Exercises:

1
 Technique 4:
Trigonometric Substitution

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

 Trigonometric Substitution
A change of variable involving trigonometric functions is called
a trigonometric substitution.
Use trigonometric substitution to evaluate integrals involving the
radicals

The objective with trigonometric substitution is to eliminate the

radical in the integrand. You do this by using the Pythagorean
identities 3
 Trigonometric Substitution
For example, if a > 0, let u = asin , where –π/2 ≤  ≤ π/2.
Then

Note that cos  ≥ 0, because –π/2 ≤  ≤ π/2.

4
 Objective
To eliminate radicals in the integrand using
Trigonometric Substitution
For integrals involving a² - u² use u = a sin 

For integrals involving a² + u² use u = a tan 

For integrals involving u² − a² use u = a sec 

Note: You may also apply Trigonometric Substitution even if the 5

expression is not in radical form.

 Determine when to use the basic integration formulas and
trigonometric substitution.
Example: 1. xdx
 2
9− x
dx
2.  2
9−x
dx
3.  2 2
x 9−x
xdx
4.  16 + x2
dx
5.  16 + x2
2
x dx
6.  2
Note that 3 and 6 can be solved by Trigo Sub. 6

16 + x
Example: Answer
xdx
1.  2 (by Substitution Rule or GPR)
9− x
dx
2.  2 (by Leading to Inverse Sine)
9−x

dx
3.  2 2
(by Trigonometric Substitution)
x 9−x
xdx
4.  16 + x2 (by Leading to nat log or du/u)

dx
5.  16 + x2 (by leading to inverse tan)

2
x dx
6.  (by Trigonometric Substitution)
2 7
16 + x
 Recognize functional forms where the computation of the
antiderivative demands trigonometric substitution. It may not
directly involve radical expressions

a² - u² , a² + u² , or u² − a² ,
but may be reduced to any of these expressions using completing
the square.
dx
Example:  2 3/2
( x − 6 x + 18)
dx

It can be verified that this is equal to 
2
(x − 3) + 9
3 / 2
8
 1. For integrals involving a² - u²
Let u = a sin 

Inside the radical you will have a²(1 - sin² θ )

Using the Pythagorean Identities, that is equal to
a²(cos² )

This will result in a² - u² = a cos  9

2. For integrals involving a² + u²

Let u = a tan 

Inside the radical you will have a²(1 + tan² θ )

Using the Pythagorean Identities, that is equal to
a²(sec²)

This will result in a² + u² = a sec  10

3. For integrals involving u² - a²
Let u = a sec 
Inside the radical you will have a²(sec² θ − 1)

Using the Pythagorean Identities, that is equal to

a²(tan² )

This will result in u² - a² = a tan  11

 Example 1 – Trigonometric Substitution: u = asin 

Find

Solution:
First, note that none of the basic integration rules applies.

To use trigonometric substitution, you should observe that

is of the form

So, you can use the substitution

12
 Example 1 – Solution cont’d

Using differentiation and the triangle shown in the figure, you

obtain

So, trigonometric substitution yields

13
 Example 1 – Solution cont’d

Note that the triangle in the figure can be used to convert the  ’s
back to x’s, as follows.

14
 Example 2 – Trigonometric Substitution: u = asin 
dx
 2 2
x 4− x
Let a = 2 and u = x. Since this is in the form of a² - u² ,
and using u = asin , we let x = 2sin .
2 2
So, dx = 2cos  d. Also, 4− x = 4 − (2 sin θ )
2
= 4 − 4 sin θ
2
= 4(1 − sin θ )
= 2 cosθ 15
 Example 2 – Solution
Thus,
dx 2 cosθdθ
 2 2
= 2
(2 sin θ ) (2 cosθ )
x 4− x
1 2
=  csc θ dθ
4
Question: How are
1
= − cot θ + C you going to change
4 this answer in
terms of the given
variable x? 16
 Example 2 – Solution
x opp
Since x = 2sin , then sin θ = = . Then we can find
2 hyp
adj
cot  which is = . Thus, 2
opp x
4− x 2 
cot  = x
. 2
4− x
Thus, we get
dx 1
 = − cot θ + C
x 2
4− x 2 4
1 2
=− 4− x +C
4x 17
 Example 3 – Trigonometric Substitution: u = asec 
3
ln wdw
 2
This is of the form u 2 – a.
2
w ln w−4

Let a = 2 and u = ln w. Using u 2 – a,

2 where u = a sec , let
ln w = 2sec .
So, dw
= 2sec  tan  d.
w

18
 Example 3 – Solution
Also, 2
ln w − 4 = 2
(2 sec θ ) − 4
2
= 4 sec θ − 4
2
= 2 sec θ − 1
= 2 tan θ
Then, we write the given as
3 3
ln w dw (2 sec θ )
 2
.
w
=  .2 sec θ tan θd θ
ln w − 4 2 tan θ
19
 Example 3 – Solution
3
(2 sec θ ) 4
 2 tan θ .2 sec θ tan θdθ = 8  sec θ dθ

This can be solved by Trigonometric Integrals (Case 3).

2 2
= 8 (1 + tan θ )sec θ dθ
3
tan θ
= 8(tan θ + )+ C
3
ln w ℎ𝑦𝑝
Since, ln w = 2sec , then secθ = , where sec  = 𝑎𝑑𝑗
2
ln w
2
ln w − 4
 20

2
 Example 3 – Solution
2
opp ln w − 4
Since tan  = . Thus, tan θ =
adj 2
Hence,
3 3
ln wdw tan θ
 = 8(tan θ + )+ C
2 3
w ln w − 4
 2 2 3/2 
 ln w − 4 (ln w − 2) 
= 8 +  + C
 2 24 
 
2 3/2
2 (ln w − 2)
= 4 ln w − 4 + +C
3 21
 Example 4 – Trigonometric Substitution: u = atan 
dz dz
 (z2 − 6z + 18)3 / 2 =  2
(z − 6z + 9 + 9) 3 / 2

dz
= by completing the square
2
[(z − 3) + 9] 3 / 2

Let u = z – 3, a = 3. Use u = atan , z – 3 =3tan  where

dz = 3 sec d
2
2
dz 3 sec θdθ
 [( z − 3)2 + 9]3 / 2 = 2
[9 tan θ + 9] 3/2

2
3 sec θdθ
= 3
22

27 sec θ
 Example 4 – Solution
2
3 sec θdθ 1 dθ 1
 3
27 sec θ
= 
9 sec θ
=
9  cos θ d θ

1
= sin θ + C
9 Let z – 3 =3tan ,
z −3 where tan  = (z-3)/3, the
= +C
2
9 z − 6 z + 18
hypotenuse is
(z 2 -6z+18) .
1/2

23
 Exercises:

2 dw
4−x
1.  2
dx 4.  (w2 + 9) 3 /2
x
dx 2
y −3
2.  2 3
5.  y
dy
(4x − 9)
2
dx ln 2x + 4 ln 2x
3.  2
6.  x
dx
x + 2x + 2

24
25
26
27
28
Exercises:
𝑡
4− 2
𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑒 𝑑𝑡
1. න 5. න 2𝑡 𝑡 3/2
see the solution at
𝑥 6 𝑒 + 8𝑒 + 7 the next slide

2. 2
න 𝑥 + 4𝑥 𝑑𝑥

3
𝑥 𝑑𝑥
3. න
16 + 𝑥 2

5
4. න 𝑥 2 25 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
0
29
30
 Technique 5:
Partial Fractions

31
Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.
 Objectives
◼ Understand the concept of partial fraction
decomposition.

◼ Use partial fraction decomposition with linear factors

to integrate rational functions.

◼ Use partial fraction decomposition with quadratic

factors to integrate rational functions.
32
Partial Fractions

33
 Partial Fractions
The method of partial fractions is a procedure for decomposing a rational
function into simpler rational functions to which you can apply the basic
integration formulas.

𝑁(𝑥)
Consider a rational function H defined by H(x) = ,
𝐷(𝑥)
where N(x) and D(x) are polynomials.

We will assume that H(x) is a proper fraction, that is, the

degree of N(x) is less than the degree of D(x). To evaluate the
integral of rational proper fraction, the fraction must be
decomposed into partial fractions. Example:
34
 Partial Fractions
To evaluate this integral without
partial fractions, you can complete
the square and use trigonometric
substitution (see the figure) to
obtain

35
Partial Fractions

36
 Partial Fractions
Now, suppose you had observed that

Then you could evaluate the integral easily, as follows.

This method is clearly preferable to trigonometric substitution. However,

its use depends on the ability to factor the denominator, x – 5x + 6, and
2

to find the partial fractions.

37
Partial
Fractions

38
Linear Factors

39
 The following guidelines may also be used

Case 1: The factors of D(x) are all linear, and none is repeated.
That is, D(x) = (a1x + b1) (a2x + b2) . . . (anx + bn) where all the factors
are distinct.
We write

𝑁(𝑥)
𝐷(𝑥)

where A1, A2, . . . , An, are constants to be determined.

40
 Example 1 – Distinct Linear Factors

Write the partial fraction decomposition for

Solution:
Because x2 – 5x + 6 = (x – 3)(x – 2), you should include one partial
fraction for each factor and write

where A and B are to be determined.

Multiplying this equation by the least common denominator
(x – 3)(x – 2) yields the basic equation
1 = A(x – 2) + B(x – 3). Basic equation. 41
 Example 1 – Distinct Linear Factors cont’d

Because this equation is to be true for all x, you can substitute any
convenient values for x to obtain equations in A and B.
The most convenient values are the ones that make particular factors
equal to 0.

To solve for A, let x = 3 and obtain

1 = A(3 – 2) + B(3 – 3) Let x = 3 in basic equation.
1 = A(1) + B(0)
A=1

42
 Example 1 – Distinct Linear Factors cont’d

To solve for B, let x = 2 and obtain

1 = A(2 – 2) + B(2 – 3) Let x = 2 in basic equation
1 = A(0) + B(–1)
B = –1
So, the decomposition is

as shown at the beginning of this section. Thus,

43
 Example 2 of Distinct Linear Factor
2
𝑥 − 9𝑥 + 8
න 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 − 7𝑥 + 10

Solution: First, divide the rational function since it is not yet proper.
−2𝑥 − 2
The quotient is 1+ 2 .
𝑥 − 7𝑥 + 10

So,
𝑥 2
− 9𝑥 + 8 −2𝑥 − 2
න 2 𝑑𝑥 = න 1 + 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 − 7𝑥 + 10 𝑥 − 7𝑥 + 10

44
 Example 2 of Distinct Linear Factor

−2𝑥 − 2
Apply partial fraction decomposition to 𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 + 10
.

We have −2𝑥 − 2 −2𝑥 − 2 𝐴 𝐵

2
= = +
𝑥 − 7𝑥 + 10 (𝑥 − 5)(𝑥 − 2) 𝑥 − 5 𝑥 − 2

where factors are all linear and distinct. The constants A and B need
to be determined by comparing of coefficients or assigning values to
x to get a system of linear equations in A and B.
(find A, and B)

The integration rule needed for case 1 is only du/u or ln. 45

 Example 2 of Distinct Linear Factor

Multiply both sides by (x – 5)(x – 2), -2x – 2 = A(x – 2) + B(x – 5).

If x = 2, then -6 = -3B. So, B = 2. If x = 5, then -12 = 3A. So, A = -4.

2 −2𝑥 − 2
𝑥 − 9𝑥 + 8
න 2 𝑑𝑥 = න 1 + 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 − 7𝑥 + 10 𝑥 − 7𝑥 + 10
−4 2
=න 1+ + 𝑑𝑥
𝑥−5 𝑥−2

= 𝑥 −4 ln 𝑥 − 5 + 2 ln 𝑥 − 2 + 𝐶

(𝑥 − 2)2
𝑜𝑟 = x + ln 4
+ 𝐶 46
(𝑥 − 5)
Case 2: The factors of D(x) are all linear, and some are repeated.

Suppose that (ax + b) occurs as a factor of D(x). Then ax + b is said to

p

be a p-fold factor of D(x), and corresponding to this factor there will

be the sum of p partial fractions:
A1 A2 A p −1 Ap
+ + + +
(ax + b) (ax + b) 2 p −1 p
(ax + b) (ax + b)
where A1, A2, . . . , Ap, are constants to be determined.

47
 Example of Repeated Linear Factor
2
5𝑥 − 5𝑥 − 22
න 3 2
𝑑𝑥
𝑥 − 2𝑥 − 20𝑥 − 24
Solution:
Proceed to partial since the given rational function is already proper.
So, we factor the denominator and we write
5𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 22 2
5𝑥 − 5𝑥 − 22 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
3 2
= 2
= + 2
+
𝑥 − 2𝑥 − 20𝑥 − 24 (𝑥 + 2) (𝑥 − 6) 𝑥 + 2 (𝑥 + 2) 𝑥−6

which is a combination of case 2 and 1.

(find A, B, and C)

The integration rules needed for case 2 are GPR and/or ln. 48
 Example of Repeated Linear Factor
2
5𝑥 − 5𝑥 − 22 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
2 = + +
(𝑥 + 2) (𝑥 − 6) 𝑥 + 2 (𝑥 + 2)2 𝑥 − 6
Solving for A, B, and C, we have

5x2 - 5x - 22 = A(x+2)(x-6) + B(x-6) + C(x+2)2 multiply both sides by (x+2)2(x-6)

If x = -2, 8 = -8B. So, B = -1. If x = 6, 128 = 64C. So, C = 2. To solve A, use

another value of x or you can use comparing of coefficients.

By comparing coefficients of x :
2 5 = A + C.
5 = A + 2. Thus, A = 3.
−1
Hence, න 3
−
1
+
2
𝑑𝑥 = 3 ln 𝑥 + 2 −
(𝑥 + 2)
+ 2 ln 𝑥 − 6 + 𝐶 or
𝑥 + 2 (𝑥 + 2)2 𝑥 − 6 −1 49

3 2 1
= ln (𝑥 + 2) (𝑥 − 6) + +C
𝑥+2
Quadratic Factors

50
Case 3: The factors of D(x) are linear quadratic, and none of the
quadratic factors is repeated.

Corresponding to the irreducible quadratic factor ax 2 + bx + c in the

denominator is the partial fraction
of the form
Ax + B
2
ax + bx + c

Integration rules for case 3 are ln and/or arc tan.

51
 Example of Distinct Quadratic Factor

4 3 2
Example 1: x + 2x + 5x + 3x − 36
 x5
+ 13x 3
+ 36x
dx
Solution:

combination of distinct linear and distinct irreducible quadratic factors

4 3 2 4 3 2
x + 2x + 5x + 3x − 36 x + 2x + 5x + 3x − 36
=
5 3 2 2
x + 13x + 36x x(x + 4)(x + 9)
A Bx + C Dx + E
= + +
x 2 2
x +4 x +9
52
 Example 1 of Distinct Quadratic Factor
Multiply both sides by the LCD which is always the given denominator

4 3 2 4 2 2
x + 2x + 5x + 3x − 36 = A(x + 13x + 36) + (Bx + C)x(x + 9)
2
+ (Dx + E)x(x + 4)
4 3 2 4 2 2
x + 2x + 5x + 3x − 36 = A(x + 13x + 36) + (Bx + C)x(x + 9)
2
+ (Dx + E)x(x + 4)

By comparing of coefficients,
Coeff of x4: 1 = A + B + D Coeff of x: 3 = 9C + 4E
Coeff of x : 2 = 13A + C + E
3 Coeff of x or Constant : -36 = 36A
0

Coeff of x2: 5 = 9B + 4D

So, A = -1. Solve for the remaining constants by applying system of linear
equations like elimination and substitution, we get the following: 53
 Example 1 of Distinct Quadratic Factor

A = -1, B = 2, C = -1, D = 0 and E = 3

Thus,
4 3 2 −1 
x + 2x + 5x + 3x − 36 2x − 1 3
 5 3
x + 13x + 36x
dx =  
 x
+
2
x +4
+
2 
x + 9
dx

2 1 −1 x −1 x
= − ln x + ln x + 4 − tan + tan +C
2 2 3

or
2
x +4 1 −1 x −1 x
ln − tan + tan +C
x 2 2 3
54
 Example of Distinct Quadratic factor
2
Example 2: x + 9x + 29
 2
dx
( x − 4)( x + 2x + 3)
Solution:
2
x + 9x + 29 A Bx + C
= + 2
( x − 4 )( x 2
+ 2x + 3 ) x −4 x + 2x + 3
2 2 2
x + 9 x + 29 = A( x + 2x + 3 ) + B( x − 4 x ) + C ( x − 4 )

Coeff of x :1
=A+B
2

Coeff of x: 9 = 2A – 4B +C
Constant: 29 = 3A – 4C
55
 Example 2 of Distinct Quadratic Factor

By elimination or substitution, we get the ff:

A = 3, B = -2 , and C = -5
Thus,
2
x + 9 x + 29  3 − 2x − 5 
 2
dx =  x −4 + 2  dx
( x − 4 )( x + 2x + 3 )  x + 2x + 3 

which can be solved using ln and tan -1

For ln: If u = x2 + 2x + 3, du = (2x + 2)dx = 2(x + 1)dx

For tan -1: x2 + 2x + 3 = (x + 1)2 + 2 , a = 2 and u = x + 1

56
 Example 2 of Distinct Quadratic Factor

So, −2x − 5 −2( x + 1 ) − 3 −2( x + 1 ) 3

2
= 2
= 2
− 2
x + 2x + 3 x + 2x + 3 x + 2x + 3 x + 2x + 3

where the integral can be solved using ln and tan-1.

(Note that x2 + 2x + 3 = (x + 1)2 + 2.)

Hence,
2
𝑥 + 9𝑥 + 29 2 + 2𝑥 + 3 −
3 −1
𝑥 + 1
න 𝑑𝑥 = 3 ln 𝑥 − 4 − ln 𝑥 tan + 𝐶
(𝑥 − 4)(𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 3) 2 2
or (𝑥 −
= ln 2
4) 3
−
3
tan−1
𝑥 + 1
+𝐶
𝑥 + 2𝑥 + 3 2 2

x
Exercise:  e dx
2x x
(e + 1 )( e − 1)
57
 Example 3 – Distinct Linear and Quadratic Factors

Find
Solution:
Because (x2 – x)(x2 + 4) = x(x – 1)(x2 + 4) you should include one partial
fraction for each factor and write

Multiplying by the least common denominator x(x – 1)(x2 + 4)

yields the basic equation
2x3 – 4x – 8 = A(x – 1)(x2 + 4) + Bx(x2 + 4) + (Cx + D)(x)(x – 1)
58
 cont’d
Example 3 – Distinct Linear and Quadratic Factors
To solve for A, let x = 0 and obtain
–8 = A(–1)(4) + 0 + 0 2=A

To solve for B, let x = 1 and obtain

–10 = 0 + B(5) + 0 –2 = B

At this point, C and D are yet to be determined.

You can find these remaining constants by choosing two other values
for x and solving the resulting system of linear equations.

(Note: You can also solve the remaining constants by comparing of

coefficients or equating coefficients of like powers of x.) 59
 Example 3 – Distinct Linear and Quadratic Factors cont’d

If x = –1, then, using A = 2 and B = –2, you can write

–6 = (2)(–2)(5) + (–2)(–1)(5) + (–C + D)(–1)(–2)
2 = –C + D
If x = 2, you have
0 = (2)(1)(8) + (–2)(2)(8) + (2C + D)(2)(1)
8 = 2C + D

Solving the linear system by subtracting the first equation from the
second
–C + D = 2
2C + D = 8 yields C = 2
60
 Example 3 – Distinct Linear and Quadratic Factors cont’d

Consequently, D = 4, and it follows that

61
Case 4: The factors of D(x) are linear quadratic, and some of the
quadratic factors are repeated.

If ax2 + bx + c is a p-fold irreducible quadratic factor of D(x), then

corresponding to this factor (ax2 + bx + c)p, we have the sum of the
following p partial fractions:
A1x + B1 A 2 x + B2 A p x + Bp
+ + +
2 2 2 2 p
ax + bx + c (ax + bx + c) (ax + bx + c)

where A1, . . ., Ap, B1, . . . , Bp are constants to be determined.

62

Integration rules for case 4 are GPR, ln, arc tan, and/or Trigo sub
 Example of Repeated Quadratic Factor
4𝑥 3 2
− + 36𝑥 − 7
𝑥
Example: න 𝑑𝑥
(𝑥 2 + 9)2
Solution:

3
4𝑥 − 𝑥 2 + 36𝑥 −7 𝐴𝑥+𝐵 𝐶𝑥+𝐷
= +
(𝑥 2 +9)2 𝑥 2 +9 (𝑥 2 +9)2
4x3 – x2 + 36x - 7 = (Ax + B)(x2 + 9) + Cx + D
4x – x + 36x - 7 = Ax + Bx + 9Ax + 9B + Cx + D
3 2 3 2

By comparing of coefficients:

x 3 : 4 = A; x: 36 = 9A + C , 36 = 9(4) + C, C = 0

x:
2 -1 = B; constant: -7 = 9B + D, -7 = 9(-1) + D, D = 2
63
 Example of Repeated Quadratic Factor

4𝑥 3 2
− + 36𝑥 − 7
𝑥 4𝑥 − 1 2 Note that
න 2 2
𝑑𝑥 = න 2
+ 2 2
𝑑𝑥 1 𝑥
(𝑥 + 9) 𝑥 + 9 (𝑥 + 9) 4𝑥 − 1
න 2 2
𝑑𝑥 = 2 ln 𝑥 + 9 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1
𝑥 +9 3 3
2
For ‫ 𝑥( ׬‬2 +9)2 𝑑𝑥, use Trigonometric substitution. Let x = 3 tan  where dx = 3 sec2d. Thus,
2 2 2
2 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜃𝑑𝜃 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜃𝑑𝜃 1 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜃𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝜃 1 2
න 2 2
𝑑𝑥 = න 2 2
=න 2 2
=න 4
= න 2
= න 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃𝑑𝜃
(𝑥 + 9) (9𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 + 9) 81(𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 + 1) 81𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜃 81 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜃 81

Applying Case 2 of Trigo.Integrals,

1 2
1 1 1 1 1
= න 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃𝑑𝜃 = න (1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃)𝑑𝜃 = 𝜃 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 = 𝜃 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
81 81 2 162 2 162
1 𝑥 𝑥 3 1 𝑥 3𝑥
arctan + = arctan + 2
162 3 𝑥2 + 9 𝑥2 + 9 162 3 𝑥 +9
1
Hence final answer is, 2 ln 𝑥 2 + 9 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 +𝑥 1 𝑥 3𝑥 64
arctan + 2 +𝐶
3 3 162 3 𝑥 +9
 Exercises

dx
1.  3
x −8
2
11x − 12x − 5
2.
 3 2
dx
2x − x − 7 x + 6
3 2 8
3. − 11x + 8x − 3x + 1 1
− + ln
2
4x + 1
+ 2 tan −1
2x + C
 4 2
dx Ans.
x x 3
4x + x

65