07 - Properties of Synthetic Lightweight Aggregates For Use in Pavement Systems

See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.
net/publication/268590566
Properties of Synthetic Lightweight Aggregates for use in Pavement Systems
Conference Paper in Geotechnical Special Publication · October 2005

DOI: 10.1061/40776(155)9
CITATIONS READS
10 424
2 authors:
Christopher W. Swan Aaron Sacks

Tufts University Manav Rachna College Of Engineering
126 PUBLICATIONS 872 CITATIONS 6 PUBLICATIONS 14 CITATIONS
SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE
Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:
NSF Innovation Corps for Learning (I-Corps L) View project
Efficacy of Macroethics Education in Engineering View project
All content following this page was uploaded by Christopher W. Swan on 16 July 2019.
The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

GSP 130 Advances in Pavement Engineering
Properties of Synthetic Lightweight Aggregates for use in Pavement Systems
Christopher Swan1 and Aaron Sacks2

1
Associate Professor, Dept. of Civil & Env. Eng., Tufts Univ., Medford, MA 02155,
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by TUFTS UNIVERSITY on 10/20/14. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.
chris.swan@tufts.edu
2
Undergraduate, Dept. of Civil and Env. Eng. Tufts Univ., Medford, MA 02155,
aaron.sacks@tufts.edu
ABSTRACT
This paper presents properties of new synthetic lightweight aggregates (SLAs), made
of plastic and fly ash, and their implications for use as aggregate in pavements
systems. These aggregates are manufactured through a thermal process that combines
and co-extrudes plastic and coal fly ash. The plastic acts as a matrix material that
binds and encapsulates the fly ash particulates. In this study, index and compression
properties are presented for SLAs made with different plastic types. All aggregates
have an approximate fly ash to plastic ratio, by weight, of 80:20 and use fly ash with
carbon contents of 15% to 30%. Index properties presented for the various SLAs
include gradation, specific gravity, and water absorption capacity. A series of one-
dimensional compression tests, at moderate and elevated stresses, were performed to
compare the compression behavior of SLAs with that of traditional aggregate (sand).
The results shows that SLAs have relatively substantial elastic deformation and rates
of secondary compression but also exhibit substantial rebound upon unloading when
compared to sand. However, at elevated stresses, the rate of secondary compression
for both the SLAs and sand approach similar values, with some SLAs actually
exhibiting a slower rate of secondary compression. Overall, the compression results
show that SLAs will have advantages (e.g., lightweight, stress absorption) and
disadvantages (e.g., excessive deformation) over the use of traditional granular
materials in pavement systems.
1. INTRODUCTION
In the past few decades interest in sustainable development has prompted the
design of products that are made from recycled materials and can be recycled at the
end of their usable lives, as well as processes that do not deplete non-renewable
resources. Agencies such as the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and
state departments of environmental protection have enacted regulations requiring the
recycling of many types of waste and restricting the amounts of waste that can be
disposed in landfills (USEPA, 2002).
The increasing rate of waste output, combined with increasing fees for
disposal of that waste, has prompted research on ways to reuse common waste
materials in other applications. Of particular concern to civil engineers has been the
potential for the use of recycled materials in highway construction. Recycled asphalt
Copyright ASCE 2005 Advances in Pavement Engineering

Advances in Pavement Engineering
concrete, Portland cement concrete, coal combustion fly ash, scrap tires, plastic,
glass, compost, blast furnace and steel slag, and other materials have been used in
highway construction with varying levels of success (Shelburne and DeGroot, 1998).
Research on an innovative aggregates made from recycled waste has been an
ongoing effort at Tufts University and the University of Massachusetts at Lowell
since 1995. Synthetic lightweight aggregates, or SLAs, are made from recycled
plastics and fly ash, two high volume components of the U.S. waste stream. The
studies to date have evaluated a number of structural and geotechnical properties of
SLAs as well as many potential applications for their use in the construction industry.
1.1 Objective and Scope
The objective of this paper is to evaluate the deformation and creep behavior
of SLAs under one-dimensional compression at moderate and elevated stresses, and
to compare their behavior to that of a traditional aggregate (sand) and to the behavior
predicted by theoretical models. One-dimensional compression tests were performed
on four types of SLAs and a granitic sand using a computer-controlled testing
equipment. Index properties, including gradation, specific gravity, and water
absorption are also presented. All of the SLAs tested had an approximate fly ash to
plastic ratio of 80:20 by weight and used fly ash with carbon contents of 15% to 30%.
The following presents an overview of the raw materials used in, and the
development and manufacturing of, SLAs. The paper then presents the testing
program and results of the present study. A discussion of these results and their
relevance to pavement systems concludes the paper.
2 Recycled Materials Used in the Manufacture of SLAs
2.1 Plastics
Plastics make up a rapidly growing portion of the United States municipal

solid waste stream (MSW). In 2000, 10.7% of the US MSW was plastics, up from
0.4% in 1960. However, only 5.7% of discarded plastics were recovered (USEPA,
2002). Part of the reason for the low recovery rate of plastics is the wide range of
forms in which it occurs. Plastics recycling is also difficult because different types of
plastic cannot be mixed without compromising the quality of the recycled product.
Thermoplastics were used in the development of SLAs. The strength,
stiffness, and hardness of thermoplastics are very sensitive to temperature and
typically decrease as temperature increases. Thermoplastics are also susceptible to
creep, or strain under constant stress, due to slippage of the molecules within the
polymer (Kiggins, 2001). SLAs used in this study utilized either polystyrene (PS),
low density polyethylene (LDPE), high density polyethylene (HDPE), or a mixture of
varios plastics (MP) as outlined in Table 1. A summary of physical and mechanical
properties of PS, LDPE, and HDPE is given in Table 2.

Table 1: Polymer Composition of Mixed Plastics (Weingram 2003)

Polymer Resin Mass Concentration, %
PET [Polyethylene Terephthalate] (Recycled bottle 30
grade)
HDPE (Recycled blow molding grade) 30
HDPE (Injection molding grade) 5
LDPE (Extrusion grade) 10
PP [Polypropylene] (Injection molding grade) 10
PS (Injection molding grade) 5

HIPS [High-Impact Polystyrene] (Injection molding 10
grade)
Table 2: Properties of Plastics Used (Kiggins 2001 and Weingram 2003)

Plastic Type
Property
PS HDPE LDPE
Tensile Yield Stress (MPa) 36-52 22-31 8.3-31
Tensile Modulus (MPa) 2280-3280 1070-1090 172-283
Elongation (%) 1.2-2.5 10-1200 100-650
Flexural Modulus (MPa) 3160 770 140
Flexural Strength (MPa) 69-101 2 7
Crystalline Melting
* 128-135 102-112
Temperature (°C)
* = amorphous crystal structure (does not undergo crystalline melting)
2.2 Fly Ash
Fly ash is a by-product of thermal processes. It is formed by the solidification

of molten minerals in the gases exiting through the flue of a combustion chamber. Fly
ash particles are collected by various air pollution control techniques, such as
electrostatic precipitation, and subsequently disposed of or recycled. The vast
majority of fly ash is produced from coal combustion for electricity. More than half
of the electric power utilized in the United States is generated by coal combustion
resulting in 62 million metric tons (Mt) of fly ash in 2001 (Kalyoncu, 2001).
About one quarter of the fly ash produced in the United States is reused as an
admixture in Portland cement concrete or for flowable fill, filler in asphalt mixes,
road base material, or in waste stabilization (Holmstrom and Swan, 2001). The
remainder of the fly ash waste stream is disposed in landfills or wet impoundments.
The fly ash used in this study was obtained from a coal combustion facility in
New England. The fly ash was the resulting waste product from a beneficiation
process that separates low carbon (<6% by weight) from high carbon ash. The typical
carbon content of the fly ash ranged from 15 to 30%.

3 Synthetic Lightweight Aggregates
3.1 Manufacturing Process
The synthetic lightweight aggregates used in this study were created by

combining fly ash and plastics though a melt blending process. The compounding
was performed at the University of Massachusetts at Lowell using a 30 mm diameter,
co-rotating intermeshing twin screw extruder (Werner Pfleiderer, Ramsey, NJ model
ZSK30) at mixing temperatures between 200 and 230 °C. A schematic of the
manufacturing process is shown in Figure 1. During the mixing process, plastic
polymers are fed into the primary auger feeder and fly ash is added through a
downstream feeder to obtain the desired fly ash to plastic ratio. The mixing product is
extruded through a 6mm by 16 mm rectangular opening to form a continuous strand
that is quenched in a water bath to cool and solidify. The solid extrudate is then
granulated in a rotating knife granulator. Figure 2 shows the extrudate before and
after granulation.
SLA particles consist of fly ash bound in a plastic matrix. The particles are
dark-gray to black in color and range in texture from firm to noticeably deformable,
depending on the type of plastic used. All of the SLAs tested had fly ash to plastic
ratios of 80:20 by weight.
Downstream Fly
Thermoplastics Ash Additive Thick
Feeder Solid
Profile
Die Granulator
Cooling
Tank
Extruder
Synthetic
Lightweight
Aggregate
Figure 1 Schematic of SLA Manufacturing Process (Kashi et al 2000)

Figure 2 Extrudates before and after granulation

(from Malloy et al. 2001)
4 TESTING PROGRAM
The major component of the testing program consisted of 15 one-dimensional

compression tests on four types of SLA and a granitic sand (three tests on each
material). The materials were sieved through a U.S. Standard No. 8 sieve (2.36 mm
opening diameter) and a No. 16 sieve (1.18 mm opening diameter) with particles
passing the No. 8 yet retained on the #16 sieve used in testing. In addition, index
properties of specific gravity and water absorption were determined for each material
in general accordance with ASTM Standard specifications D 854 and C128,
respectively.
4.1 One-Dimensional Testing Procedure
Specimens were tested in a brass compression ring having an outside diameter

of 88 mm, an insider diameter of 63 mm and a height of 25 mm. A film of vacuum
grease was applied to the interior surface of the ring prior to each test and the ring
was placed on a stainless steel base plate. Test specimens were developed using an air
pluviation process where the granular material is “rained” through a series of screens
and comes to rest inside the ring. Filter paper was then placed on the develop
specimen and a circular loading plate (cap) was then placed on the specimen. The
side of the brass ring was tapped with a metal bar until the loading cap reached a level
indicating a specimen height of 19.1 mm, giving an initial specimen volume of 59.4
cm3. The base plate, brass ring, and cap are shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3 Compression Test Components (2.5-inch diameter ring)
Each material was developed so as to be initially “loose” such that it was

possible to easily attain the desired specimen volume by tapping the sides of the brass
ring. Table 3 lists the average specimen mass and corresponding average initial
porosity (no) developed for each material tested.
Table 3 Specimen Masses and Initial Porosities

Specimen Type Mass (g) Initial Porosity, no
Sand 88.18 0.45
SLA with PS 42.76 0.57
SLA with LDPE 33.26 0.63
SLA with HDPE 34.21 0.63
SLA with MP 39.55 0.58
The specimens were tested in a LoadTrac II loading device developed by

GeoComp Corporation (Boxborough, MA). The device was capable of applying and
holding specific piston loads according to a pre-programmed loading schedule while
continuously measuring specimen strain. Each test was programmed to run for a total
of 50 hours, including loading and unloading stages with piston loads of up to 4000
kg, according to the schedule presented in Table 4.
Table 4 Incremental Specimen Loading and Unloading Schedule

Increment Applied Stress Step Final Stress
Number (kPa) Maintained for
(hours)
1 0 to 1240 24
2 1240 to 12380 24
3 12380 to 1240 2

5 TEST RESULTS
5.1 Index Properties
For purposes of testing consistency, the SLAs and sand used in this study
were constrained to a near-uniform particle size with all particles tested passed a #8
(2.36 mm opening diameter) sieve but were retained on a #16 (1.18 mm opening
diameter) sieve. Specific gravity and water absorption capacity for the aggregates are
provided in Table 5 and show that the SLAs would have lower densities than the
sand. However, the SLAs would absorb more water than the sand but the amount of
water absorbed wouild still be insignificant to their overall weight.
Table 5 Index Properties of SLAs and Sand Tested (from Gaudreau, 2002)
Plastic Type Used Specific Gravity Water Absorption Capacity
ASTM D 854 (%) ASTM C128
PS 1.68 3.48
LDPE 1.53 8.14
HDPE 1.56 3.46
MP 1.60 7.49
Sand 2.7 1.60
5.2 One-Dimensional Compression
Figure 5 displays normalized porosity (n/no) versus effective stress where

normalized porosity represents the material’s instantaneous porosity during testing
divided by the material’s initial porosity at setup. Figures 6 and 7 show the secondary
consolidation, or creep, occurring at the 1240 kPa and 12380 kPa load increments,
respectively. Table 6 presents a summary of the secondary consolidation rates
calculated for each material at each load increment.
In the following figures, SLAs are identified by the type of plastic they
contain. For example, “HDPE” denotes a specimen of SLA containing HDPE.
Table 6 Secondary Consolidation Rates C for Specified Materials

Material C under 1240 kPa Load C under 12380 kPa
Load
Sand 0.002 0.087
SLA with PS 0.082 0.104
SLA with LDPE 0.163 0.097
SLA with HDPE 0.223 0.172
SLA with MP 0.208 0.136

1
Sand
0.9 Sand (Unload)
PS
0.8
PS (Unload)
Normalized Porosity n/n 0
0.7 MP
0.6 MP (Unload)
HDPE
0.5
HDPE (Unload)
0.4 LDPE
0.3 LDPE (Unload)
0.2
0.1
0
10 100 1000 10000 100000
Stress (kPa)
Figure 5 Normalized porosity versus log effective stress for specified materials
average of three tests per material
*Note: Displacements normalized so that 0 mm displacement occurs at beginning of secondary consolidation.

0.00
Sand
PS
0.10 LDPE
MP
0.20 HDPE
Displacement* (mm)
0.30
0.40
0.50
0.60
0.70
0.80
100 1000 10000 100000
Time (s)
Figure 6 Secondary consolidation of specified materials under 1240 kPa stress

average of three tests per material

*Note: Displacements normalized so that 0 mm displacement occurs at beginning of secondary consolidation.
0.00
Sand
PS
0.10 LDPE
MP
HDPE
0.20
Displacement* (mm)
0.30
0.40
0.50
0.60
0.70
10 100 1000 10000 100000
Time (s)
Figure 7 Secondary consolidation of specified materials under 12380 kPa stress

averages of three tests per material
6 DISCUSSION OF COMPRESSION RESULTS
6.1 Stress-Strain Behavior
As shown in Figure 5, the sand undergoes significantly less reduction in

volume during compression testing than do the SLAs. Comparing the SLAs’
behaviors shown in Figure 6 indicates that the PS is the stiffest SLA followed by MP,
HDPE, and LDPE. This behavior is not surprising since PS is the stiffest of the plastic
types tested in this study (refer to Table 2).
Stresses in the loading cycle where creep was allowed to occur, namely at
1240 kPa and 12380 kPa, are very noticeable. At these points, the SLAs deformed
significantly under no added stress. It is interesting to note that upon resumption of
loading, the SLA loading curves quickly recover to their original paths. This
phenomenon can be conceptualized by thinking of the creep as “aging” which
effectively overconsolidates the soil specimens. When loading is resumed, the
specimens must go through an initial “reconsolidation” stage, characterized by elastic
skeleton deformation and particle rearrangement, before reaching their “maximum
past pressures” and continuing with virgin consolidation.
The differences in sand and SLA behavior can be attributed to the deformability of
SLA particles, a char acteristic not considered for most granular materials. Where
most natural granular soils must reach a significantly high stress level before particle
deformation (i.e. breaking) begins to occur, particle deformation in SLAs begins
under low stresses along with the usual rearrangement and skeleton deformation that
occur under low stresses in natural soils.

6.2 Secondary Compression Behavior
Under the 1240 kPa sustained stress, a wide range of compression or creep
behaviors were shown by the materials (see Figure 6). While all SLAs displayed
significant rates of secondary compression, with the HDPE-based SLA displaying the
highest, sand displayed almost zero creep deformation under the 1240 kPa stress.
However, under the 12380 kPa stress, all materials exhibit significant rates of
secondary compression (see Figure 7). Moreover, the “softer” SLAs exhibit a lower
rate of compression at this stress level than at the lower stress level. As with the
overall compression behavior, the differences in secondary compression behavior
between sands and SLAs may be due to particle deformation characteristics. The
primary mechanism of creep in natural granular soils is particle rearrangement and
breakage at contact points; the contact stresses for the 1240 kPa stress were not
enough to initiate this type of failure in the sand but was sufficient for the SLAs. It
could be concluded that as the void space in the SLAs reduce to almost non-
existence, the material become stiffer and less creep susceptible. This behavior
requires more study to substantiate this conclusion.
6.3 Post-Test Observations
It is interesting to note that at the conclusion of each test, the specimen was
removed from the consolidation ring. Most of the SLA specimens had bonded into
solid “disks” during testing, and some had to be removed forcefully from the
consolidation ring. A photograph of a typical SLA specimen after testing is shown in
Figure 8. This interlocking of particles to form a “SLA cake” lead to lower than
expected recovery of strains after removal of applied stresses.
Figure 8 Typical SLA specimen after testing
7 IMPLICATIONS FOR PAVEMENT SYSTEMS
SLAs may present a number of potential advantages and disadvantages for their
use in pavement systems (i.e., subgrade to final wearing surface). As shown by the
bulk density results, the full replacement of normal aggregate with SLA could lead to
10

a lower weight pavement system for roadways and bridges. As for use in asphalt
concrete, previous work by Hooper et al (2004) has shown that a partial substitution
of SLA as the aggregate in hot mix asphalt lead to an increase in resilient modulus
with a decrease in rutting. However, the significant compression of the SLAs could
be problematic if a stiffer pavement system is needed, such as for heavily traveled
roads or runways. In addition, the level of creep at low stress levels would indicate
that sustained loading on the pavement system could lead to pre-mature rutting of the
road surface. More research is needed to evaluate the effects of SLAs in actual
pavement system.
8 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
8.1 Conclusions
One-dimensional compression tests were carried out on four types of synthetic

lightweight aggregate, each containing fly ash and plastic in an 80:20 ratio, and a
granitic sand. Conclusions that may be drawn from the results are as follows.
1. SLAs undergo a much greater reduction in volume than natural sand under
applied stress.
2. SLAs absorb stress through plastic particle deformation over the entire
range of applied stresses, whereas natural sand absorbs low stresses
through elastic skeleton deformation and particle rearrangement and high
stresses through crushing at particle contact points.
3. Because of particle interlock and bonding, SLA particles rebound
minimally after undergoing high stresses.
4. SLAs exhibit significant amounts of creep under both low and high
sustained stresses. Sand exhibits significant creep only under high
sustained stresses.
8.2 Recommendations
Future testing should focus on duplicating the tests described herein at higher
stress levels. This will allow the investigation of the sand and SLAs as they approach
zero porosity. Additionally, tests similar tests should be carried out for mixtures of
SLA and natural soils to see if partial substitution of SLAs for normal aggregates in
pavement systems is possible. Finally, similar testing should be carried out on SLAs
with fly ash to plastic ratios other than 80:20 so that the effects of changing the fly
ash content may be observed.
11

REFERENCES
American Society for Testing Materials (1994). Annual book of ASTM Standards,
Vol. 8. Soil and Rock, pp. 530-550. Philadelphia: ASTM.
Cook, Glenn J. (2000). “Physical and Mechanical Properties of Composite

Lightweight Aggregates,” Thesis submitted to Tufts University in partial fulfillment
of the requirements of Master of Science from the Department of Civil and
Environmental Engineering, 109p.
Gaudreau, Jade A. (2002). “Stress-Strain-Strength Behavior of Synthetic Lightweight

Aggregates in Triaxial Compression,” Thesis submitted to Tufts University in partial
fulfillment of the requirements of Master of Science from the Department of Civil
and Environmental Engineering, 136p.
Hooper, Fredick; Mallick, Rajib; O’Brien, Sean; and Kashi, Mohsen (2004).
“Evaluation of Use of Synthetic Lightweight Aggregate (SLA) in Hot Mix Asphalt”,
83rd Transportation Research Board Annual Meeting, Washington DC, January 11-15,
2004.
Kalyoncu, Rustu S. (2001). “Coal Combustion Products”. United States Geological

Survey, 2001 Minerals Yearbook, 11p.
Kiggins, Michael L. (2001). “Synthetic (Fly Ash/Plastic) Lightweight Aggregates in

Concrete,” Thesis submitted to Tufts University in partial fulfillment of the
requirements of Master of Science from the Department of Civil and Environmental
Engineering, 298p.
Malloy, R., Swan, C. W., and Kashi, M. G. (2001). “High Carbon Fly Ash/Mixed
Thermoplastic Aggregates for Use in Lightweight Concrete,” Society of Plastics
Engineers Annunal Conference.
Shelburne, W., and DeGroot, D. (1998). “The Use of Waste and Recycled Materials
in Highway Construction”, Civil Engineering Practice – Journal of the Boston
Society of Civil Engineers Section/ASCE, Vol. 13, No. 1, pp. 5-16.
United States Environmental Protection Agency (2002). “Municipal Solid Wastes in

the United States: 2000 Facts and Figures”. Office of Solid Waste and Emergency
Response (5305W), EPA 530-R-02-001, 165p.
Weingram, Joshua A. (2003). “Shrinkage and Durability of Concrete Containing Fly

Ash/Mixed Plastic Aggregates,” Thesis submitted to Tufts University in partial
fulfillment of the requirements of Master of Science from the Department of Civil
and Environmental Engineering, 127p.
12

View publication stats Advances in Pavement Engineering

07 - Properties of Synthetic Lightweight Aggregates For Use in Pavement Systems

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

07 - Properties of Synthetic Lightweight Aggregates For Use in Pavement Systems

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

Properties of Synthetic Lightweight Aggregates for use in Pavement Systems

Conference Paper in Geotechnical Special Publication · October 2005

Christopher W. Swan Aaron Sacks

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

NSF Innovation Corps for Learning (I-Corps L) View project

Efficacy of Macroethics Education in Engineering View project

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Properties of Synthetic Lightweight Aggregates for use in Pavement Systems

Christopher Swan1 and Aaron Sacks2

Copyright ASCE 2005 Advances in Pavement Engineering

1.1 Objective and Scope

2 Recycled Materials Used in the Manufacture of SLAs

Plastics make up a rapidly growing portion of the United States municipal

Copyright ASCE 2005 Advances in Pavement Engineering

Table 1: Polymer Composition of Mixed Plastics (Weingram 2003)

PS (Injection molding grade) 5

Table 2: Properties of Plastics Used (Kiggins 2001 and Weingram 2003)

2.2 Fly Ash

Fly ash is a by-product of thermal processes. It is formed by the solidification

Copyright ASCE 2005 Advances in Pavement Engineering

3 Synthetic Lightweight Aggregates

3.1 Manufacturing Process

The synthetic lightweight aggregates used in this study were created by

Figure 1 Schematic of SLA Manufacturing Process (Kashi et al 2000)

Copyright ASCE 2005 Advances in Pavement Engineering

Figure 2 Extrudates before and after granulation

The major component of the testing program consisted of 15 one-dimensional

4.1 One-Dimensional Testing Procedure

Specimens were tested in a brass compression ring having an outside diameter

Copyright ASCE 2005 Advances in Pavement Engineering

Figure 3 Compression Test Components (2.5-inch diameter ring)

Each material was developed so as to be initially “loose” such that it was

Table 3 Specimen Masses and Initial Porosities

The specimens were tested in a LoadTrac II loading device developed by

Table 4 Incremental Specimen Loading and Unloading Schedule

Copyright ASCE 2005 Advances in Pavement Engineering

5.1 Index Properties

5.2 One-Dimensional Compression

Figure 5 displays normalized porosity (n/no) versus effective stress where

Table 6 Secondary Consolidation Rates C for Specified Materials

Copyright ASCE 2005 Advances in Pavement Engineering

0.3 LDPE (Unload)

*Note: Displacements normalized so that 0 mm displacement occurs at beginning of secondary consolidation.

Figure 6 Secondary consolidation of specified materials under 1240 kPa stress

Copyright ASCE 2005 Advances in Pavement Engineering

*Note: Displacements normalized so that 0 mm displacement occurs at beginning of secondary consolidation.

Figure 7 Secondary consolidation of specified materials under 12380 kPa stress

6 DISCUSSION OF COMPRESSION RESULTS

6.1 Stress-Strain Behavior

As shown in Figure 5, the sand undergoes significantly less reduction in

Copyright ASCE 2005 Advances in Pavement Engineering

6.2 Secondary Compression Behavior

6.3 Post-Test Observations

Figure 8 Typical SLA specimen after testing

7 IMPLICATIONS FOR PAVEMENT SYSTEMS

Copyright ASCE 2005 Advances in Pavement Engineering

8 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

One-dimensional compression tests were carried out on four types of synthetic

Copyright ASCE 2005 Advances in Pavement Engineering

Cook, Glenn J. (2000). “Physical and Mechanical Properties of Composite

Environmental Engineering, 109p.

Gaudreau, Jade A. (2002). “Stress-Strain-Strength Behavior of Synthetic Lightweight