Sociolinguis�cs summary

Summary of the Lecture on Communica�ve Competence and Sociolinguis�c Competence:

Communica�ve competence refers to using language effec�vely in different social and cultural
situa�ons.

It includes the ability to:

Understand the meaning of what is being said

Produce uterances that are gramma�cally correct and meaningful

Use language in a way that is appropriate for the social context

Example: Knowing when to use formal language in a business mee�ng and informal language
with friends.

Competence is the knowledge of grammar, while performance is the actual use of language.

It includes the ability to:

Understand the social rules and norms of the target culture

Use language in a way that is appropriate for the social rules and norms of the target culture

Example: Someone may know the grammar rules but struggle to speak fluently in real-life
conversa�ons.

Dell Hymes introduced the concept of communica�ve competence, which includes

understanding the social meaning of language.

Example: Recognizing that saying "Can you pass me the salt?" at a dinner table is not just about
grammar but also about making a polite request.

Canale and Swain iden�fied four areas of communica�ve competence:

a. Gramma�cal competence: Knowing language structure and rules.

Example: Using proper sentence structure like "I enjoy reading books" instead of "I enjoy books
reading."

b. Sociolinguis�c competence: Understanding cultural values and norms in language use.

Example: Knowing when to use formal language with a teacher and informal language with close
friends.

c. Discourse competence: Organizing language coherently in different writen or spoken genres.

Example: Wri�ng a well-structured essay with clear paragraphs and logical flow.

d. Strategic competence: Using strategies to enhance communica�on and overcome difficul�es.

Example: Using gestures or context clues to understand meaning when encountering unfamiliar
words.

Sociolinguis�c competence involves using a second language appropriately in different social

se�ngs.

Example: Understanding cultural differences in gree�ngs, such as bowing in some cultures and
shaking hands in others.

Sociolinguis�c competence is an important part of communica�ve competence. Without

sociolinguis�c competence, even the most perfectly gramma�cally correct uterance can be
misinterpreted.

videos content:

In the videos, Jack C. Richards discusses the importance of sociolinguis�c competence in

language learning. He emphasizes that it is not enough to simply know the grammar and
vocabulary of a language. Learners also need to be aware of the social rules and norms of the
target culture in order to use language effec�vely.

Richards provides a number of examples of sociolinguis�c competence in ac�on. For example,

he discusses the different ways that people greet each other in different cultures. In some
cultures, it is customary to shake hands, while in other cultures, it is customary to bow. Richards
also discusses the different ways that people use language in different social se�ngs. For
example, he discusses the different ways that people use language in formal and informal
se�ngs.

Richards's videos provide a valuable overview of sociolinguis�c competence. They are a must-
watch for anyone who is interested in learning a new language.

Here are some quotes from the lecture that are relevant to the topic of sociolinguis�c
competence:

"Communica�ve competence is the ability to use language effec�vely in different social and
cultural situa�ons." - Dell Hymes

"Sociolinguis�c competence is the ability to use language in accordance with the social rules and
norms of a par�cular culture." - Canale and Swain

"It is not enough to simply know the grammar and vocabulary of a language. Learners also need
to be aware of the social rules and norms of the target culture in order to use language
effec�vely." - Jack C. Richards
Summary of Lecture 2: World Englishes

Introduction:

• World Englishes refers to varieties of English that have developed outside England.
• It is often used interchangeably with New Englishes, but excludes English as a Foreign
Language, pidgins, and Creoles.
• Braj Kachru coined the term "World Englishes for varieties of English that have
developed outside England."
• World Englishes is a relatively new field of study, but it has grown rapidly in
recent years. This is due to the fact that English is now the most widely spoken
language in the world, with over 1.5 billion speakers. Of these, only about 350
million are native speakers. The remaining 1.15 billion speakers are non-native
speakers, and they speak English in a variety of ways.

Native varieties vs. nativised varieties:

• Native varieties (e.g., British, American, Australian English) are spoken by native
speakers.
• Nativised varieties are newer varieties that have developed in regions where English
was not originally spoken and have been influenced by local languages and cultures.
• There is debate about whether speakers of nativised varieties are considered native
or non-native speakers.

Explanation: The distinction between native and nativised varieties of English can be
questioned since British, American, and Australian English have been influenced by local
languages and cultures. Similarly, other languages were spoken in America and Australia
before English arrived, influencing the development of Englishes in these regions.

Example: Australian English is considered a nativised variety since it developed more recently
and has been influenced by both British and local languages and cultures.

Criteria for native vs. nativised classification:

• Two common criteria are the longevity of a variety and its influence on younger
varieties of English.
• However, defining "a long time" is subjective, and all languages influence each other.

Explanation: While British English has been around longer and influenced the development of
American English, it does not necessarily mean that British English is native and American
English is nativised. The classification based on these criteria may suggest that American
English is nativised, but most people consider it a native variety.

Example: American English has been influenced by British English, but it is still commonly
regarded as a native variety due to its widespread use and status.

Prejudice and superiority:

• Prejudice plays a role in perceiving native varieties as superior and purer than
nativised varieties.
• Age does not guarantee purity or superiority in the context of English varieties.

Explanation: Some people believe that older varieties of English, such as British English, are
purer and superior. However, this idea is difficult to support as English itself has been
influenced by various languages throughout history.

Example: Cornish English, an older variety, cannot be considered purer than American East
Coast English. The notion of purity based on age is not applicable in the context of English
varieties.

Nativised varieties and cultural influence:

• Nativised varieties of English are influenced by the local cultures and languages of
the communities that developed them.
• Terms like acculturation and indigenisation are used to describe this phenomenon.

Explanation: Nativised varieties reflect the local cultures and languages of the speech
communities that developed them. They are influenced by the cultural contexts in which they
evolved.

Example: British English and Malaysian English are both nativised varieties. While British
English reflects British culture, Malaysian English reflects local Malaysian culture, making
them distinct due to their respective influences.

Importance of native vs. nativised distinction:

• In English language teaching, there may be arguments for using native varieties as
better models of English.
• It is crucial to remember that both native and nativised varieties reflect their own
cultures.

Explanation: Some people advocate for using British English as a model in English language
teaching, considering it "proper" English. However, it is essential to recognize that both
native and nativised varieties reflect their respective cultures, and choosing a particular
model entails embracing the associated cultural influences.

Additional material:

• The video [https://youtu.be/2_q9b9YqGRY] provides supplementary information

related to the topic of World Englishes.

Video summary:

summary of the video "World Englishes: An Introduction" by David Crystal:

• English is now the most widely spoken language in the world, with over
1.5 billion speakers.
• Of these, only about 350 million are native speakers. The remaining 1.15
billion speakers are non-native speakers, and they speak English in a
variety of ways.
• The different varieties of English are often referred to as "World
Englishes."
• There is no single "correct" way to speak English. All varieties are valid
and should be respected.
• The video discusses the history of English, the different varieties of
English, and the reasons why there is no single "correct" way to speak
English.
• The video also argues for the importance of respecting all varieties of
English.
Summary of Lecture 3: Dialectology

Introduction:
• Dialectology is the systematic study of dialects, focusing on
regional variation and language change.
• Initially focused on rural dialects, but later expanded to include
urban dialects and social aspects of variation.
• Distinction between regional dialectology and social/urban
dialectology.

Traditional Dialectology:
• Originated in the 19th century and focused on geographical
sociolinguistics and rural areas.
• Studied regional variation in accent and lexicon, often targeting
non-mobile, older, rural male speakers (NORMs).
• Data collection methods included questionnaires, interviews, and
tape recordings.
• Resulted in the creation of linguistic maps (dialect maps) with
isoglosses indicating dialectal boundaries.
Example: Traditional dialectology would investigate how pronunciation or
vocabulary differs between rural regions, such as examining how words for
"barn" or "milk" vary across different areas.

Modern Dialectology:
• Emerged in the 1960s and expanded to include sociological
sociolinguistics and urban areas.
• Focuses on social variation in accent, lexicon, and grammar,
encompassing diverse social groups (age, class, gender, etc.).
• Incorporates corpora and modern statistical methods for analyzing
linguistic data.
• Still utilizes linguistic maps and isoglosses, but with a broader focus
on social dialectology or urban dialectology.
Example: Modern dialectology would investigate how accents, vocabulary,
and grammatical structures vary across different social groups within
urban areas, such as examining how language use differs among different
age groups or social classes in a city.

Isoglosses and Dialect Boundaries:

 • Isoglosses are lines that mark boundaries between regions that
differ in some linguistic feature, like pronunciation or vocabulary.
• The term 'isogloss' was coined by J. G. A. Bielenstein in 1892,
referring to lines showing equal language usage.
• Isoglosses are illustrated on dialect maps, representing the
geographical distribution of studied linguistic features.
• Dialect boundaries are drawn where isoglosses converge, indicating
areas where multiple linguistic features overlap.
Example: An isogloss could be drawn on a map to represent the boundary
between two regions where one region pronounces a particular word
differently from the other region. Dialect boundaries occur where multiple
isoglosses coincide, showing areas of linguistic transition between dialects.

In conclusion, dialectology encompasses the study of dialects, including their

regional and social variations. Traditional dialectology focused on rural areas and
regional differences, while modern dialectology expanded to urban areas and
social factors. Isoglosses and dialect boundaries are used to visualize the
distribution and transitions of linguistic features on dialect maps.

some additional points that were made in the lecture:

• Dialects are not simply "incorrect" or "improper" forms of a language. They

are valid and systematic ways of speaking that reflect the culture and
history of the people who speak them.
• Dialects can be a valuable source of information about the history of a
language. By studying dialects, linguists can learn about how languages
change over time and how they are influenced by other languages.
• Dialects can also be a valuable resource for language learning. By
learning about dialects, students can gain a better understanding of the
diversity of human language and the way that language is used in the real
world.
Summary:

Lecture 4: Sociolinguistics in USA & UK

I. "The Social Stratification of (r) in New York City Department Stores" (Labov
1966)

1. Gathering data:
• Data was collected by observing the subjects' language use in their natural
social context, rather than through formal interviews.
• This approach allowed for a more authentic representation of everyday
language.
2. Preliminary investigations:
• Labov conducted individual interviews and anonymous observations in
public places.
• He noticed a correlation between the (r) variable in postvocalic position
(e.g., car, four) and social stratification.
• Labov made assumptions that (1) (r) is a social differentiator in all levels of
New York City speech and (2) rapid and anonymous speech events can be
studied systematically.
3. The hypothesis:
• Labov formulated the hypothesis that if two subgroups in New York City
are ranked by social stratification, their differential use of (r) will reflect this
ranking.
• The study focused on salespeople in different-ranked department stores
to test the hypothesis.
4. The method:
• Labov posed as a customer and asked salespeople for directions in
department stores.
• He recorded their responses and categorized the use of (r) as (r-1) for
pronounced (r), (r-0) for no (r), and 'd' for doubtful cases.
• Independent variables included store, floor, sex, age, occupation, race, and
accent.
• Dependent variable was the use of (r) in four occurrences: casual (fourth
floor) and emphatic (fourth floor).
5. Overall stratification of (r):
• Results showed a clear stratification of (r) in the three stores.
• Employees in the highest-ranked store had the highest use of (r), followed
by the middle-ranked store and the lowest-ranked store.
 • This supported the hypothesis that differential use of (r) aligned with social
stratification.

II. "The Social Differentiation of English in Norwich" (Trudgill 1974)

1. Background:
• Trudgill studied language variation in Norwich, England.
• He focused on the pronunciation of the final consonant in words like
"walking" and "running."
2. Variation in pronunciation:
• In Norwich, the pronunciation "walkin'" with a dropped 'g' sound was
commonly heard, especially in lower social classes.
• Trudgill noted that this variation was not unique to Norwich but existed in
many English-speaking regions.
3. Factors influencing pronunciation:
• Careful speech favored the standard "-ing" form, while the nonstandard "-
in'" form was more prevalent in lower social classes.
• Men used the nonstandard form more frequently than women, regardless
of social class.
4. Discrepancy between reported and actual usage:
• Women tended to claim they used the standard "-ing" form more often
than they actually did.
• Men tended to claim they used the nonstandard "-in'" form more often
than they actually did.
5. Social class and gender differences:
• Trudgill's data revealed variations in the use of the standard "-ing" form
based on social class and gender.
• Higher social classes and women exhibited higher usage of the standard
form.

"In conclusion, the studies by Labov and Trudgill provide evidence that social factors,
such as social class and gender, can influence language variation. These studies also
highlight the importance of sociolinguistics in understanding how language is used in
different contexts."
Summary of Lecture 5: Speech Communities

1. Evolution of the definition:

• The term "speech community" refers to a group of people who share a
distinct way of speaking. It has been used by various disciplines, including
linguistics, sociology, anthropology, communication, ethnic studies, and
education.
• The term was introduced by Bloomfield in 1926, who defined a speech
community as "a group of people who interact by means of speech."
• Bloomfield's definition also includes characteristics of the group, the
language used, and research methods to study it.
• A speech community consists of people who have regular contact with
each other through language, either by using a common language or by
interpreting linguistic behavior in similar ways, even when different
languages are present in an area.
• The concept of a speech community is more useful than grouping people
based on nationhood or geographical borders, as speech communities can
exist within a state or be spread across flexible geographical boundaries.

Examples:

• A group of friends who regularly interact and share a common way of

speaking, using slang or inside jokes.
• A community of immigrants who live in the same neighborhood and
develop their unique language patterns while still using the dominant
language of the host country.
• Native speakers of a regional dialect who share specific linguistic features
and interact with each other regularly, creating a distinct speech
community.
2. Evolution of a research category:
• In the late 1960s and early 1970s, Gumperz, Labov, and Hymes further
refined the concept of speech community.
• Gumperz emphasized the importance of regular and frequent interaction
within a speech community and highlighted the differences in language
usage that set a speech community apart from similar groups.
• For example, Gumperz's work examined the difference between
monolingual and bilingual speakers, such as Spanish and English-speaking
Mexican Americans, to understand how their heterogeneous composition
transcends geography while distinguishing them from other groups.
 • Labov drew attention to the shared norms for speaking within a speech
community, regardless of whether these norms were explicitly agreed
upon.
• Labov's research focused on examining entire languages, such as English,
and how they can be divided into standard and nonstandard forms. He
also explored specific linguistic aspects or varieties within a language.
• The implications of particular ways of speaking may be related to social
class or hierarchy, and standard forms may be associated with public
settings like schools, churches, and courts of law, while nonstandard forms
may be prevalent in private settings like homes or playgrounds.
• Research in the field of speech communities extends to various disciplines,
including anthropology, linguistics, sociolinguistics, and education.
• Within education, researchers aim to understand non-English or
nonstandard English speech communities to improve language teaching
and examine code-switching practices.
• Linguistic variations within speech communities can include patterns of
insertions, alternations, tense-aspect markers, negation, repetition,
inversion, accents, syntactic structures, morphological categories, and
phonological units.
• Contextualization cues, such as social context and situational factors, play
a role in determining when to use specific linguistic features.

Examples:

• Studying the speech patterns and language use among different social
classes within a particular community to explore language and social class
relationships.
• Examining how code-switching occurs among bilingual individuals in a
multilingual community and understanding the factors influencing their
language choices.
• Investigating the variations in pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar
within a specific regional dialect or accent to analyze the distinctive
features of a speech community.

Reference: Milburn, T. (2015). Speech community. The international encyclopedia

of language and social interaction, 1-5.
Summary of Lecture 6: Language Contact

Introduction: Language contact refers to the coexistence of languages in a

geographic area or speech community. It involves the study of how languages
interact and influence each other through processes such as borrowing, code-
switching, language maintenance, and language shift.

1. Language Maintenance: Language maintenance refers to the preservation

of a language or language variety in a context where there is pressure for
speakers to shift towards a more prestigious or dominant language. Social
network analysis is often used to understand patterns of language
retention within a community. Factors such as integration into local
community networks can influence the maintenance of linguistic forms
characteristic of a particular dialect.

Example: Speakers in a minority language community actively preserving their

language by establishing language schools, cultural events, and community
organizations to ensure its continuity.

2. Language Shift: Language shift occurs when a speech community is unable

to maintain its language in the face of competition from a more powerful
or numerically stronger language. Factors such as political domination and
economic change can contribute to language shift. The home and
religious domains often serve as the last areas where the endangered
language survives. Efforts to reverse language shift involve identifying
stages of shift and implementing policies and activities to counter it.

Example: Speakers of an indigenous language gradually shifting to a dominant

language due to societal pressures and changing demographics.

3. Borrowing: Borrowing happens when vocabulary or linguistic elements

from one language enter another language. Loanwords are borrowed
vocabulary items, and borrowing can involve different degrees of
integration into the host language. Borrowing can also extend to
grammatical structures. Translated borrowings, known as calques or loan
translations, involve the literal translation of words or expressions into
another language.

Example: English borrowing "sushi" from Japanese, retaining its original form and
meaning.
 4. Code-Switching/Code-Mixing: Code-switching refers to the practice of
switching between languages or language varieties within a conversation.
It can occur at different linguistic levels, ranging from complete sentences
to individual words or morphemes. Intra-sentential code-switching
happens within a sentence, while inter-sentential code-switching occurs
between sentences. Code-mixing is a form of code-switching that occurs
primarily at the intra-sentential level. Researchers explore the social
motivations and grammatical aspects of code-switching.

Example: A bilingual speaker using English and Spanish interchangeably in a

conversation, combining phrases from both languages.