WEIERSTRASS’ THEORY, Page 155. 21. Weierstrass’ Elliptic Functions, 155. 22. The Functions (z |, i2) and g(z|« — if, a + if), 162. 23, The Differential Equation for p(z), 168. 24, Inversion of Elliptic Integrals, 172. 25. The Functions ¢{(z) and o{z), 178. 26, The Addition Theorem for g(z), 183. 27, The Spherical Pendulum, 186. Problems, 191. ELLIPTIC FUNCTIONS: JACOB'S THEORY, Page 194. 28. Jacobi’s Elliptic Functions, 194. 29. Theta Functions and Their Relation to Elliptic Functions, 198. 30. Infinite Product Expansions of Theta Func- tions, 208. Problems, 212. RIEMANN SURFACES. ANALYTIC CON- TINUATION, Page 215,RIEMANN SURFACES, Page 217. 31. Topological Preliminaries, 217. 32. Abstract Riemann Surfaces, 221. 33. Triangulations, 227. 34. Interior Mappings, 232. 35. Riemann Covering Surfaces, 237. 36. Regular Analytic Curves, 241. 37. The Riemann Surface of a Meromorphic Function, 245. 38. Examples, 250. Problems, 254. ANALYTIC CONTINUATION, Page 257. 39. Elements. The Complete Analytic Function, 257. 40. Circular Elements. The Monodromy Theorem, 263. 41. Analytic Continuation in a Star, 272. 42. Singular Points. Generalized Elements and the Analytic Configuration, 276. 43. The Analytic Configuration as a Topological Surface, 287. 44. The Analytic Configuration as a Riemann Surface, 294. 45. Algebraic Functions, 297. Problems, 308. THE SYMMETRY PRINCIPLE AND ITS APPLICATIONS, Page 315. 46. The Symmetry Principle, 315. 47. More on the Schwarz-Christoffel Transforma- tion, 320. 48. Examples, 332. 49, The Modular Function. Picard’s First Theo- rem, 336. 50. Normal Families of Analytic Functions, 340. 51. Picard’s Second Theorem. Julia Directions, 343. Problems, 347. BIBLIOGRAPHY, Page 351. INDEX, Page 355. CONTENTS = xtTHEORY OF FUNCTIONS OF A COMPLEX VARIABLE Volume HIra CONFORMAL MAPPING APPROXIMATION THEORYCONFORMAL MAPPING: RUDIMENTS 1. Conformal Mapping of Annular Domains ‘The reader has already encountered the elementary theory of conformal mapping in the earlier volumes of this course (see e.g., Chap. 1.8). We now make a deeper study of the subject, incidentally proving some results Cited earlier without proof (see Sec. 11.27). Let w = f(z) be a one-to-one conformal mapping of the first kind (briefly, a conformal mapping) carrying a domain G in the z-plane into a domain D in the w-plane. Then a theorem due to Menshov asserts that f(z) is univalent.? Moreover, according to Theorem [.6.1, f(z) is a homeomorphism, and hence a necessary condition for the existence of a conformal mapping of G onto D is that G be homeomorphic to D. Thus, in particular, a multiply connected domain cannot be mapped conformally onto a simply connected domain (see Theorem 1.6.4, Corollary). However, the fact that G is homeomorphic to D is not a sufficient condi- tion for the existence of a conformal mapping of G onto D. For example, let ? We refer to A. I. Markushevich, Theory of Functions of a Complex Variable, Volumes J, I! (translated by R. A. Silverman), Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N. J. (1965). These two books will henceforth be called simply Volume land Volume IL. Theorems, chapters, sections, formulas, problems, figures and page numbers cited from Volumes I and II will be indicated by the prefixes I and II, respectively. Thus Chap. 1.8 means Chapter 8 of Volume I, Sec. 11,27 means Section 27 of Volume Il, and so on. . * See D. E. Menshov, Les Conditions de Monogénéité, Actualités scientifiques et industrielles, No. 329, Hermann et Cie., Paris (1936), p. 39 ff. Concerning the terminol- ogy, cf. footnote 17, p. 11.164. 34 > CONFORMAL MAPPING: RUDIMENTS. CHAP. 1 G be the finite z-plane, and let D be the disk |w| < R < oo. If there were a function f(z) mapping G conformally onto D, then f(z) would be single- valued, analytic and bounded in the whole plane. But then f(z) = const, according to Liouville’s theorem (Theorem 1.16.8), contrary to the assump- tion that f(z) is one-to-one. Thus there does not exist a conformal mapping of the finite plane G onto the disk D (of finite radius). On the other hand, G and D are homeomorphic. In fact, the function ‘2Rz = fc 0, w=f@) = fr arc tan {z| for z# 9 for z=0 is one of an infinite family of homeomorphisms of G onto D. Remark. Actually, the finite plane can be mapped conformally only onto itself or onto the extended plane minus a single finite point. This follows from the fact that, according to Theorem II.4.3, every function univalent in the whole finite plane must be a Mébius transformation.? Our first theorem shows that in general, one domain cannot be mapped conformally onto another unless certain conditions are satisfied: TueoreM 1.1. The anmdus G:0 0, (4) where w = u + iv and I’, is traversed in the positive direction. Formula (1.4) can be written as gy = = 5 Im {(u — is)(du + idd)} = 5h 1m { 705) 5 fee) 40, where the sign of the second integral is the same as that of the first, since increasing @ from 0 to 2n corresponds to traversing I’, in the positive direction. Expanding f(ee®) in Laurent series, we obtain Sipe") = flee") leet) _ ‘S ina,p*e. a,pre™, (1.5) Since these expansions are uniformly convergent in @ (for fixed p), we have We @ @ S,= oils im{ 3 anereme ina,p"e'"®} d8 1S. < =i §. S. inlal2e2n} == > laste = > nlal?e® — x >: nlanlte-™ > 0. “See eg, D. V.. Widder, Advanced Calculus, second edition, Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N. J. (1961), p. 225.6 CONFORMAL MAPPING: RUDIMENTS cuar. Now, since I’, lies inside the circle |w] = Ra, while the circle |w] = R, lies inside T’,, for all p in (7;, r2), we have the inequality RRE< mn > lao < eR (4

nladte-™ a 0, and hence, taking the limit as p > r.—, we find that ¥. © > nlay|2r < RB + 2, nla_,l?rz?", ms & which implies the convergence of (1.8), as well as the inequality > nla < Rg. 1) aaa In just the same way, we can prove the convergence of (1.7) and the inequality > nla,|?ri* > Re. (1.10) It follows from (1.9) and (1.10) that > nlan|*r3" > nlaglers" < IR¥ SEC. 1 CONFORMAL MAPPING: RUDIMENTS 7 On the other hand, noting that AAD nlagleteb2 — 9) 22 - 3 = = ____—_ 30, AD nla,|ri na since n(r3"-2 — r7*-2) > O for all integral n, we conclude that Bo eR ns SR Rey Ta Re (1.11) However, the above argument obviously continues to hold if we inter- change the role of the z and w-planes and of the domains G and D. Therefore Ro ta An which, together with (1.11), implies the similarity condition (1.1). But then 0, and hence a, = 0 unless n = 0 orm = 1. Therefore I@) = a + 4,2, ie., f(z) is a Mobius transformation, as asserted (in fact, an entire linear transformation). To conclude the proof, we need only consider the case where w = f(z) traverses I’, in the direction opposite to that in which the point z traverses Yp: In this case, the transformation w’ = 1/w carries the annulus D into a new annulus To prove this, it is sufficient to show that every simply connected domain G can be mapped conformally onto some disk K,:|w| < R with its center at the origin. In fact, if w = f(z) maps G conformally onto Kp, while w = F(z) maps another domain D conformally onto the disk Kp:|w| < R’, then the function _fR F[pfe] maps G conformally onto D. We now prove a fundamental theorem due to Riemann, on the existence of conformal mappings: Tueorem 1.2 (Riemann’s mapping theorem). Every simply connected domain G in the extended plane whose boundary contains more than one point can be mapped conformally onto a disk with its center at the origin. ® From now on, we shall confine ourselves to the study of this case, referring the reader interested in the theory of conformal mapping of multiply connected domains to the literature. See ¢.g., the books by Goluzin and Nehari (cited in the Bibliography on Pp. 351-353). The work of M. V. Keldysh in this area is notable.iEC. 2 CONFORMAL MAPPING: RUDIMENTS 9 Proof. We begin by showing that the set of functions univalent on G contains bounded functions. (This set is nonempty, since any Mobius transformation is univalent on G.) First let G be bounded. Then the function f(z) = z is obviously bounded. Next suppose G is unbounded, but has an exterior point zo. Then the exterior of G contains some disk lz — 20] < p, and the function 1 S@ = eae is univalent on G and moreover bounded, since 1 le < e (eG). Finally suppose G is unbounded, but has no exterior. By hypothesis, G has at least two distinct boundary points « and 8. Since G is simply con- nected, « and 6 belong to some continuum T° which is the boundary of G. Consider the double-valued function 92) = A with two branch points « and B. Since G is obtained by excluding a con- tinuum containing « and 6 from the extended plane, the function ¢{z) has two single-valued branches 9,(z) and ,(z) on G, whose values at. every point of G differ only in sign. The functions ,(z) and 9,(z) are univaleat on G, since it follows from Ae 4-6 that Byo-e_ wa 2,-B 4-6 and hence 2 = I Therefore the functions w = 9,(z) and w = 9(z) map G conformally onto two domains G, and G,. Obviously G, MG, = 0, since, as just shown, the presence of a common point w = ¢,(z,) = 92(z.) would imply z, = z,, thereby contradicting the fact that ¢,(z) = —¢,(z) [note that ¢,(z) and ¢,(z) cannot equal 0 or co). Therefore every point wy € Gz is an exterior point of G,, i.e., there exists a disk |w — wo| < @ con- tained in the exterior of G,. But then the function 1 10 =F” =m is univalent and bounded on G, since |f(2)| < I/p.$0 CONFORMAL MAPPING: RUDIMENTS. CHAP. 1 Thus, in every case, there exist bounded univalent functions on G. Let f(z) be such a function, and let zo be a finite point of G. Then S'@o) # 0, since f(z) is univalent on G (see Theorem 11.4.1, Corollary 2), and hence -f0 = feo) PO =" FG) is a bounded univalent function on G, which vanishes at z, and whose derivative at z) equals 1. Let E,, denote the set of all functions defined on G which have the same properties as F(z). Then every F(z) € E,, has a finite least upper bound M(F) = sup [F@)| > 0. Geometrically speaking, M(F) is just the radius of the smallest disk with center at the origin which contains the image of G under the mapping w = F(z). In general, we obtain different numbers M(F) for different functions F(z) € E,,. Our plan is to show that £., contains a function U2) such that Af(}) equals the smallest value R,, =_inf M(F). PEE ay It will then turn out that the function w = 4(z) maps G conformally onto the disk Jw] < Re. With this in mind, let {F,(z)} be a sequence of functions in £., such that lim M(F,) = i = Ra. Jim M(F,) iat M() = R,,. (Such a sequence exists by the very definition of the greatest lower bound.) This sequence is uniformly bounded on G, since the convergent numerical sequence {M(F,)} is bounded: M(F,) = sup |F,@)| Regs © Here and henceforth “inside G” means “on every compact subset of G,” as in the definition on p. 1.411.SEC. 2 CONFORMAL MAPPING: RUDIMENTS J 1 and hence, given any ¢ > 0, WO) < a@ +5 < Ry te for all sufficiently large »,. Therefore W@I 0 is arbitrary. On the other hand ((z)€ E;,, since (2) is bounded and univalent on G, and Yo) = 0, YZ) = 1 “Tt follows that sup YE) > Regs which, together with (1.13), implies sup 1M)| = The rest of the proof consists in showing that the function w = ((z) maps the domain G conformally onto the disk Kg:|w| < R.,. Since we already know that $(z) is univalent on G and that 4(G) is contained in Ko, we need only prove that every point of the disk Ky belongs to $(G). Suppose the opposite. Then Kg must contain boundary points of {(G). Let wo (0 < |wol < Rz,) be such a point, and form the following func- tions, each involving the preceding one: wat, m= RR BaF =H), wa VR = Hs We = Ry eote.- YZ), Wa = Geo a2) (vg involves a fixed branch of Vw,). Each of the functions w, = $42), regarded as a function of w,-, (wo = w), is univalent on the domain y-2(G) [¥o(G) = Y(G)]. Therefore all the functions, regarded as func- tions of z, are univalent on the domain G. The function w,(w) transforms the disk Ky into itself, carrying the point ws into the origin w, = Oand the domain ((G) into a domain 4,(G) contained in Ko, with w, = 0 as a boundary point.’ The function w,(w;,) has two single-valued analytic branches on the domain ,(G). Choosing one of these branches, we note that it takes all its values in the disk K, and carries the point W, = Ointo the point w, = 0. Thus $.(G) © Ko, and w, = 0 is a boun- dary point of }(G). The function w,(w,) transforms Ko into itself and carries (Zo) into the origin. Therefore the univalent function ,(z) ? The same symbol Xo is used for all the disks |w] < Rags [Wil < Ragy-+-s Wal < Rag-12. CONFORMAL MAPPING: RUDIMENTS. CHAP. vanishes at the point z) and maps G onto a domain $(G) © Ko. Calculating the derivative ¥(zo), we obtain a ai, dws) Keo = = 4A... “AW he =weeg=0 FW hny=vytzor= — ve Fahey = ¥at2y)=/= RES = ge - feb Ri, 2V—we Ri, — RelWol —R.,Wo It follows that [4(zo)| > 1, since fwo] < Rs, and hence $9(2) ¢ Es,- However, dividing (z) by 44(z.), we obtain a function $4(2)€ E, [y,(z) is univalent on G, (Zo) = 0, Y(Zo) = 1}. Clearly, ¥4(2) maps G onto a domain 4,(G) contained in the disk Ry Imel < Tega < Bw and hence sup 1H)! < acy ve 7 < Bes But this contradicts the definition of the number R.,, as the greatest lower bound of the numbers sup |F@)|, FQ) © Ey thereby proving the theorem. Remark, Yn the course of the proof, we found that the function w = ({z) accomplishing the conformal mapping of G onto K, can be made to satisfy the extra conditions YE) =0, YZ) =1, where Z, is an arbitrary finite point of G. The disk Ko found in the proof is centered at the origin and has a well-defined radius R,,, called the conformal radius of the domain G (relative to the point z,). Replacing ((z) by the function -l, I@) = R, V2), we obtain a conformal mapping of G onto the unit disk |w| < 1, where the function f(z) accomplishing this mapping satisfies the conditions S@o) = 0, — fo) > 0. Geometrically, this means that the point z) € G goes into the center of the unit disk, while the tangents to all curves passing through. the point zy experience no rotation when subjected to the transformation w = f(z) mapping them into curves passing through the center of the disk,SEC. 2 CONFORMAL MAPPING: RUDIMENTS = 13 ‘THEOREM 1.3 (Uniqueness theorem for conformal mapping).® Let G be the same as in Theorem 1.2, and let zo be an arbitrary finite point of G. Then there exists a unique function w = f(z) which maps G conformally onto the disk || < 1 and satisfies the conditions FG) =9, — f'o) > 0. Proof. Suppose w = g(z) is another function satisfying the same conditions as w = f(z). Then the function 9) = FIg-*)] is analytic on the unit disk, satisfies the conditions 2) = fis) =f) =0, 9) = wD and maps the unit disk onto itself conformally. Therefore, according to Schwarz’s lemma (Theorem 1.17.8), le) < |wl, S'Go) > 9, ie, If@)1 < |s@| (1.14) for all zeG. But then, interchanging the roles of f(z) and g(z), we obtain Is@)| < [/@)|, which together with (1.14) implies If@)| = Is@). or equivalently le) = wl. (1.15) Applying Schwarz’s lemma again to (1.15), we conclude that p(w) = ew. But 9'(0) > 0 and hence e = 1, ie., ov) = w. Tt follows that F@ = 8) for all z € G, as asserted. © Theorem 1.3 was anticipated in Problem 1.5.22. Clearly, there are infinitely many conformal. mappings of G onto'|w| < 1 unless we impose further conditions on the mappings. This follows from the fact that there are infinitely many conformal mappings of the unit disk onto itself (accomplished by Mdbius transformations).14 CONFORMAL MAPPING: RUDIMENTS CHAP. 1 3. Basic Properties of Univalent Functions In this section, we pursue the study of univalent functions begun in Chap. 11.4. ‘Tueorem 1.4 (“Area theorem”). If the function SF] = ZH Gy $ HZ Heep OZ Hoe is univalent outside the unit circle |z| = 1, then > nla? <1. (1.16) Proof. The function w = f(z) maps the circle y,:|z| = p > 1 ontoa closed Jordan curve T’,, bounding a domain of area S,, and one circuit around y, in the positive direction corresponds to one circuit around T, in the positive direction (why?). As on p. 5, the area S, is given by the expression 3 [edo — va = 7 im (Tee ao 1 =f Wniee® + do + ayerte™ + aypmFet +++) x ipa — 249-22" — Dagp™4e-M8 — ---)} dB Sp ‘2ni = im {FF (e* — oxo — 2lste"* —---~ allt" —--} = a(e* -> nls,Fe-*) >0. It follows that nla,|?p-9" < ° 4 a " for any p > 1. Therefore Mz nlenlem2 < pt 4 for any integer N > 0, and hence, taking the limit as p > 1+, we obtain first 2 2 PB > ale? < 1, A and then (1.16) after passing to the limit N —> 00. ‘THeoreM 1.5. Let the function SF) = 2 + age t+ + az +---‘sec. 3 CONFORMAL MAPPING: RUDIMENTS = 5 be univalent on the unit disk \z| < 1. Then laa] < 2, (1.17) where the equality holds only for the function = Z + Dez? + JeMazd 4... 4 em MleZM +. .., (1.18) which maps the unit disk conformally onto the domain G whose boundary is the ray of inclinaton x — ¢. obtained by joining the point —4e~* to the point at infinity. Proof. Consider the function (Z) = 1 + agz? + agz* +--+ + a,7-2 +--+, This function is single-valued, nonvanishing and analytic on the unit disk. In fact 9(0) = 1 # 0, while if z # 0, then 9) = &, z IO) = (ay and since f(z?) # 0 if z # 0 (by the univalence), we must have »(z) # 0 if z # 0. Therefore the double-valued function - {2 z has two single-valued analytic branches on the unit disk. Choosing the branch which takes the value 1 for z = 0, we have Ye) = U + Gaz? +--+)? = 1+ HGgz? +-+-) — Yagz? +-+- PR tee =14 824... alt pet ¥@) [this expansion converges on the unit disk, by the analyticity of ¢{z)]. Obviously, the function 4(z) is even. We now form the odd function WO) = 24+ B22 4..= 2h) =z, fi - VIG. (1.19) This function is univalent on the unit disk, since if x(z,) ~ x(¢,), then S@2 = f22, ie.,z, = £2. Butif z, = —z_ # 0, then x(z,) = —x(z2), and hence the equality x(z,) = x(z2) is impossible [the function (2) vanishes with (z*), i.e., only for z = 0). Thus we must have z, = za, which implies that x(z) is univalent, as asserted.16 CONFORMAL MAPPING: RUDIMENTS: CHAP. E Next we replace z by I/€ and x@ = x(t) by Since, in addition to x(z), this involves only Mébius transformations, which are univalent, the function F(C) must be univalent on the exterior of the unit circle [¢| = 1 (if |z| < 1, then |] > 1). For F() we have the expansion FO = Therefore, according to Theorem 1.4, a? 2 and hence |a,| < 2, which agrees with (1.17). Finally suppose |a,| = 2, so that a, = 2e“, where @ is real. Then all the coefficients in the expansion of F(C), starting from that of €-?, must vanish. Therefore oa FO) =~ et, which implies 1 1 z 10) = o(@) = Fg = Cees * Te or 2) 2? SG?) = e@)P =(- ee and hence I@= ar which agrees with (1.18), where the indicated Taylor series expansion is easily verified, To see that the function f(z) maps the unit disk onto the domain G figuring in the statement of the theorem, we need only carry out the following consecutive transformations: a= ez, m= z(n3 + x) Zq = —2e(2q + 1), w= 2 =f). The proof is now complete.SEC. 3 CONFORMAL MAPPING: RUDIMENTS 17 TueorEM 1.6. Let G be the image of the unit disk \z| <1 under the univalent mapping w = f@) = 2 + ag? Het age bee Then G always contains the disk |w| < 4. Proof. Let wo be an arbitrary point not in G. Then the function 9-0 -2+(a+3 alert According to Theorem 1.5, we must have a+ t|<2, Wo and hence 1 |e |<2+ lal <4, ie, [wo] > 3. Therefore the disk |w| < 3 is contained in G, as asserted. Remark. The constant } cannot be made larger, as shown by choosing ©) to be the function (1.18). Tueoren 1.7 (“Distortion theorem”). If the function S@) = Zt ay? bot B"H is univalent on the unit disk \z| <1, then the magnification |f"(2)| (the “‘distortion”) under the mapping w = f(z) satisfies the inequality Tah the tangent to I’ at the corresponding point f(re) has inclination e=0+ 5 + Arg f‘(re*). * See G. M. Goluzin, op. cit., Chap. 4, Sec. 1. 1° 4 closed Jordan curve is said to be convex if every straight line intersecting both the interior and the exterior of the curve intersects the curve itself in just two points.SEC. 3 CONFORMAL MAPPING: RUDIMENTS 2 ‘The sign of the derivative 29 a 2Ares (re) 2 1 4 Dares et) b+ 20 (1.30) determines how the inclination of the tangent to I at the variable point w = f(re®) changes with w (note that w describes I in the positive direction as 8 increases). In particular, if 49/60 > 0 in some interval (®', 8), then the corresponding arc of I is concave towards the point w = 0 (convex when seen from outside I’), while if 29/28 < 0 in (6’, 6”), this arc is convex towards w = 0 (concave from outside F). But in- formation about the sign of the derivative (1.30) can be deduced from (1.29). In fact tyr arti _ (—2+4+ V3 —2- v3) 7 PO iF , and hence &¢/26 > 0 for all 0 ¢ [0, 2n] if r<2— V3 = 0.2679... This completes the proof, since then I’ is convex. Remark. For the function (1.26) we have LW) _ Werz)? + detsz F'2) 1 — 2)? which for z = —re~" takes real values 2r? — 4r 1-,F Therefore, in this case & _ 4 2Ares') a6 1+ ar+1_ (r—-2+ V3) -2- V3) = 1-7 , from which it is clear that 49/00 < Oifr > 2— V3(r < 1), ic., the images of the circles |z| = r > 2 ~ V3 (r < 1) under the mapping (1.26) are no convex, THEOREM 1.9. If the function SQ) = z+ Og? + bate is univalent on the unit disk |z| < 1, then lzl z| aoe real > f" tees as required. Finally, it is obvious that equality can hold in (1.31) only if equality holds in (1.20), and then, as we know, f(z) is given by (1.26). THEOREM 1.10, Let G be the domain onto which the univalent function SI(@) = 2 + gz? Hort gz" ++ maps the unit disk \z| <1. Then the (inner) area of G equals S = nfl + la)? +---4 nla,J? +- -] >, (1.32) where S = n if and only if f(z) = z. Proof. Let U, be the image of the circle |z} = r < 1. Then T, is a closed rectifiable Jordan curve whose interior G, has a well-defined area S,, given by the formula S,= f f If’ |r dr a8 (1.33) taler d| (sce Problem 1.8). Moreover, it is clear that G, ¢ G, < G, < G and S, < S, if r r(E). Suppose this assertion is false. Then there exists an increasing sequence of positive numbers {r,} converging to | and a corresponding sequence of points {w,} in E such that w, ¢G,, (7 = 1, 2,...). The sequence {w,} has a limit point woe E < G. The inverse image zo = f- (wo) belongs to the unit disk, and hence some neighborhood -#(z,) is contained in every disk |z] < 7, with sufficiently large n > N. It follows that f[4(z.)] < G,, for all n > N. Since f[(zo)] is a domain, there is a neighborhood (wo) such that (wo) < fI/ (zo)]. But W (vo) contains points w, with arbitrarily large values of n, and hence every point w, € W(wo) with n > N belongs to G,,, contrary to the definition of the sequence {w,}. This contradiction shows that E is contained in some domain G,, and hence in all-domains G, with r > 1. Now let 2 be any family of closed squares constructed in the w-plane by drawing lines parallel to the coordinate axes, and let F be the union of all the squares of 2 contained in G. By the inner area of G, we mean the quantity S= sup Area of F, (1.34) where the least upper bound is taken over all possible families 2 (S may be infinite), Since F is a compact subset of G, we can always find a num- ber ro < I such that F < G, for r > rp. On the other hand, given any G,, we can always find a set F of the type just described such that G, © F< G (why). Together with the definition (1.34), this implies S= lim S,. rede Returning to (1.33) and noting that f‘(z) has the series expansion SFR =F re%) = 14 > nage tele 09, Se we find that Sf (+S mter) (a S may tte ar a = Sl-(r + > n?| S =) r= afr +> nla"). Suppose we replace r by I in the last series on the right, thereby obtaining aaa (1 + 3 nla,). (135)24 CONFORMAL MAPPING: RUDIMENTS CHAP. 1 Then if (1.35) converges, it follows from Theorems I.15.2 and I.15.3 that 5; is a continuous function of r in {0, 1], and hence = ji = 2). Sm lim s, (1 + 3 ala ) On the other hand, if (1.35) diverges, then given any A > 0, however large, we can find an integer No(A) > 0 such that x 1+ > nlayit) > a(1+ 3 nla for all N > No(A). Therefore ¥. (1 +> nla") >A ae for all N > No(A) and r sufficiently close to 1. But this implies S= a(t +> nlasr™) >A coy for all r sufficiently close to 1, and hence S= lim S,= 0. soit Thus, whether finite or not, the area of the domain G is given by the formula (1.32), as asserted. Moreover, it is obvious that S = x if and only if a = =4,= This completes the proof. = 0, ie, f(@ =z Remark. Thus a conformal mapping of the disk |z| < 1 by a function f(z) such that (0) = 0, f’(0) = 1 always leads to a domain of area greater than that of the disk, except when f(z) reduces to the identity transformation. Naturally, this result can be extended to conformal mappings of a disk whose radius and center are arbitrary, provided only that the derivative of the function accomplishing the mapping equals I at the center of the disk. Tueorem 1.11, Uf the function S@) = 2 + atte tage te is univalent on the unit disk |z| <1, then EE een < toc. (1.36) Proof. Consider the odd univalent function x) = VIG = z + byz® + baz +-- +sSEC. 3 CONFORMAL MAPPING: RUDIMENTS 25, used in proving Theorem 1.5 [ef. (1.19)]. As in the proof of Theorem 1.10, this function maps the disk |z| < r < 1 onto a domain D, of area ZL, = n(r? + 3]B5|?7* + 5|bs|2r*° +--+). Writing HO = max [x2)1, we have al)? > D, = xr? + 3bg|2r° + 5|bs|?r?° +--+). But according to Theorem 1.9, [e@)P = max |x(2)/? = max |f(@*)| helen leler A = nee VOI Sa Therefore (7? + 3[g|?r° + 5|bgh2r2° +--+ SCF which implies r r+ 3[b,|?r> + Sldo|?r® +--+ < 7 (1.37) or + [bolt + [Balt +---< Ee, (1.38) after integrating (1.37) from 0 tor < 1. Next we observe that the left-hand side of (1.38) is just the integral 1 on aah, betreI? a9 [cf. (1.16.30)]. Clearly 1 Lp an L ps , Fe bevey2 do = = [eres do = "Lire ae, where we have written 6’ = 20 in the last integral. But on JF irterey) a0" =f" [7eetey| ae, since f(re"*) is a periodic function of 6°, and hence 1 ope Lope . . ae J, eee? dO = = J” 1ferte™)| do. Therefore (1.38) can be written in the form 1 5 P RJ, eed <7, 2. (1.39) Proof. Since a= sf La 0, y > O onto the unit disk A:|w| < 1. Map the “slit disk” |z| < 1, z¢[0, 1) onto A. 1.4, Let E be a continuum whose complement E* is connected, and let (2) be an entire function taking no values in E. Prove that f(z) = const. Hint. Map E* onto a disk. 1.5. Let G be the same as in Theorem 1.2, with conformal radius Rey (Zo € G). Prove that the circle |z — zo] = Reo always contains boundary points of G. 1.6. Let G and G* be two domains, each satisfying the conditions of Theorem 1.2, and suppose G < G*, Prove that Rig < R3,, where Re, and RY, are the conformal radii of G and G* relative to a point zo € G. Comment. In other words, enlargement of G leads to enlargement of its conformal radius. 1.7. Let G be the same as in Theorem 1.2, and let e,, be the family of all functions analytic and bounded by 1 on G satisfying the conditions Fz) = 0, f'Z%)>O0 (HEG). Prove that ¢,, contains a function oz) such that 9’(zo) equals the largest value Yeo = sup f“(Z0). Fete Prove that the function w = ¢(z) maps G conformally onto the unit disk lw] < 1. What is the relation between 2,, and the conformal radius of G? L8. Let f(z) = u + iv be analytic on a domain G with area, and suppose f(G) has area S. Prove that S= [fren de ay. o Hint, Write eu ou ex s- j J et dx dy ax ay and use the Cauchy-Riemann equations.28 CONFORMAL MAPPING: RUDIMENTS, CHAP. 1 1.9. Let G be a simply connected domain whose boundary contains more than one point, and let F(z) be any function analytic on G satisfying the conditions Fo) =0, F(z)=1 GoeG). Prove that the integral [fire aay ¢ takes its minimum value for the function mapping G conformally onto the disk |w| < Rag, where Rey is the conformal radius of G. What is this mini- mum value? 1.10. According to Schwarz’s lemma (Theorem 1.17.8), if f(z) is analytic and bounded by 1 on the unit disk K:|z| < 1 and if f(0) = 0, then | f(z)| < |z] for all z¢ K and |f’(0)| < 1, where the equalities hold (the first for z # 0) if and only if f(z) = ez. Prove the following generalization of Schwarz’s lemma, where the condition f(0) = 0 is dropped: If f(z) is analytic and bounded by 1 on K, then @| <| &zeX), 1 V@F Ge, a4) rel< ia where the equalities hold if and only if zta T+ a f@=" Fe @e K). Hint. The function (Et NpeR) -7O fo BO = + Tare) satisfies the conditions of Schwarz’s lemma. 1.11. Prove that the expression IF@l 1 |f@P has the same value for every conformal mapping w = f(z) of the domain G onto the unit disk || <1. Belz) = Hint. Prove that u{z) is invariant under the transformation fly = {O25 (al <1). TwPROBLEMS CONFORMAL MAPPING: RUDIMENTS 29 1.12. Let G and D be two simply connected domains whose boundaries each contain more than one point. Let f(z) be analytic on G, and suppose SG) < D. Prove that If @Olvolf@ < wz) (ze G), with the notation of Problem 1.11. Hint. Use Schwarz’s lemma. 1.13. Use the result of Problem 1.12 to deduce the inequality (1.41). 1.14, Let f(z) be analytic on the disk K:|z| < 1, and suppose f(z) takes no negative values on K. Prove that £@) 4 F@)| “T= Te* 1 = Iel)? < |f@| - (1+ lel)? iF ia) FO) <(< ia) for all ze K. Hint. Use the result of Problem 1.12, 1.15. A domain G is said to be convex if every pair of points of G can be joined by a line segment contained in G (cf, Problems 1.4.4 and 1.13.2-1.13.5), and starlike with respect to a point C€ G if every point of G can be joined to by a line segment contained in G. A closed Jordan curve L is said to be convex if I(L) is convex, and starlike if (L) is starlike. Show that L is convex if and only if every straight line intersecting both I(L) and E(Z) intersects L in just two points (cf. footnote 10, p. 20) and starlike with respect to ¢ € AL) if and only if every ray emanating from { intersects L in only one point (cf. Theorem 1.13.3). Prove that every convex domain is starlike (cf. Problem 1.13.5). 1.16. The curve I’ figuring in the proof of Theorem 1.8 is convex if and only if the expression (1.30) is nonnegative. Write an analogous condition for I’ to be starlike with respect to the point w = 0. Ans. rt @ Arg f(z) _ @ 28 Fale 1.17. Let f(z) be analytic in a neighborhood of the origin, and let r, be the largest value of r such that f(z) is univalent on the disk K,:|z| < r. Similarly, let rg be the largest value of r such that f(z) is convex univalent on K,, ic., 4) is univalent on K, and f(K;) is convex, and let rs be the largest value of r such that f(z) is starlike univalent on Kz, i.e., f(z) is univalent on K, and S(K,) is starlike with respect to w = 0. Then obviously re < rs < m1. Find the values of 7,72, and ra for each of the following functions: a) rm b) z+ az? (areal); c)30 CONFORMAL MAPPING: RUDIMENTS CHAP. 1 1.18, Let f(z) be analytic on a convex domain G, and suppose Re f’(z) > 0 for all 7G. Prove that f(z) is univalent on G. Hint. Calculate Ste) ~ fle) = | F'@4z, where L is the line segment joining z; to za. 1.19. Let G be the same as in Theorem 1.2, and let w = F(z) be the function mapping G conformally onto the disk |w| < R, and satisfying the conditions FQ) =0, F(z)=1 (eG), where R., is the conformal radius of G. Let pz. denote the distance between Zp and the boundary of G. Prove that Pao < Ray < 4x0: Hint, Use Theorems 1.6 and 1.10. Comment. Thus Re, > 0 8 Pap > 0. 1.20. Let ° L(2) = az” be convex univalent on the unit disk K:|z| < 1, let 8@)= > bz” ast be analytic on K, and suppose g(K} © f(K). Prove that |b,| < |a:| and in particular |a,| < |a,| for > 1. Hint. Use Schwarz’s lemma and the fact that G2) = & 3 eter) = bai + banZ™ +++, where ¢, (n = 1,..., 7) are the mth roots of unity. 1.21. Suppose LQ) = Zt yz? +--+ + agZ® +00 is convex univalent on the unit disk |z| < 1. Prove that lal <1 @22), where the estimate is sharp. 1.22. Suppose S]) = 2+ ag +0054 az +--- is starlike univalent on the unit disk |z| < I. Prove that lanl 2), where the estimate is sharp. Hint. Use the results of Problems 1.20 and 1.21.PROBLEMS ‘CONFORMAL MAPPING: RUDIMENTS 31 1.23. Given a function f(z) analytic on the unit disk K:|z| < 1, suppose f(z) is real if and only if z¢ K is real. Then f(z) is said to be typically real (on K). Prove that if SF) = z+ Gaz? tot az” $+ is typically real, then lal 2), where the estimate is sharp. Hint. Im f(z) has constant sign for ze K, Im z > 0. Comment. Note that if f(z) is univalent on K, with real coefficients, then £(@) is typically real.2 CONFORMAL MAPPING: RAMIFICATIONS 4. Conformal Mapping of Sequences of Domains Let {G,} be a sequence of simply connected domains in the z-plane, each containing a fixed disk k with center zo. Let E be the set of all points z with a neighborhood /(z) contained in all the domains G, starting from some value of n (depending on z). Obviously E is nonempty, since k < E. More- over E is open, and hence, according to Theorem J.4.7, Eis the union of countably many disjoint domains, namely the (connected) components of E. Of these components, let G,, be the one containing zp (and hence k). Then G,, is called the kernel of the sequence {G,} (relative to the point zo). Remark 1. If Fis a compact subset of the kernel G,,, then F is contained in all the domains G, starting from some value of n. In fact, if F ¢ G,,, then for every point z € F, we can find a neighborhood #(z) such that #(z) < G, for all n > o(z). Therefore, according to the Heine-Borel theorem (Theorem 1.3.14), there exists a finite number of points z,, . . ., z» in F such that FOWN(z,:)U++-UN (en). v = max {v(z,),---+ Za} all the neighborhoods W(z;),-.-; (2m) are contained in Gy if n > v, and hence the same is true of the set F. Remark 2. The kernel G;, of the sequence {G,} can be characterized as the largest domain containing zp such that every compact subset Fc G,, belongs to ail the G, starting from some value of n (depending on F). In 32 Then, ifSEC. 4 CONFORMAL MAPPING: RAMIFICATIONS 33 fact, if g is a domain with this property, then every point z € g belongs to all the G, starting from some value of n (depending on z). Therefore g < E, which means that if zp € g, then g is contained in the component of E con- taining zp, Le., g © G,,, as asserted. Derinition. Let {G,} be a sequence of simply connected domains, with kernel G,, relative to the point zo. Then {G,} is said to converge to Gz, if every subsequence of {G,} has the same kernel G., (relative to zp) as {G,} itself. Otherwise, {G,} is said to diverge. Example 1, Let G, (n = 1,2,...) be the domain shown in Figure 2.1, consisting of two fixed rectangles D’ and D" joined by another rectangle 8, of constant length / and height ,, where hh, decreases monotonically to zero. Then the set E figuring in the construc- | yg, tion of G,, consists of the domains D' a) 1 OG and D". The kernel of the sequence {G,} | oz ik & + he relative to any point z,¢D’ is the iat 4 rectangle D', while the kernel of {G,} aa relative to any point zj¢ D” is the rectangle D’. Moreover, {G,} converges to the kernel D’ (relative to z) and also to the kernel D” (relative to 2). Example 2, Let {G,} be the sequence of domains illustrated schematically in Figure 2.2, where every domain G2_,_, with odd index coincides with the same rectangle D’, while every domain G,,, with even index coincides with another rectangle D’, which, although different from D’, intersects D’ in a third rectangle 8. Then the kernel of the sequence {G,} relative to any point zp ¢ 8 is the rectangle 8. However, the kernel of the subsequence {G2,-,} relative to any point zo €8 is D’, while the kernel of the subsequence {Gan} Telative to zp is D”. Therefore, in this case, the sequence {G,} diverges. The relevance of these concepts to the theory of conformal mapping is revealed by the following theorem due to Carathéodory, on the mapping of domains “with variable boundaries”: THEorEM 2.1 (Carathéodory’s mapping theorem). Let {G,} be @ Sequence of simply connected domains contained in a fixed disk K:|z| < R,* and containing another fixed disk k:|z — zo| < p. Foreveryn = 1,2,..., let w = f,(z) be the function which maps G, conformally onto the unit disk A:|w| <1 and satisfies the conditions Sia) = 0, — fa(Z0) > 0, + In other words, the domains Gi,..., G,,... are uniformly bounded.34 CONFORMAL MAPPING: RAMIFICATIONS CHAP. 2 and let z = 9,(w) be the inverse of w = f,(z). Moreover, let w = f(z) be the function which maps the kernel G,, of the sequence {G,} (relative to the point Zo) conformally onto A and satisfies the conditions fe) =0, f'%) > 9, and let z = 9(w) be the inverse of w = f(z).2 Under these conditions, if the sequence of domains {G,} converges to G,,, then the sequence of func- tions {f,(z)} converges uniformly inside G,, to the function f(z), and the sequence {p,(w)} converges uniformly inside & to the function ¢(w). Con- versely, if (f,(z)} converges uniformly inside G,, to (2), or if {9q()} con- verges uniformly inside A to ¢w), then {G,} converges to Guy. Proof. For the time being, we make no assumptions about the convergence of the sequence of domains {G,}. Every function f,(z) is defined on its own domain G,, and it may happen that there are points in G,, at which any given function f,(z) is undefined. For example, this is the case for an increasing sequence of S domains {G,}, G. © Gar (# = 1,2,...) “oy hy approximating a domain G which is the kernel of {G,}, as shown in Figure 2.3.3 However, every closed set Fc G,, (in Figure 2.3 particular, every closed disk contained in G,,.) is contained in all the domains G, starting from some value of n, and therefore every function /,(z) is defined and analytic on F starting from some value of n. Since all the concepts and theorems pertaining to compact families of analytic functions deal only with the behavior of functions on closed subsets of a given domain, the theory of compact families is applicable to the present case, i.¢., to the sequence {f,(z)} and the domain G,,. Now let {#,} be any sequence of positive integers such that n, <--- G;,, since {G,,} is a subsequence of {G,;}. Since the sequence {f,,(z)} is uniformly bounded and convergent inside Gj, < Ges it follows from Vitali’s theorem (Theorem 1.17.18) that {/;,(2)} is uniformly convergent inside 6.,. Thus we have proved that the original increasing sequence of positive integers {n,} contains a subsequence {f,} such that the sequence of functions {f;,(z)} converges uniformly inside the kernel G, of the sequence of domains {G,,} to an analytic function f(z), while at the same time, the sequence of inverse functions {9,,(w)} converges uniformly inside the unit disk A to an analytic function ¢(¥). Obviously Hees) = lim Sales) = 0, FG) = him, filed) > ©, and similarly HOY = lim, 2,0) = 20, $0) = lim, ¥4,(0) > 0. Thus both the numbers f,(zo), k = 1,2,... and their reciprocals WO Ze ALB) have finite limits. But then both limits must be nonzero, ie., /’(z.) > 0 and §'(0) > 0, where F'Eo%'O) = 1. @Q.1) In particular, f(z) # const, @(w) # const, and hence, according to Theorem 11.4.4, f(z) and §(w) are univalent on the domains G,, and A, Tespectively. Clearly, /(G,,) contains the point 0. Moreover, since [fn <1, it follows that |/(| <1 and hence that /(G,,) ¢ A. Similarly, §(A) contains the point z), and as we now show, 9(A) is con- tained in G,.,. With this in mind, let # € A, so that 7 = (w)is a point of the domain (A). Then it is not hard to see that Z has a neighborhood contained in every domain G,, starting from some value of #,. In fact, the function Z = 9(w) maps any circle 8:|w — %| = } contained in A into a closed Jordan curve y contained in (A), and moreover, My) < (A), Z€ A(y), where I(y) denotes the interior of y (cf. Theorem [1.4.5). Let C:|z — 2| < 7 be a closed disk contained in i(y), and let e be the distance between Cand y. Then obviously ¢ > 0, and lov) — | ze if we 8 and fe C. On the other hand, the inequality lend¥) — SW) < ©36 CONFORMAL MAPPING: RAMIFICATIONS CHAP. 2 holds for all w € 8 and sufficiently large #,, > N. Therefore, according to Rouché’s theorem (Theorem I1.2.4), the functions $(w) ~ % and aC) — 5 = [60r) — C1 + Lea.) — $04] have the same number of zeros inside y, i.e., every point € C belongs to the domain 9,,(A) if %, > N. In other words, every point Z ¢ $(A) has a neighborhood (the open disk |z — 2| < 7) contained in all the domains G,, starting from some value of #,. Since (A) is a domain containing Zp, it follows from the definition of the kernel of the sequence {G,,} that 9A) ¢ G.,, as asserted. Thus z = 9(#) maps A conformally onto the domain (A) < G.,, while w = f(z) maps G,, conformally onto the domain /(G,,) < A. Therefore the function 4(w) = /[@(w)] maps A conformally onto the domain /(G.,) ¢ A. Noting that HO) = FEO] = Feo) = 0, YO) = FH’ = 1 Icf. (2.1)], we conclude from Schwarz’s lemma (Theorem I.17.8) that Ye) = ew, where e™ = (0) = 1. It follows that YH) = FW) = wor Hw) = 7-H), i.e., G(w) is the inverse of the function f(z). Therefore, if w is an arbi- trary point of the disk A, then z = §(w)e GA) < G,, and f(z) = wefG,,), Le. f(G..) > A. But as shown above, f(G.,) < A, and hence IG,,) = A. In just the same way, we see that 6(A) = G,,. Thus the functions w = f(z) and z = $(w) are inverses of each other, and w = f(z) maps the kernel G,, of the sequence {G,,} conformally onto the unit disk, while satisfying the conditions Fe) =9, fo) > 0. (2.2) Having established this fact, we are now in a position to complete the proof, We begin by proving the first assertion of the theorem. Suppose the sequence of domains {G,} converges to its kernel G,,. Then the kernel remains the same for every subsequence {G;,}, ie. C., = Gz, Moreover, the fimit function J@ = lim fy feo maps G,, conformally onto the unit disk A:|w| < 1 and satisfies the conditions (2.2). It follows from the uniqueness theorem for conformal mapping that all possible uniformly convergent subsequences {f,,(2)} have the same limit f(z) = f(z). We now show that the original sequence {falz)} converges uniformly to f(z) inside G,,. Suppose this is not the case. Then we can find a closed set F < G,,, a sequence {n,} of positiveSEC. 4 CONFORMAL MAPPING: RAMIFICATIONS 37 integers (where n, <---< , <+++) and a sequence {z,} of points in F, such that lane) — fe) >2>9 (kK =1,2,...). (2.3) But because of the compactness, the sequence { f,,,(z)} must contain a sub- sequence f,,(z) which converges uniformly inside G,,, in particular on the set F, to the function f(z). It follows that Ufa) ~ fl2)| < 0 for all z € F and sufficiently large nf > N. In particular, we have \fnl@) - fGx)| < & QA) for all nf > N. But (2.4) contradicts (2.3), and hence our assumption that {f,(z)} does not converge uniformly to f(z) inside G,, must be false.* Finally, to prove the second assertion of the theorem, suppose {/,(z)} converges uniformly to f(z) inside G,,, but {G,} does not con- verge to its kernel G.,. Then there exists a subsequence {G,,} whose kernel is different from G,, (and contains G,, as a proper subset). From. {f;,(2)} we select a new subsequence { f,,(z)} such that {f,,(z)} is uniformly convergent inside the kernel G,, of the corresponding sequence of domains {Gp,} and such that the sequence of inverse functions {gy,(w)} is uniformly convergent inside the unit disk A:|»| <1. Then, just as before, the limit function Fe) = lim fu) maps the domain G,, conformally onto A. Therefore f(z) cannot coin- cide with the function f(z) which maps G,, conformally onto A, since G,, is a proper subset of G,,. But this is impossible, since {f;,(z)} is a subsequence of the uniformly convergent sequence {f,(z)}. This contra- diction shows that {G,} must converge to G,,, thereby completing the proof of the theorem (except for some details left as an exercise for the Treader). Example. Let G,, Zp, 20, D’ and D” have the same meaning as in Example 1, p. 33. Moreover, let f,(z) and F,(z) be the functions mapping G, con- formally onto the unit disk and satisfying the conditions S20) = 0, falZ0) > 0 and F(z) = 0, F(z) > 0, * The same argument has already been encountered in the proof of Vitali’s theorem (Theorem 1.17.18).38 CONFORMAL MAPPING: RAMIFICATIONS CHAP. 2 respectively. Then the sequence {f,(2)} converges uniformly inside D’ to a function f(z) mapping D' conformally onto the unit disk, while {F,(z)} con- verges uniformly inside D” to a function F(z) mapping D” conformally onto the unit disk. ‘We now consider sequences of domains of a particularly simple kind: A sequence of domains {G,} is said to be decreasing if G,., < G, for all = 1,2,... (Obviously, if G, is bounded, the domains G,,...,G,,... are uniformly bounded.) By a Jordan domain, we mean a domain which is the interior of a closed Jordan curve. THEOREM 2.2. If G is a Jordan domain, then there exists a decreasing sequence of bounded simply connected domains {G,} converging to G as its unique kernel. Proof. Given any integer n > 0, let G;, be the set of all points whose distance from G is less than 1/n. Obviously, G;, is open and connected (and hence a domain), and moreover G ¢ G;,. Among the components of (G;)°, the complement of G;, one domain G;,.. contains the point at infinity, while the others are bounded, with boundaries contained in the boundary of G,. Let G, denote the set consisting of G;,, all the bounded. components of (G,)° and all the boundary points of G, which are not boundary points of G;,.. Then G, > G;, is simply connected, since its boundary coincides with that of G,,.. and hence is a continuum (see Problem 2.3). The sequence of domains {G,} clearly satisfies the con- ditions ES Gr Gar OG (= 1,2,...). Therefore {G,} is decreasing, and G must be contained in some kernel of {G,}. But no point z’ in the exterior of G can belong to this (or any other) kernel of {G,}. In fact, let y be an arc which joins z’ to the point at infinity and lies in the exterior of G, and let ¢ > 0 be the distance between G and y. Then y © Gi,.., and hence z'¢G, ifn > Ip, ie., 2’ does not belong to a kernel of the sequence {G,}. It follows that G is the unique kernel of {G,}. Moreover, {G,} converges to G, since the same argument applies to any subsequence {G,,}. el Derinmmon. Let G be a bounded F simply connected domain, and let G.. be the component of (G)° containing the point at infinity. Then G is said to be a Carathéodory domain if G and G. have the same boundary. In particular, every Jordan domain is {} a Carathéodory domain. Figure 2.4 shows a Carathéodory domain G whose