GEOLOGICAL WORK OF NATURAL AGENCIES Introduction Rocks exposed at the surface of the Earth are subject to direct or indirect attacks of a number of natural agencies such as almospheric gases, heat, moisture, surface and subsurface water, wind, sea-water and ice, These agencies are ceaselessly operating, at places individually and at places in close cooperation with one another on the surface rocks, season after season and year after year. They are thus responsible for modifying the physical features existing on the surface. For instance, we take streams. They carry away every year millions of tons of sediments to seas. Wherefrom do they (the streams) get the enormous load ? Surely, from the slopes of their valleys and from the rocks at the base and sides of their channels. In other words, every year millions of tons of material making the mountains, plateaus, plains and valleys is washed away. As a result, the action of rivers flowing through them is modifying the existing river valleys and other features of drainage basins every year. Similarly, huge moving bodies of ice called glaciers, covering the high mountains—the Himalayas, the Alps, the Andes and the polar-regions, scour the rocks at their bases and sides. These also succeed in scouring millions of tons of rocks and carry the same as glacial debris that they scatter on the down slope regions. This is geological work of glaciers in nutshell. Air in the form of WIND often takes shape of storms carrying hundred and thousands of tons of loose dry ‘material (the dust)-made up of clay, silt and sand, from one place to another. Very vast and extensive sand made regions, the deserts, are very important example of work of wind. The work of natural agencies may be either destructive or constructive in nature in relation {o the existing landform of an area at any given point of time, Let us take the example of rivers to explain this aspect. The rivers carve out valleys by eroding rocks, bit by bit, from the mountains; these valleys are constantly enlarged and deepened by them in association with other natural igencies. This is an example of destructive work of rivers, The rivers deposit their load at appropriate places on the land, along sea-shore and even at the sea bottom, building up such features as alluvial plains, ood plains and deltas etc. This is a constructive aspect of the rivers, A. GEOLOGICAL WORK OF ATMOSPHERE (Rock Weathering) This will be reported by Group Leader #3 through a pre-recorded video, so kindly wait for the video to be posted this coming Tuesday.A. GEOLOGICAL WORK OF WIND Introduction Atmosphere is composed Heal wind, nly of gases at are collectively known as air. Air in motion is one of the three major agents of change on the surface of the earth, other two being Fs. The origin, movement and classification of winds are all meteorological topics beyond the scope of the present book. In general it may be said that winds are born mainly due to non-uniform heating of the surface of the carth at different places causing differences in atmospheric pressure. The pressure difference so created makes the atmospheric gases (the air) to move from areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure in the form of winds. During such a movement, wind may create temporary or semi-permanent changes on the land surface. These changes manifest themselves in the form of some surface features, their exact nature depending on wind volume, wind velocity, nature of the surface over which the wind blows, duration of time for which it blows and so on. Thus, strong winds blowing over loose ground, dry soils or deserts may create many temporary new features within short span of time whereas very strong wind blowing over vast areas covered with dense vegetation may not affect the original topography at all for any length of time. Wind acts as agent of erosion, as a carrier for transporting particles and grains so eroded from one place and also for depositing huge quantities of such wind blown material at different places. These three principal modes of activity, ie., erosion, transportation, and deposition by wind are fly discussed below. Group Leader #3 will report on this geographic work of wind using a pre-recorded presentation.Lesson 3 MINERALOGY Introduction See the attached fie for the other attached hand-outs fle. Definition ‘A mineral is a naturally-occurring, homogeneous solid with a definite, but generally not fixed, chemical composition and an ordered atomic arrangement. It is usually formed by inorganic processes. Let's look at the five parts of this definition: 1, "Naturally occurring” means that synthetic compounds not known to occur in nature cannot have a mineral name. However, it may occur anywhere, on other planets, deep in the earth, as long as, there exists a natural sample to describe. 2. "Homogeneous solid" means that it must be chemically and physically homogeneous down to the basic repeat unit of the atoms. It will then have absolutely predictable physical properties (density, compressibility, index of refraction, etc.). This means that rocks such as granite or basalt are not minerals because they contain more than one compound. 3. "Definite, but generally not fixed, composition” means that atoms or groups of atoms must occur in specific ratios. For ionic crystals (i.e. most minerals) ratios of cations to anions will be constrained by charge balance, however, atoms of similar charge and ionic radius may substitute freely for one another; hence definite, but not fixed. 4, "Ordered atomic arrangement” means crystalline, Crystalline materials are three-dimensional periodic arrays of precise geometric arrangements of aioms. Glasses such as obsidian, which are disordered solids, liquids (e.g. water, mercury), and gases (e.g., ait) are not minerals. Inorganic processes" means that crystalline organic compounds formed by organisms are generally not considered minerals. However, carbonate shells are minerals because they are identical to compounds formed by purely inorganic processes.‘Composition of the Earth’s crust ‘The earths crust is composed of many kinds of rocks, each of which is an aggregate of one or more minerals. In geology, the term mineral describes any naturally-occurTing solid substance with a specific composition and crystal structure, A mineral's composition refers tothe kinds and proportions of elements making up the mineral. The way these elements are packed together determines the structure of the mineral. More than 3,500 different minerals have been identified, There are only 12.common elements (oxygen, silicon, aluminum, iron, calcium, sodium, potassium, ‘magnesium, titanium, hydrogen, manganese, and phosphorus) that occur in the earth's crust Minerals are divided in to two broad groups pee et aed Cee eee eRe classified in to two groups 1) Primary minerals 2) Secondary minerals 1) Primary minerals: Those which are crystallized directly from magma or lava known as primary mineral Be annie eet arn ie Deen ee a een ee eee ee ces ore eee ate eee eR ee ee does not change the definition of rock Eg. Zircon, Sphene, Apatite In many rocks component minerals grains are either dark or light in color these are known as essential minerals. Light colored - Felsic group : the Felsic group includes Qtz. And anhydrous _alumino silicates such as Feldspars and Feldspathoids. Dark colored - Mafic group : The Mafic group consists of the ferromagnesian silicates such as Olivine, Pyroxene Amphiboles & dark mica 2) Secondary minerals: It is formed by the alteration of the primary minerals Eg. Granite, Qtz. 's primary & Amygdaloidal basalt is secondaryFormat for the Activity No. 3 Name: Date: Program Year/Section: Activity No. 3 ‘Mineralogy Make research images of the mineralogy handouts that are provided 1. Give at least one (1) image and a caption for each mineral’s physical property. The answer siaris herePROPERTIES OF MINERALS _9.1, INTRODUCTION A mineral, as already defined, is a naturally occurring inorga characterized with a definite chemical composition and very often w In nature more than two thousand minerals are known to occur and most of them have are: been thoroughly studied. ‘The minerals generally occur in the form of natural aggregates, called rocks, which make the crust of our Earth, As such study of minerals - the building units of rocks, is of fundamental importance in studying the 1s of geology Mineralogy is that branch of geology which deals with various aspects related to minerals such as their individual properties, their mode of formation and mode of occurrence. solid substance that is definite atomic structure. ly $8.2. PROPERTIES OF MINERALS More than two thousand minerals are known to occur in the crust of the Earth. Some of them «ae very common, for instance quartz, felspars, calcite ete; others are less common in general but may form huge deposits locally, for instance, ores of iron, aluminium, copper and zinc; still others are very rare, such as diamond, sapphire and dumortirite. But all of these two thousand minerals have been sadied and given names. This has been possible because each mineral is generally characterized with a set of properties, some of which are always distinctive related to the body of a mineral, e.g. its colour, sting, shape and harness ete. these are aptly termed as Physical Properties. Some other properties like behaviour towards light require extremely thin sections of minerals pass and are best studied with the help of a microscope. These are termed through which light as Optical Properties. i {A third group of properties involving chemical analysis of the minerals to know their constituents, Il under the heading of Chemical Properties. qualitatively and quantitatively, 9.3, PHYSICAL PROPERTIES. 9.3.1. Colour The colour of any it dependent property : itis the appearance of the particular nt Tight (darkness destroys colour), A particular colour is produced by reflection of some and absorption of other components of white light, A mineral shows colour of that wavelength of the White light which is not absorbed by it by virtue of its composition and atomic structure. Tn nature, minerals of all pereeivable colours are known to occur. Quite a few common minerals senerally occur in characteristics colours so that they can be easily identified from their colours On the basis of colour, a mineral may belong to any one of the three types : ( Idiochromatic having a characteristic, fairly constant colour related primarily to the composition of mineral, Metallic minerals (e.g. of copper group) belong to this category. (i) Allochromatie having « variable colour; the variety in colour is generally due to minute quantities of colouring impurities thoroughly dispersed in the mineral composition. Many non-metallic minerals like quartz, calcite, fluorite and tourmaline etc. may occur in more than two colours depending on the nature of impurities. iii) Pseudochromatic showing a false colour. Such an effect generally happens when a mineral is rotated in hands; it is then seen to show a set of colours in succession. This change or play of colours is attributed to simultaneous reflection and refraction from the mineral surface due to minute inclusions of impurities in the mineral at different locations.Although colour is never taken as a diagnostic or conclusive property in the final identification oof minerals, itis invariably studied first of all and is generally very helpful, In fact, some minerals have typical colours associated with them sch as : Laaurite (deep blue), Pyrite (brass yellow), Cinnabar (eammine ret), magnetite (blick) and so on, Quite a few minerals may be colourless and transparent when absolutely pure, eg. quartz, diamond and gypsum, 9.3.2. Lustre imply defined, it is the shine of a mineral. Technically speaking, it of light from the mineral surface and depends at feast on three factors i) The refractive index of the mineral. (2 The absorption (of light) capacity of the mineral (iii) The nature of reflecting surface. The same mineral may show a poor lusture on rough surface and brilliant lusture on a cleavage face. Broadly speaking, lusture may be classified into metallic and non-metallic types. Metallic lustres are characteristic of high density, high refractive index and opaque minerals like galena, pytite and chalcopyrite, In the non-metallic luster the reflection may vary from very brilliant shine as that of diamonds to very feeble greasy luster of olivine and nepheline. While studying lustre of the minerals, one may make use of following qualitative terms : (® Metallic : shine resembles to known metals; example : galena Adamantine : luster of diamonds; very brilliant; example diamond (iii) Vitreous : shine typical of glass, ice ete; example : quartz (iv) Pearly : resembling shine of pearls; example : labradorite xy : like the shine of pure silk; example : gypsum Shine is oily, waxy or greasy; example : nepheline, (ii) Dull oF earthy, where shine is almost absent because no light is reflected due to highly porous nature of the mineral: example : chalks, clay, bauxite. It may be mentioned that lustre is entirely independent of colour of the mineral. A deeply coloured mineral may be lusterless and vice versa, Streak Ic is an important and diagnostic property of many coloured minerals. Simply defined, streak is the colour of the finely powdered mineral as obtained by scratching or rubbing the mineral over a rough unglazed porcelain plate. The plate is often named as a streak plate in a geology laboratory. Colourless and transparent minerals will always give a colourless streak that has no significance. The coloured and opaque mineral, especially of ore groups, give typically characteristic streaks Quite different from other similarly looking minerals, For instance, chromite and magnetite resemble closely in their other physical properties : both are almost black. These may be at once distinguished by their streaks : brown for chromite and Dkaek for magnetite. It follows that the colour of a mineral may or may not be the same as its streak, For identification, streak is relied upon more than the colour of the mineral9.3.4. Hardness a fairly constant and diagnostic property of minerals. Hardness may be defined as the resistance, which a mineral offers to an external deformation action such as scratching, abrasion, rubbing or indentation. Hardness of a mineral depends on its chemical composition and atomic constitution, Broadly speaking hardness of minerals as determined conventionally is a qualitative property determined in relative terms. It was in 1822 that Austrian mineralogist F. Mohs proposed a relative, broadly quantitative “scale of hardness” of minerals assigning values between I and 10. Since then, the Mohs’ Scale of Hardness for Minerals has been universally adopted. All minerals, when pure, have been found to have a fairly constant hardness value on this scale and hence the importance of hardness as a diagnostie property. ‘The Mohs" scale of hardness comprises ten minerals arranged in order of ascending hardness; the softest is assigned a value of 1 and the hardest a value of 10. (Table 9.1) In practice, hardness of any mineral can be determined with the help of minerals from the above scale, The harder mineral will scratch the softer mineral. By starting with mineral of lowest hardness from the scale, hardness of unknown mineral can be easily fixed. For instance, an unknown mineral is not scratched by fluorite (H = 4) but is scratched by apatite (H = 5). Hence its hardness lies between $ and 4, and may be fixed at 4.5. It must also be remembered that minerals of equal hardness scratch each other (diamond cuts diamond). TABLE 9.1. Mohs’ Scale of Hardness for Minerals. Hardness ‘Standard Minerals Composition 1 TALC Mas{Si,O,gl(OH], 2 GYPSUM CaSO,.2H,0 3. CALCITE * caCO,, 4 FLUORITE CaF, 5. APATITE CaPO,hF 6 ORTHOCLASE KAISi,O, 2 QUARTZ Sid, fe: ‘TOPAZ ALSiO,I[F, OH], 9. ‘CORUNDUM AL, 10. DIAMOND c ‘Some common materials have been assigned hardness values according to Mohs scale and may prove Useful in determination of hardness of an unknown mineral quickly. These are Brass (H = 3), Glass (H =5.5), Steel (H = 6). Hardness of a human finger nail varies between 1.5 to 2.5. Three facts need careful consideration in determining hardne First, Hardness is only a relative property. If Talc has H = indicate quartz is seven times harder than tale. Second, Haniness is an anisotropic property; a mineral may show different values in different directions, Most commonly, however, this diflerence is negligible except in the case of a mineral kyanite where H = 45 along the length and H = 6.5 across the length of a crystal. Third. Hardness decreases on decomposition of a mineral due to atmospheri face. Hence, it must be checked on unweathered and unaltered surfaces only. s of a mineral on Mohs scale. and Quartz H = 7, it does not attack on itsIt is defined as the tendency of a crystallized mineral to break along certain definite directions yielding more or less smooth, plane surfaces. In other words, cleavage planes are the planes of easiest Tractures, and are essentially indicative of directions of least cohesion in the atomic constitution of a mineral. A mineral may have cleavage in one, two or three directions. Further, the degree of ease in splitting along cleavage directions may vary in the same mineral. As such cleavage is described both in terms of number of directions in which it is observed on a mineral and also in terms of degree of perfect splitting. Since cleavage directions are always parallel to certain crystal faces in a mineral, these may be described as such. For instance, cubic cleavage (galena and haylite), rhombohedral cleavage (calcite) and prismatic cleavage, basal cleavage and octahedral cleavage. In terms of perfection, the cleavage is described as : eminent, perfect, good, distinct and indistinct in that order. In eminent cleavage, the mineral can be spilt very easily yieldi smooth surfaces e.g. in mica. Perfect cleavages are seen in orthoclase and calcite. Parting It is a property of minerals by virtue of which it can split easily along certain secondary planes. Although it may be confused at first with cleavage but its true nature can be established by careful study. Parting is actually due to the presence of secondary twin-planes and gliding planes along which the mineral may split easily. These (parting surfaces) are not necessarily related to the mineral as a species, that is, they may be present in one specimen and absent in the other specimen of the same mineral Parting is attributed to the presence of a substance of different composition along the parting planes or to the stresses that might have operated during or after the formation of the particular crystals. Best example of parting can be scen in corundum where cleavage may be absent but parting may be very prominent. 9.3.6. Fracture The appearance of the broken surface of a mineral in a direction other than that of cleavage is generally expressed by the term fracture. In some cases fracture becomes a characteristic property of a mineral, ‘Common types of fractures are : (® Even, When the broken surface is smooth and flat. Example : chert. (ii) Uneven. When the mineral breaks with an irregular surface which is full of minute ridges and depressions, It is a common fracture of many minerals. Example : Fluorite. (iii) Conchoidal. The broken surface of the mineral shows broadly concentric rings or concavities which may be deep or Faint in outline. In the latter case, the fracture may be termed as subconchoidal. Example : Quartz, (iv) Splintry. When the mineral breaks with a rough woody fracture resul at the surface. Example : kyanite, (0) Hackly. The broken surface is highly irregular with numerous sharp, fine, pinching projections. Example : Native Copper. (vi) Earthy, The surface is smooth, soft and porous. Example Chalk. ig in rough projection9.3.7. Tenacity The behaviour of a mineral towards the forces that tend to break, bend, cut or crush it is ty. Thus, when a mineral ean be eut with a knife, it is described as If the slices cut out of it can be flattened under a hammer, itis said to be malleable. Most minerals exhibit the property of brittleness, by virtue of which they change into fine grains or powder when scratched with a knife or when brought under the hammer. A mineral is said to be Mexible when it ean be bent, especially in thin sheets. Chlorites are flexible. Some minerals are not only flexible but elastic, that is, they regain their shape when the force applied on them is removed. Mieas are best example, The flexible and elastic fibres of asbestos can be woven into fire-proof fabric. As such, in terms of tenacity mineral may be seetile, brittle, flexible, plastic and elastic, the last two qualities being of diagnostic importance Structure (Form) Minerals often occur in characteristic body forms or physical shapes. The physical make up of a nnineral is expressed by the term structure and is often helpful in identifying a particular mineral. In reality, szucture merely shows the habbit in which the crystal or crystalline substance making a mineral tends to cccur in nature. Following are a few common structural forms (habits) observed in minerals. (@ Tabular. The mineral occurs in the form of a flattened, square, rectangular or rhombohedral shape. In other words, flattening is conspicuous compared to lengthwise elongation. (Fig. 9.1). Examples : Caleite, orthoclase, barite etc. ‘ (ii) Elongated. When the mineral is in the form of a thin or thick elongated, columnclike crystals. (Fig. 9.2) I Tabular (Barite) Elongated (Beryl) Fig. 94. Fig. 9.2. Examples : Beryl, quartz, hornblende. It is also commonly referred as a columnar structure, (iii) Bladed, The mineral appears as if composed of thin, flat, blade-like overlapping or Juxtraposed parts. Example : Kyanite (Fig. 9.3) ES Bladed (Kyanite) Lamellar (Vermiculite) Fig. 93. =(iv) Lamellar. The Example : Vermiculite. (0) Foliated. The structure is similar to lamellar in broader sense but sheets are paper thin, even thinner and can be easily separated. Exa (vi) Fibrous. When the mineral is composed of fibres, generally separable, either quite easily (example : asbestos) or with some difficulty (example : gypsum) (1 i is made up of relatively thick, flexible, leaf-like sheets, (Fig. 9.4), Fibrous (Asbestos) Fig. 85. Radiating (Pyrities) Fig. 96. (oii) Radiating, The mineral is made up of needle like or fibrous crystals which appear originating from a eommion point thereby giv iting appearance, Example : Iron pyrites (Fi When needles are pointed and not necessarily radiating, the structure is called a (vii?) Granular, The mineral occurs in the form of densely packed mass of small grain-like crystals. Example : Chromite (Fig. 9.7). Globular (Hematite) Fig. 98. (ix) Globular or botroiydal, when the mineral surface is in the form of rounded, bulb- overlapping globules or projections. Example : Hematite (Fig. 9.8). (x) Reniform. It is similar to globular but the shape of the bulbs or projections resembles to human kidneys. (Fig. 9.9) Example : Hematite, (Fig. 9.9). Reniform (Hematite). ‘Mammiltary (Malachi Fig. 99. Fig. 9.10. (xi) Mammillary. Is similar to globular but the projections are conspicuous in size, overlapping in arrangement and rounded in shape. Example : Malachite, (Fig. 9.10),9. Specific Gravity The density of a substance is a fundamental property of great significance and is defined as the mass per unit volume of the substance. For minerals, it is expressed in glee. he term specific gravity is used more frequently than density and signifies “the ratio between the density of a mineral and that of water at 4° Celsius”, Since itis a ratio, it has no units. Specifie gravity of quartz is, for instance, 2.65. The specific gravity is also termed relative density. Density (hence specific gravity) of minerals depends primarily on = ( Composition. ‘The non-metallic minerals have low values, ranging between 2.5 to 45 g/cc, ‘whereas metallic minerals and ores have densities as high as 20 glee. (i Atomic constitution. Minerals with atoms of greater atomic radii show less density values compared with those made of atoms of smaller atomic rac Since temperature and pressure are both known to change volume of a substance, it follows that density will also show a change when a mineral is subjected to elevated temperature or high pressures, Specific gravity of some common minerals is : quartz (2.65); ealaite (2,60); fluorite (3.18); hematite (5.2); chalcopyrite (4.2); galena (7.5); native gold (19.3). 9.3.10, Form It is the internal atomic arrangement of a mineral which is manifested outwardly by development of geometrical shapes or erystal characters. One of the following three terms may describe the form of a mineral. (i) Crystallized. When the mineral occurs in the form of well-defined crystals as represented by crystal faces and angles or when it shows perfect cleavage, which is also indicative of perfect atomic arrangement. (i) Crystalline, When well-defined crystals are absent but the mineral shows a clear tendency towards crystallisation as evidenced by development of small grains each of which is virtually an ineipient crystals. (iii) Amorphous. Neither a crystal face nor a cleavage is seen. There is no evidence of orderly arrangement of atoms. 9.3.11. Miscellaneous Besides the above properties, minerals may show some specific and rare qualities that often become helpful in their identification, Some of these special properties are explained below : (i) Magnetism, Some minerals have natural magnetism in them to an appreciable extent. Example : magnetite. A few other minerals may be only feebly magnetic. Example : spinels, tourmaline. (ii) Electricity. In some minerals an electric charge may be developed by heating. These are called pyroelectric minerals. Examples : tourmaline, boracite, quartz. In some other minerals,Gi) rr) o accord the same effect of developing a charge may be produced by applying pressure. This group is termed as piezo-electric. Examples : tourmaline and quartz. Fluorescence. A few minerals have the property of glowing or emitting light when they are exposed to radiation. This property is called fluorescence and mineral fluorite shows it. Phosphorescence. It is similar to fluorescence in essential character but in this ease light is emitted by mineral not during the act of exposure to radiation but after the substance is wansferred rapidly to a dark place, Fluorite, quartz, willemite and diamond show phosphorescence under different conditions. Fusibility. Minerals behave differently on heating to elevated temperature. Some fuse (melt) easily at lower temperatures whereas others require very high temperatures. A scale of fusibility has been suggested by Von Kobell. It consists of six minerals arranged to temperature of fusion : stibnite (525° C), Natrolite (965° C), Alamandine (1,200? C), Actinolite (1,296? C), Orthoclase (1,300 C), and Bronzite (1,380? C).PETROLOGY ~ STUDY OF ROCKS Introduction Rocks have already been defined as “natural solid massive aggregates of minerals forming the erust of the Earth: The branch of geology dealing with various aspects of rocks such as their formation, classification and cccurrence is called petrology. A thorough grasp of petrology is most essential for a geologist. a civil incer. a mining engineer, a town planner and an architec. For the geologist, rocks are, according to Braine Mears, “the documents of geology”. It is from the study of rocks that a geologist understands essential facts about various geological principles, processes and structures operating on or within the crust of the Earth. ‘A professional civil engineer has to deal with rocks during most of his work involving design and construction of civil engineering projects such as buildings, roads, highways, tunnels, dams and reservoirs For a mining engineer, the rocks form the primary source of all the mineral wealth he expects to recover from the Earth. The term host rock that contains the ore minerals is used very commonly in mining and simply _means any type of rock in which the bodies of the ore minerals have formed in abunxtance. Similarly, a town planner and an architect must be able to assess the nature ofthe rocks that are go to form the base as well as environment of the entire construction they propose for a given area. ‘These professionals must have a very sound! knowledge about the inherent properties of different types of rocks beeause each rock has its own style of establishing equilibrium with the surrounding environment Major Rock Types A Rock, by a simple definition, is a solid with more than one component of a mineral or mineraloid. A single erystal isnot a rock; but two crystals that are joined together, ven if they are the same mineral, ae technically arock. The minerals or mineraloids ‘may be large enough to be easly identified (such as in pegmattic granite), barely distinctive grains (as ina schish, or in a ‘mixture of microscopie grains such asin a slate, rock does not even need to have crystals hut may be in the form of a non crystalline solid state or glass, an amorphous mixture in which the chemicals are not erystllized into minerals, such 3s in obsidian. Generally rocks are considered to only be natural objects, but sometimes man-made substances are included as rocks.A. IGNEOUS ROCKS _Definition Broadly speaki the process of cooling and A very high temperatur inal material from which the igneous rocks all rocks that have formed from an originally hot molten material through -ystallisation may be defined as Igneous rocks. and a molten state are, therefore, two very important conditions for the fare believed to have been formed. Magma The hot molten material occurring naturally below the surface of the Iris called lava when erupted through volcanoes. Igneous rocks are formed both from magma and Java, It may be mentioned here that magma is actually a hypothetical melt. It has not been possible to see it at its place of occurrence. But it is assumed to get formed at great depths below the surface due to very high temperature related to a number of causes such as rise in temperature with depth ava is, however, a thoroughly studied material that has ‘arth is called magma. als. L and also occurrence of radioactive mate poured out occasionally from volcanoes in many regions of the world again and ‘with ample proof of existence of the magma below the surface. ‘Magma or lava from which igneous rocks are formed may not be entirely a pure melt : it may have a crystalline or solid fraction and also a gaseous fraction thoroughly mixed with it. The solid small part of the magma or lava, which are predominantly ‘magma is believed to be a sufficiently mobile melt. In fact s because in. It provides and gaseous fractions, however, form only made up of liquid material. In most c: this mobility is one important quality that enables it to cool down to igneous rocks. Thi exist as a melt as long as physical and chemical environment surrounding it ren ze in one or more of these conditions (e.g. fall in magma unchanged, But as and when there is a cl temperature or pressure due to its upward mov. start and end up with the formation of an igneous rock. Igneous rocks are three sub-groups (a) Volcanic Rocks These are the igneous rocks formed on the surface of the Earth by cooling and crystallisation of lava erupted from volcanoes. Since the lava cools down at very fast rate (compared to magma), the grain size of the crystals formed in these rocks is very fine, ofien microscopic. Further, cooling of lava may take place on the surface or even under waters of seas and oceans, the latter process being more common. The Deccan Traps of India spread over more than four lakh square kilometers in Fig. 12:4. Peninsular India provide the best example of volcanic rocks. The Panjal Traps ii Kashmir Himalayas provide another example. The basalts of Columbia Plateau and the Prana plateau of Brazil are other well-known examples. Major Subgroups of Igneous Rocks I= Voleanic I~ Hypabyssal II ~ Plutonic(b) Plutonic Rocks These are igneous rocks formed at considerable depths-generally between 7-10 km below the surface of the earth. Because of a very slow rate of cooling at these depths, the rocks resulting from magma are coarse grained. These rocks get exposed on the surface of the earth as a consequence of erosion of the overlying strata, Granites, Syenites, and Gabbros are a few examples of Plutonic rocks. They occur in good abundance in both the Peninsular and extra-Peninsular India, In the latter case they form the lower regions of deep Himalayan valleys. (c) Hypabyssal Rocks ‘These igneous rocks are formed at intermediate depths, generally up to 2 kms below the surface of the earth and exhibit mixed characteristics of voleanic and plutonic rocks. Porphyries of various compositions are examples of hypabyssal rocks, Format for the Activity No. 5 Name: Date: Program Year/Section: Activity No. 5 Petrology: Igneous Rocks Do some research on the classification systems of petrology. 1. Complete the table by supplying data on the basic geological classification systems of igneous rocks, ‘Usage in any Definition | Composition Texture | Occurrence | engineering projects ‘Common Igneous Rocks Granites Syenites Pegmatite Dolorites Basalt Gabbro ‘To be reearched by all groups The answer slaris hereB, SEDIMENTARY ROCKS Introduction Sedimentary rocks are also called secondary rocks. This group includes a wide variety of rocks formed by accumulation, compaction and consolidation of sediments. The sediments may be defined a particles produced from the decay and weathering of pre-existing rocks or may be derived from remains of dead sea or land animals in suitable environments. The accumulation and compaction of these sediments commonly takes place under water or at least in the presence of water. Availability of sediments or the solid matter making the sedimentary rocks may be from varied sources. Rocks already existing on the surface of the earth at any given point of time are exposed to the action of natural agencies surrounding or operating on them such as atmosphere, wind. water, ice and chemical environment. The net result is breakdown of these rocks into smaller and still smaller parts, the ultimate size being of the sediments. These sediments are transported to varying distances and finally deposited in suitable basins (large depressions on the body of the earth), such as sea and ocean floors, lakes and river beds. Some sediments may be derived as precipitates or evaporites from sprin often from lagoons, bays and seawater. Animal and vegetable life, including microo contribute a fairly large supply of organic residues, which on gradual accumulation of the source get compacted and tum into hard massive bodies of sedimentary rocks. Sedimentary rocks are known to cover as much as 75 per cent of the surface area of the earth, the rest being covered by the igneous rocks and the metamorphic rocks. But depth wise. they disappear at shallow depths at most of the places; in fact, in the upper 16 km of the crust of the carth, the volume of sedimentary rocks is estimated to be less than ten percent, ranging between 5-8 percent in most studies. . lakes and more ms also sr the deathClassification of Sedimentary Rocks A. Clastic Rocks These are also called! mechani rocks that have been formed from pre-existing rocks by opk erosion, transport, deposition and diagenesis, Further classification of the clastic rocks is based on the average grain size or grade of the sediments making the rock, Following four-fold terminology is widely followed by the sedimentalogists for grading the clastic sediments : Formed or detrital rocks and include all those sedimentary ation of four processes: weathering and Genel Sands Silty Clays Grain size 52.00 mm | 2mm & ING mm | 1G and 17256 mm 1/256 ram ravels, sand following manner (a) Gravels, All sediments and clastic fragments of rocks above the size of 2mm irrespective of their composition and shape are broadly termed as gravels. However, specific terms are used to name the gravels on the basis of their range of grain size in which they actually fall : Boulders. When grain size is bigger than 256 mm. © Cobbles. When grain size is between 256-16 mm © Pebbles. Grain size lies between 16-2mm () Sands. All sediments that Tie within the size range of 2 mm and 1/16 mm are grouped as sands. Petrologically the term is generally used for siliceous sediments. Sand may be further divided into three sub-groups on the basis of grain-size as follows: © Coarse sands, Size range between 2. mm and 1/2 mm © Medium sands. Size range between 1/2 mm and 1/4 mm © Fine sands. Size range between 1/4 and 1/16 mm. +(e) Silts. These are very fine-sized particles of varying composition lying in the range between 1/16 mm and 1/256 mm. They are further divided into coarse, medium and fine silts although such a distinction is generally not possible with the naked eye. Ii is also not necessarily required for many practical applications. The silts are the major constituents of rocks known as shales, (d) Clays. All particles finer in size than 1/256 mm are commonly referred to as Clays. They are materials formed in a variety of ways and abound in nature both as soils and rocks 2s claystone, mudstones and shales, ete. shales and clays are further classified to lower limits of grain size in the The above grade-classification is shown diagrammatically as follows : (Fig. 13.5) + Gravels +4 sand —_5q_ Boiulders | Cobbies | Pobbles | Coarse | Med | Fine | Sub-Division of Clastic Rocks Fig. 13.5.B. Non-Clastic Rocks This group includes all those sedimentary rocks that have been formed by any one of following tso processes : (1) Operation of simple chemical processes such as evaporation, precipitation ard crystallisation at ordinary temperature and pressure from natural solution in different environments; 2) Accumulation of hard parts of organisms or remains of plant life followed by their compaction and consolidation. The non-clastic rocks are alse called non-detrital rocks. They are zenerally homogenous in character, fine-grained in particle size and varying in chemical composition. This group is further divided into two sub-divisions : chemically formed rocks and organically formed rocks. (a) Chemically Formed Rocks They are generally formed by precipitation, evaporation or crystallization from natural aqueous solutions carrying the weathered material in the form of dissolved load, On the basis of their chemical composition, these rocks are further sub-divided into following groups: (i) Siliceous Deposits (ii) Carbonate Deposits (iti) Ferruginous Deposits (iv) Phosphatic Deposits (v) Evaporites (®) Organic Dsposits Sedimentary depesits formed exclusively or predominantly from remains of organisms (both plants and animals) fall under this group. The organisms might have contributed in the formation of these deposits directly or indirectly. The rocks in which the bulk of their material is made of the remains of the organisms have their direct contribution, Coral limestone is an example. Indirect contribution is made by organism in a different manner. Some types of bacteria may help or even be solely responsible for precipitating the rock components from. solutior Following types of organic deposits are distinguished on the basis of their chemical composition (®) Carbonate Rocks. A great part of the limestones found in different areas of the world is actually marine and organic in origin. It has been formed by gradual accumulation and compaction Of shells and skeletal bones of se ms like foraminifera, corals, crinoids and crustacea etc. (ii) Carboniceous Rocks. Sedimentary rocks rich in earbon are called as carbonaceous rocks. In their formation, the source material for carbon is mainly derived from plants. Some carbonaceous shales may be cited as examples. Coals are also carbonaceous materials in their first stage of formation, Wood gets uccumvlated in huge volumes in sedimentary basins. Biomechanical and bio-chemical processes convert the wood to various grades of coal. (iti) Phosphatic Deposits~Guano. As already discussed, most phosphate rocks are of chemical origin. Guano is the name given to small volumes of phospha actually accumulations of excreta of some birds and hence considered organic in origin lly contain high content of phosphate. When accumulated over a period of time guano forms rich source of phosphate salt. Large deposits of guano occur in islands of eastern Pacifie Ocean and also in West Coast of India, (jv) Ferruginous Deposits. These are mostly iron carbonate dep. fresh water lakes and also in swamps some bacteria are th reduction of ferric oxide to ferrous oxide and finally to its pre Hence the organic origin of some siderite that is used as ore its of good volume. In many ought to be responsible for cipitation as iron carbonate. of iron,rend. In sedimentary rocks of chemical origin, the texture is generally and nature of crystallized grains. Rocks may show perfectly interlocking se to crystalline granular texture or they may be made up of no Jes when they are fermed as amorphous, (vi). Crystallis defined by the d colloidal part Format for the Activity No. $.1 Name: Date: ProgranvYeat/Section: Activity No. 5.1 Petrology: Sedimentary Rocks Do some research on the classification systems of petrology. 1. Complete the table by supplying data on the basic geological classification systems of sedimentary rocks. ‘Common Usage in any Sedimentary | Definition | Composition | ‘Texture | Occurrence | engineering Rocks projects Breccia Conglomerates ‘Sandstones Shale Limestone (Coal/Gypsum The answer siaris here