Curs ACEMSC - Cap I Si II - LB - Engl.

‘THE ACTION OF
ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD
ON THE COMPLEX
SYSTEMS’
BIOELECTROMAGNETISM
Conf. univ. dr. Loredana MEREUTA

Facultatea de Fizica, Univ. ‘Alexandru Ioan Cuza’-Iasi
THE BIOELECTROGENESIS IN THE HUMAN BODY
EXCITABLE TISSUES AND ORGANS.
 The basic unit of living tissue is the cell.
 Cells are specialized in their anatomy and physiology to perform different
tasks.
 All cells exhibit a voltage difference across the cell membrane.
 Nerve cells and muscle cells are excitable.
 Their cell membrane can produce electrochemical impulses and conduct
them along the membrane.
 In muscle cells, this electric phenomenon is also associated with the
contraction of the cell.
 In other cells, such as gland cells and ciliated cells, it is believed that the
membrane voltage is important to the execution of cell function.
 The origin of the membrane voltage is the same in nerve cells as in muscle
cells.
 In both cell types, the membrane generates an impulse as a consequence
of excitation.
 This impulse propagates in both cell types in the same manner.
THE MAIN PARTS OF THE NERVE CELL
 The nerve cell may be divided on the basis of its
structure and function into three main parts:
 (1) the cell body, also

called the soma;
 (2) numerous short
processes of the
soma, called the
dendrites; and,
 (3) the single long
nerve fiber, the
axon(1 - 20 µm).
MUSCLE CELL
There are three types of muscles in the body:
 - smooth muscle, are involuntary. Their

cells have a variable length but are in the
order of 0.1 mm; exist, for example, in the
digestive tract, in the wall of the trachea,
uterus. The contraction of smooth muscle
is controlled from the brain through the
autonomic nervous system.
 - striated muscle (skeletal muscle)
 - cardiac muscle, is also striated

MUSCLE CELL
Striated muscle are

also called skeletal
muscles because of their
anatomical location, are
formed from a large
number of muscle fibers,
that range in length from 1
to 40 mm and in diameter
from 0.01 to 0.1 mm.
Each fiber forms a
(muscle) cell and is
distinguished by the
presence of alternating
dark and light bands. (the
origin of the description
"striated“).
MUSCLE CELL
The striated muscle fiber corresponds to an (unmyelinated) nerve
fiber but is distinguished electrophysiologically from nerve by the presence of
a periodic transverse tubular system (TTS), a complex structure that, in effect,
continues the surface membrane into the interior of the muscle.
Propagation of the impulse over the surface membrane continues
radially into the fiber via the TTS, and forms the trigger of myofibrillar
contraction. The presence of the TTS affects conduction of the muscle fiber so
that it differs (although only slightly) from propagation on an (unmyelinated)
nerve fiber.
MUSCLE CELL
Striated muscles are connected to the bones via tendons.

Such muscles are voluntary and form an essential part of
the organ of support and motion.
EXCITABILITY OF NERVE CELL
The membrane voltage (transmembrane voltage) (Vm) of
an excitable cell is defined as the potential at the inner surface
(Φi) relative to that at the outer (Φo) surface of the membrane, i.e.
Vm = (Φi) - (Φo).
The concentration of
sodium ions (Na+) is about 10
times higher outside the
membrane than inside, whereas
the concentration of the
potassium (K+) ions is about 30
times higher inside as
compared to outside.
EXCITABILITY OF NERVE CELL
When the membrane is stimulated so that the
transmembrane potential rises about 20 mV and reaches
the threshold - that is, when the membrane voltage
changes from -70 mV to about -50 mV - the sodium and
potassium ionic permeabilities of the membrane change.
The sodium ion permeability increases very
rapidly at first, allowing sodium ions to flow from
outside to inside, making the inside more positive. The
inside reaches a potential of about +20 mV.
After that, the more slowly increasing
potassium ion permeability allows potassium ions to
flow from inside to outside, thus returning the
intracellular potential to its resting value.
The maximum excursion of the membrane
voltage during activation is about 100 mV; the duration
of the nerve impulse is around 1 ms, as illustrated in
While at rest, following activation, the Na-K
pump restores the ion concentrations inside and
outside the membrane to their original values.
THE NEUROMUSCULAR (SYNAPTIC) JUNCTION.
 The function of the synapse is to transfer electric

activity (information) from one cell to another. The
transfer can be from nerve to nerve (neuro-neuro), or
nerve to muscle (neuro-myo). The region between the
pre- and postsynaptic membrane is very narrow, only
30-50 nm. It is called the synaptic cleft (or synaptic
gap).
 Direct electric communication between pre- and

postjunctional cells does not take place; instead, a
chemical mediator is utilized.
The sequence of events is as follows:
 An action pulse reaches the
terminal endings of the presynaptic
cell.
 A neurotransmitter is released,
which diffuses across the synaptic
gap to bind to receptors in
specialized membranes of the
postsynaptic cell.
 The transmitter acts to open
channels of one or several ion
species, resulting in a change in the
transmembrane potential. If
depolarizing, it is an excitatory
postsynaptic potential (EPSP); if
hyperpolarizing, an inhibitory
postsynaptic potential (IPSP).
The presynaptic nerve fiber endings
are generally enlarged to form terminal buttons
or synaptic knobs. Inside these knobs are the
vesicles that contain the chemical
transmitters. The arrival of the action pulse
opens voltage-gated Ca2+ channels that
permit an influx of calcium ions. These in turn
trigger the release into the synaptic gap, by
exocytosis, of a number of the "prepackaged"
vesicles containing the neurotransmitter.
On average, each neuron divides into

perhaps 1000 synaptic endings. On the other
hand, a single spinal motor neuron may have
an average of 10,000 synaptic inputs. Based
on this data, it is not surprising that the ratio of
synapse to neurons in the human forebrain is
estimated to be around 4×104. In neuro-neuro
synapses, the postjunctional site may be a
dendrite or cell body, but the former
predominates.
Electrophysiology of the cardiac muscle cell
The heart is located in the chest between the lungs behind the sternum
and above the diaphragm. It is surrounded by the pericardium. Its size is about
that of a fist, and its weight is about 250-300 g.
Cardiac muscle: is also striated, but differs in other ways from skeletal muscle:
Not only is it involuntary, but also when excited, it generates a much
longer electric impulse than does skeletal muscle, lasting about 300 ms.
Correspondingly, the mechanical contraction also lasts longer.
Furthermore, cardiac muscle has a special property: The electric
activity of one muscle cell spreads to all other surrounding muscle cells, owing
to an elaborate system of intercellular junctions (Purkinje fibers).
A Closer Look: Cardiac Muscle Cells. Cardiac muscle cells are rectangular shaped cells
connected by regions called intercalated discs. Intercalated discs contain gap junctions
and desmosomes. The gap junctions, which are protein-lined tunnels, allow direct
transmission of the depolarizing current from cell to cell, across the chambers of the
heart, so that the cells contract in unison. Because of the way these gap junctions
function, the cardiac muscle cells are said to be electrically coupled. The desmosomes
hold the cardiac muscle cells together during contraction, induced by the sliding of the
cardiac myofibrils.
Sliding is
regulated by the
intracellular
concentration of
calcium ions
released by the
sarcoplasmic
reticulum.
Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc. or its affiliates. http://www.phschool.com/science/biology_place/biocoach/cardio1/muscle.html

 In the heart muscle cell, or myocyte,

electric activation takes place by
means of the same mechanism as in
the nerve cell - that is, from the inflow
of sodium ions across the cell
membrane.
 The amplitude of the action

potential is also similar, being
about 100 mV for both nerve and
muscle.
 The duration of the cardiac
muscle impulse is, however, two
orders of magnitude longer than
that in either nerve cell or skeletal
muscle (about 300 ms).
 A plateau phase follows cardiac depolarization, and thereafter
repolarization takes place. As in the nerve cell, repolarization is a
consequence of the outflow of potassium ions.
The Conduction System of the Heart
 An important distinction between cardiac muscle tissue and
skeletal muscle is that in cardiac muscle, activation can
propagate from one cell to another in any direction. As a
result, the activation wavefronts are of rather complex shape.
 The different waveforms

for each of the
specialized cells found
in the heart are shown.
The latency shown
approximates that
normally found in the
healthy heart.
 The sinoatrial node:
 in humans is in the shape of a

crescent and is about 15 mm
long and 5 mm wide
 The SA nodal cells are self-
excitatory, pacemaker cells.
They generate an action
potential at the rate of about
70 per minute.
 From the sinus node,
activation propagates
throughout the atria, but
cannot propagate directly
across the boundary between
atria and ventricles.
 The atrioventricular node (AV
node):
 is located at the boundary between

the atria and ventricles;
 it has an intrinsic frequency of
about 50 pulses/min.
 However, if the AV node is
triggered with a higher pulse
frequency, it follows this higher
frequency.
 In a normal heart, the AV node
provides the only conducting path
from the atria to the ventricles.
Thus, under normal conditions, the
latter can be excited only by pulses
that propagate through it.
 Propagation from the AV node to the
ventricles is provided by a specialized
conduction system called the bundle
of His. More distally, it separates into
two bundle branches propagating
along each side of the septum,
constituting the right and left bundle
branches.
 Even more distally the bundles ramify
into Purkinje fibers that diverge to the
inner sides of the ventricular walls.
 From the inner side of the ventricular wall, the many activation
sites cause the formation of a wavefront which propagates
through the ventricular mass toward the outer wall. This
process results from cell-to-cell activation.
 After each ventricular muscle region has depolarized,
repolarization occurs.
 Because the intrinsic rate of the sinus node is the greatest, it
sets the activation frequency of the whole heart.
 If the connection from
the atria to the AV
node fails, the AV node
adopts its intrinsic
frequency.
 If the conduction
system fails at the
bundle of His, the
ventricles will beat at
the rate determined by
their own region that
has the highest
intrinsic frequency.
Electric events in the heart
THE APPLICATION AREAS OF ECG DIAGNOSIS
1.The electric axis of the heart
2.Heart rate monitoring
3.Arrhythmias
a. Supraventricular arrhythmias
b. Ventricular arrhythmias
4.Disorders in the activation
sequence
a. Atrioventricular conduction
defects (blocks)
b. Bundle-branch block
c. Wolff-Parkinson-White
syndrome
5.Increase in wall thickness or size of
the atria and ventricles
a. Atrial enlargement
(hypertrophy)
b. Ventricular enlargement
(hypertrophy)
THE APPLICATION AREAS OF ECG DIAGNOSIS
6. Myocardial ischemia
and infarction
a. Ischemia
b. Infarction
7. Drug effect
a. Digitalis
b. Quinidine
8. Electrolyte imbalance
a. Potassium
b. Calcium
9. Carditis
a. Pericarditis
b. Myocarditis
10. Pacemaker monitoring
The heart's own pacemaker is located in the atrium and is
responsible for initiation of the heartbeat. The heartbeat begins
with activation of atrial tissue in the pacemaker region (i.e., the
SA node), followed by cell-to-cell spread of excitation throughout
the atrium.
Differentiating the P-, QRS- and T-waves
 Because of the anatomical difference of the
atria and the ventricles, their sequential
activation, depolarization, and repolarization
produce clearly differentiable deflections.
This may be possible even when they do not
follow one another in the correct sequence:
P-QRS-T.
 Identification of the normal QRS-complex from the P- and T-waves
does not create difficulties because it has a characteristic waveform
and dominating amplitude. This amplitude is about 1 mV in a normal
heart and can be much greater in ventricular hypertrophy.
 The normal duration of the QRS is 0.08-0.09 s.
 If the heart does not exhibit atrial hypertrophy, the P-wave has an
amplitude of about 0.1 mV and duration of 0.1 s.
 For the T-wave both of these numbers are about double. The T-wave
can be differentiated from the P-wave by observing that the T-wave
follows the QRS-complex after about 0.2 s.
Cardiac rhythms may be divided into two categories: supraventricular
(above the ventricles) and ventricular rhythms.
The origin of supraventricular rhythms (a single pulse or a continuous
rhythm) is in the atria or AV junction, and the activation proceeds to the
ventricles along the conduction system in a normal way.
Normal sinus rhythm is the rhythm of a healthy normal heart, where
the sinus node triggers the cardiac activation. This is easily diagnosed
by noting that the three deflections, P-QRS-T, follow in this order and
are differentiable.
The sinus rhythm is normal if its frequency is between 60 and 100/min.
 A sinus rhythm of less than 60/min is called sinus bradycardia
 A sinus rhythm of higher than 100/min is called sinus tachycardia.
If the sinus rhythm is irregular such that the longest PP- or
RR-interval exceeds the shortest interval by 0.16 s, the situation is
called sinus arrhythmia.
 This
arrhythmia is
so common
in young
people that it
is not
considered a
heart
disease.
 One origin for the sinus arrhythmia may be the vagus nerve
which mediates respiration as well as heart rhythm.
 The nerve is
active during
respiration
and, through
its effect on the
sinus node,
causes an
increase in
heart rate
during
inspiration and
a decrease
during
expiration.
 A consequence of rheumatic disease, atherosclerotic
disease, hyperthyroidism,pericarditis.
 The ventricular fibrillation may be stopped with an external
defibrillator pulse and appropriate medication.
 In this arrhythmia the contraction of the ventricular muscle is

irregular and is ineffective at pumping blood. The lack of blood
circulation leads to almost immediate loss of consciousness
and death within minutes.
 a consequence of ischemia and
myocardial infarction
The consequence of left or right bundle-branch block is that activation of the ventricle
must await initiation by the opposite ventricle. The absence of involvement of the
conduction system, which initiates early activity of many sites, results in a much
slower activation process along normal pathways. The consequence is manifest in
bizarre shaped QRS-complexes of abnormally long duration.
Right atrial
hypertrophy is a
consequence of right
atrial overload. This
may be a result of
tricuspid valve disease
(stenosis or
insufficiency),
pulmonary valve
disease, or pulmonary
hypertension (increased
pulmonary blood
pressure).
 Left atrial hypertrophy is a consequence of left atrial overload.

This may be a result of mitral valve disease (stenosis or
insufficiency), aortic valve disease, or hypertension in the
systemic circulation.
Right ventricular hypertrophy is a consequence
of right ventricular overload. This is caused by
pulmonary valve stenosis, tricuspid
insufficiency, or pulmonary hypertension
Left ventricular hypertrophy is a consequence

of left ventricular overload. It arises from
mitral valve disease, aortic valve disease, or
systemic hypertension.
 If a coronary artery is occluded, the transport of oxygen to the
cardiac muscle is decreased, causing an oxygen debt in the
muscle, which is called ischemia. Ischemia causes changes in
the resting potential and in the repolarization of the muscle
cells, which is seen as changes in the T-wave.
 If the oxygen transport is
terminated in a certain area, the
heart muscle dies in that region.
This is called an infarction. An
infarct area is electrically silent
since it has lost its excitability. The
loss of this outward dipole is
equivalent to an electrical force
pointing inward. With this principle
it is possible to locate the
infarction.
MAGNETOCARDIOGRAPHY
 The first biomagnetic signal to be detected was the
magnetocardiogram (MCG) by Baule and McFee
(1963).
 MCG signals, unlike ECG signals, are not attenuated by
surrounding anatomical structures, tissue, and body
fluids, thereby providing more accurate information.
 With the combined use of the ECG and the MCG,
called electromagnetocardiogram, (EMCG), in some
cardiac diseases the number of incorrectly diagnosed
patients can be decreased by one half of that when
using only the ECG is used.
MAGNETIC FIELD OF CURRENT
 The magnetic field lines around a long wire which carries an
electric current form concentric circles around the wire.
 The direction of the magnetic field is perpendicular to the
wire and is in the direction the fingers of your right hand
would curl if you wrapped them around the wire with your
thumb in the direction of the current.
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF
MAGNETOCARDIOGRAPHY (MCG)
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF
SQUID (superconductor quantum interference
device) is a very sensitive magnetometer used to measure
extremely subtle magnetic fields, based on superconducting
loops containing Josephson junctions.
Camp Magnetic
Superconductor
Jonctiune
Josephson
 The voltage on the loop changes as a

function of the magnetic fluxpassing
through it.
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF
 Because of the development of the SQUID technology, a
shielded room is no longer needed in magnetocardiography.
 The MCG is a non-invasive electrophysiological mapping

technique that provides unprecedented insight into the
generation, localization, and dynamic behavior of electric
current in the heart.
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF
 The cardiac electric activity that produces
a voltage difference on the body surface
(resulting in the ECG trace) produces
simultaneously a magnetic field that
extends outside the body (resulting in an
MCG trace).
 1 
m = ∫ rx Jdv
2
 magnetic dipole moment of a volume
current distribution
 The signal produced by
the propagating
activation front
between a pair of
extracellular
electrodes.
 The generation of the ECG
signal
The generation of the ECG signal
 The magnetic field component
Hx corresponds to Hr, and
components Hy and Hz
correspond to Hθ
r = radius vector (distance)

θ =the angle between the
moment (z-axis) and the radius
vector (polar or colatitude angle)
φ = the angle about the moment
(z-axis) (azimuth angle).
 The strength of
the dipole moment
for a single-turn
coil:
m = Iπa2
I= coil current
a= coil radius
(For N turns, m = Iπa2N.) The direction of is normal to the plane of the coil.
Selection of the magnetic dipole as the basis of the
clinical magnetocardiographic measurement system.
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF
 The complex magnetic field
distribution of the MCG map can
be represented by a “virtual bar
magnet”, or what is more
appropriately named an effective
magnetic vector, EMV (shown as
a black arrow in the figure to the
right).
 Note that the direction of the

corresponding net electric current
flow is perpendicular to this
vector.
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF
 One of the most important

problems of biomagnetic
investigations is the
determination of the
coordinates and the
magnetic moments for the
field sources based on the
measured magnetic field.
 MCG software solves this
“inverse problem” and
allows the user to track the
dipole in space and time
over any specified interval
in the cardiac cycle.
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF
 If the diagnosis is based on the combination of electric and

magnetic data (EMCG), the number of correctly diagnosed
patients may be increased to the area bordered with
correctly diagnosed patients by both methods.
DETECTING BRAIN ACTIVITY
 50,000 neurons need to fire to generate a

readable signal
 Neurons near the outside of the brain generate
the strongest signals
MAGNETOENCEFALOGRAPHY
METODA INREGISTRARII MAGNETOENCEFALOGRAFICE
SCURT ISTORIC
 1971 dispozitivele SQUID (superconductor quantum

interference device) devenisera disponibile comercial iar
Cohen reuseste sa inregistreze cu acuratete primul semnal
MEG
 In prezent echipamentele de inregistrare MEG contin pana la
300 de senzori SQUID
Prima inregistrare MEG realizata in 1971

[D. Cohen, “Boston and the history of biomagnetism,” Neurology
and Clinical Neurophysiology, vol. 114, pp. 1 – 4, 2004]
SEMNALE NEUROFIZIOLOGICE
 Creierul uman este alcatuit dintr-un

numar mare de neuroni activi din punct
de vedere electric si alte celule suport
(celule gliale) care alcatuiesc grupuri
functionale.
 In particular suprafata externa a

creierului este constituita din retele
intrinseci (aproximativ 1015 sinapse)
subtiri (in medie 2.5 mm), foarte
compactate (densitate obisnuita
105 celule/mm) de celule aranjate in
straturi.
 In timpul transmiterii impulsului nervos prin intermediul

sinapselor neuronale, au loc fenomene de transport
transmembranar al ionilor de sodiu (Na+), potasiu (K+), si
clor (Cl- ) din spatiul intracelular in cel extracelular si invers.
Sinapsa activa
Depolarizare
membranara
Curenti ionici
extracelulari Curenti
ionici
intracelulari
In particular, potentialele
electrice si campurile
magnetice inregistrate la
nivelul scalpului ca si
electroencefalograma (EEG)
sau magnetoencefalograma
(MEG) sunt datorate in
principal din sumarea
temporala si spatiala a
Celule
potentialelor postsinaptice
piramidale
din celulele piramidale (un
tip specific de neuroni
corticali) care creeaza dipoli
electrici intre corpul neuronal
si dedritele apicale.
METODA INREGISTRARII ELECTROENCEFALOGRAFICE
Sistemul international de
masurare EEG (10-20,10%
electrozi intermediari)
Activitatea EEG este dependenta

de nivelul de constiinta.
SOME EXAMPLES OF EEG WAVES
 The alpha waves have the
frequency spectrum of 8-13
Hz and can be measured
from the occipital region in
an awake person when the
eyes are closed.
 The frequency band of the
beta waves is 13-30 Hz;
these are detectable over
the parietal and frontal lobes.
 The delta waves have the
frequency range of 0.5-4 Hz
and are detectable in infants
and sleeping adults.
 The theta waves have the
frequency range of 4-8 Hz
and are obtained from
children and sleeping adults
THE BASIC PRINCIPLES OF EEG DIAGNOSIS
 The EEG signal is closely related to
the level of consciousness of the
person.
 As the activity increases, the EEG
shifts to higher dominating frequency
and lower amplitude.
 When the eyes are closed, the alpha
waves begin to dominate the EEG.
 When the person falls asleep, the
dominant EEG frequency decreases.
 In a certain phase of sleep, rapid eye
movement called (REM) sleep, the
person dreams and has active
movements of the eyes, which can be
seen as a characteristic EEG signal.
 In deep sleep, the EEG has large and
slow deflections called delta waves.
 No cerebral activity can be detected
 EEG activity is dependent on the level of from a patient with complete cerebral
consciousness. death.
MAGNETOENCEFALOGRAFIA
 MEG permite o mai buna localizare a

functiilor creierului atat in cazuri normale cat
si in unele afectiuni ajutand considerabil la
prevenirea unor evenimente medicale
dramatice.
 De asemenea prezenta unor tumori
intracraniene situate eventual in apropierea
unei leziuni poate fi cel mai precis semnalata
prin MEG.
 Durata unei testari complete prin tehnica
MEG poate dura 1-2 ore.
MAGNETOENCEFALOGRAFIA - APPLICATII
Diagnosticarea epilepsiei
 Scanarea si procesarea datelor in cazul detectarii epilepsiei.
 In investigarea epilepsiei, masuratorile magnetice efectuate la nivelul

cutiei craniene – cel mai adesea simultane cu masuratorile electrice-
pot localiza sursa activitatii epileptiforme din creier;
 Doar prin asocierea datelor furnizate de electroencefalograma si RMN
localizarea unor leziuni ale creierului nu este suficient de precisa.
Diagnosticarea epilepsiei
 O metoda alternativa a MEG era EEG intracraniana - o
metoda invaziva care necesita operatii de chirurgie pe creier
care sa permita plasarea senzorilor EEG direct pe tesutul
neuronal.
 MEG poate confirma daca undele tipice bolii epileptice sunt

generate de o anumita leziune fapt de mare importanta
pentru planificarea unei interventii chirurgicale.
Imagistica functionala a creierului
 Utilizeaza rezolutia temporala
mare oferita de tehnica MEG
pentru a genera scanarea
creierului in timp real
 Aceste scanari sunt utilizate in
practica clinica pentru a
determina raspunsul creierului la
diferiti stimuli
 Scanarea multipla permite
construirea unei harti a creierului
care constituie un punct de
plecare in elucidarea legaturilor
dintre activitatea neuronala si
clase specifice de stimuli
MAGNETIC SOURCE IMAGING:
FUNDAMENTALS AND APPLICATION EXAMPLES http://www.uninet.edu/union99/congress/
confs/mis/08Zouridakis.html
 Several medical conditions, such as brain tumors,

arteriovenous malformations (AVMs), and medically intractable
epilepsy, require surgical intervention.
 When planning surgery in patients suffering from such
conditions neurosurgeons frequently face the dilemma of
deciding whether resection of the affected tissue will cause
greater harm than the pathology itself, especially when the
cortical areas to be resected are involved in movement or in
speech.
 In addition to proper detection and localization of the lesion, a
surgical operation often requires identification of those few
millimeters of an individual’s brain which are responsible for
sensation, movement, and language. This procedure, known as
functional brain mapping, is crucial, because resection of
these areas can have devastating results.
 Until recently, the most reliable means to map the human

cortex has been the use of direct electrical stimulation of the
exposed cortex. However, the limited number of recording
electrodes that can be implanted and the necessity to place
them near the lesion site have hampered the success of this
procedure.
 Currently, however, the cortex can be mapped noninvasively
through magnetoencephalography (MEG)- a method for
estimating the sources of intracranial currents by measuring the
magnetic fields outside the head.
 Unlike computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance
imaging (MRI) which provide information on the brain’s
anatomy, MEG provides information regarding its function.
 Magnetic source imaging (MSI) is a procedure that combines

neurophysiological data, derived via MEG, with
neuroanatomical data, obtained via MRI or CT, to determine the
relationship between brain structures and their function. It
incorporates many of the advantages of other recently
developed functional imaging techniques, such as positron
emission tomography (PET) and functional MRI.
 However, its temporal resolution of one millisecond or less
make it by far superior than all the other modalities, in that
respect.
 Magnetic source imaging (MSI) is a noninvasive functional
brain imaging technique which allows to investigate the
relationship between brain structures and their function.
Neurophysiological signals
 The human brain is composed of vast numbers of electrically

active neurons and other supporting cells (e.g., glial cells) that are
assembled in functional groups.
 In particular, the outer surface of the brain, the cerebral cortex,

consists of a thin (average thickness 2.5 mm), highly compact
(typical density 105 cells/mm), intricate network
(approximately1015 synapses) of cells arranged in layers.
 During cell activation, large quantities of positive and negative

ions namely sodium (Na+), potassium (K+), and chloride (Cl-)
cross the cell membrane, moving from the intracellular to the
extracellular fluid, and vice versa.
 For all practical purposes, this ion movement is equivalent to a

current flow, and it is responsible for all the externally recorded
neurophysiological signals.
 In particular, the electrical potentials and the magnetic fields

recorded on the scalp as the electroencephalogram (EEG) and
the magnetoencephalogram (MEG), respectively, result mainly
from the temporal and spatial summation of postsynaptic activity
generated along the apical dendrites of pyramidal cells a specific
type of cortical neurons.
 However, signals measured by the EEG primarily

reflect extracellular activity in the brain, and they are subject to
considerable attenuation and distortion as they pass through
several layers of tissue of different conductivity to reach the
recording sites on the scalp. For this reason, localization of EEG
signal sources is relatively imprecise.
 MEG, on the other hand, detects the magnetic fields arising

mostly from intracellular currents. Tissues in the scalp and skull
are essentially "transparent" to these magnetic fields, thereby
enabling MEG to achieve more precise localization of the true
anatomic origins of spontaneous or induced neural activity.
Source identification
In general, neural activity can be mathematically represented as
a primary source with current density j(r) in a closed volume G of
finite conductivity σ(r). Outside this volume, the conductivity and
current density are zero. The potential v(r) inside the brain can be
computed as the divergence of the source from Poisson’s
equation, and, under quasistatic
conditions, i.e., sufficiently small time derivatives, the associated
electrical field E(r) is given by
The intracellular currents inside the closed volume G give rise to
an electric field in the extracellular space which, in turn, results in
currents that flow passively through the rest of the conducting
medium. The secondary current density js(r) is given by
Ohm’s law:
The total current density j(r) inside the brain can thus be divided
into a primary (intracellular) and secondary (extracellular)
component, indicated as jp(r) and js(r), respectively. The magnetic
field b (r) due to the primary current density jp(r) is given by the
well-known Biot-Savart law:
where d = r - r' is the distance between the observation

point r and the source point r', and μ0 is the permeability of free
space which, in general, is assumed to be valid for biological
tissues as well. Similarly, the potential v (r) due to the primary
current density jp(r) is given by:
 Determining the potentials and magnetic fields that result from

the primary currents is known as the forward problem.
 Conversely, the inverse problem requires localization of the
intracranial primary current sources that give rise to the
externally measured magnetic field (MEG) and potential
(EEG).
 The inverse problem has no unique solution, because of the
infinite number of current distributions that satisfy the Biot-
Savart law.
 To overcome this limitation, it is necessary to make
assumptions regarding the location or the geometry of the
source.
FUNDAMENTALS AND APPLICATION EXAMPLES
http://www.uninet.edu/union99/congress/
Mathematical modeling
The most common approach has been to describe the activated
neurons in terms of the "single-dipole-in-a-sphere" model,
a single equivalent current dipole (ECD) located in the center of a
spherically symmetric homogeneous medium.
Indeed, on one hand, the interior surface of the cranium
sufficiently approximates a spherical and homogeneous medium
and, on the other hand, the activity of a small cortical area can be
approximated as a point source. The latter is true because
pyramidal cell dendrites (the putative generators of activity) are
arranged in a columnar fashion with an orientation locally normal
to the cortical surface. Such an arrangement allows summation of
the current fields generated by synchronous activation of a
population of neurons within a small area of cortex.
Mathematical modeling http://www.uninet.edu/union99/congress/
It is important to emphasize that the fields recorded on the scalp

represent the activity of a large population of cells rather than the
activity of a single neuron. Indeed, no single cell can produce a
sufficiently strong field to be detectable outside the head. It has
been estimated that the moment Q of the equivalent current
dipole corresponding to the activity of a single neuron is
approximately 3´ 10-13Am. Using the Biot-Savart law, one can
compute the magnetic field b at a distance of about 4 cm from the
neuron, which is a typical distance between cortex and sensor.
The resulting value of b = 2´ 10-17 T is beyond the capabilities of
any instrument available today. Therefore, synchronous activation
of a large number of neuron is required to produce the
neuromagnetic fields measure outside the head. This number has
been estimated to be close to 104 or 105.
http://www.uninet.edu/union99/congress/
Mathematical modeling
Several powerful tools for the numerical solution of the above
equations have been developed based on finite element
techniques. It should be noted that these equations are valid for
any source geometry, which may correspond to a single dipole,
multiple dipoles, or a continuous distribution.
However, the single dipole solution is the basic building block
in all cases. Indeed, for numerical purposes, the solution to
multiple dipoles can be derived from the single dipole directly from
superposition, and a continuous distribution may be regarded as a
collection of many dipoles distributed throughout the source
region.
Recording device
 Neuromagnetic signals are many orders of magnitude weaker
than the ambient magnetic noise, which is due to the earth’s field
and to the presence of ferromagnetic objects and electrical
instrumentation. For example, the magnetic field typically
recorded from the brain in response to somatosensory stimulation
has a peak amplitude of approximately 100 fT, whereas in a
hospital environment electromagnetic noise (power lines,
elevators, MRI magnets, etc.) in extreme cases may be as high
as 1 T (1015 fT).
 Therefore, to detect this kind of biological activity, it is
necessary to use highly sensitive instrumentation and, at the
same time, attempt to eliminate extraneous magnetic fields.
Recording device
 The principle of recording neuromagnetic signals is very
simple: when a time-varying magnetic flux passes through an
induction coil composed of one or more loops of wire, it induces a
time-varying electrical current within the wire. In a typical coil,
though, this current is quickly dissipated as heat by the electrical
resistance of the wire.
 MEG measurements were practically impossible before the
introduction of superconductive instrumentation. All
biomagnetometers use special superconducting induction coils
which have essentially no electrical resistance. Thus, even very
small changes in magnetic flux will induce a certain amount of
current within the coil.
Recording device
 The induction coil is coupled to a second superconducting
device, a so-called SQUID (superconducting quantum inter-
ference device), which acts as a very low noise, ultra high gain,
current-to-voltage converter.
 Typical biomagnetometers are composed of large arrays of
pick-up coils each connected to a SQUID.
 The SQUIDs and induction coils are generally maintained in a
superconducting state by immersion within a liquid helium bath
contained in a fiber glass superinsulated cryogenic vessel, known
as dewar, at an operating temperature of 4.2o K.
Magnetic Source Imaging Approach
 The MSI procedure consists of several steps that culminate in

the display of functional information onto high resolution anatomic
images obtained by MRI (or CT). For this final step, it is
necessary to translate MEG localizations into MRI coordinates.
 The precise location of the measurement points on the scalp is

determined electronically with reference to a Cartesian coordinate
system anchored on three landmarks (fiducial points) on each
subject’s head: two external ear canal points and the nasion. The
line passing through the two preauricular points defines the y-axis
of the system. The line perpendicular to the y-axis passing
through the nasion defines the x-axis, and the line perpendicular
to the x-y plane passing through the x-y origin defines the z-axis.
 The MEG anatomic reference frame is established using a
digital device known as sensor position indicator. A set of three
receivers triangulate the signal from a stylus-type transmitter
placed successively at several reference points on the subject’s
head (typically the three fiducial points, the vertex, and the inion).
 Additionally, small vitamin E-containing capsules visible on MRI
are placed on the fiducials. The locations of the common markers
on the MR images and the MEG measurements serve for
translating MEG locations into the MRI reference frame.
 Validation studies have shown that the accuracy of this
approach can be as high as a few millimeters. The same stylus
transmitter is used to define the curvature of the head by tracing
its surface.
 After the MEG anatomic reference frame has been established,
the fiducial points registered, and the patient’s head digitized, the
actual MEG recordings are obtained.
 The latter consist of time-varying magnetic field measurements

at each detector position which, at a first glance, appear like the
voltage fluctuations of the conventional EEG.
 However, unlike the conventional EEG in which the time-

varying tracings are the final product, the MEG data undergo
further analyses that allow the sources underlying the recorded
activity to be localized.
 The ECD model yields a description of the instant current

dipole in terms of its location, strength, and orientation, along with
an estimate of its reliability (confidence volume).
 Even though there is some variation across labs regarding
acceptance criteria for the dipole solutions, a high correlation
between data and model and a small confidence volume are
always desirable. Moreover, some fits can be rejected for being
physiologically unreasonable. For instance, dipoles of extremely
high moment ((>200 nAm) are likely to be generated by
movement artifacts. It is, therefore, possible to select a set of
"best-fitting dipoles" to describe the data.
 Once the best fitting dipoles have been identified, they are
coregistered onto a complete set of axial, sagittal, and coronal
MRI slices.
 The resulting images are then printed on MRI films with
different symbols and colors, each corresponding to a distinct
type of MEG activity.
MSI Application Examples

 Auditory Evoked Responses
 Somatosensory Evoked Responses
 Visual Evoked Responses
 Epileptogenic Spike Source Localization
 Cortical activation during language tasks

MAGNETOENCEFALOGRAPHY –
MSI APPLICATION EXAMPLES
 Structures involved in language
during engagement in an auditory
(circles) or a visual (triangles)
continuous-recognition memory task.
 Localization of sources resulting

from somatosensory stimulation
 Localization of sources
resulting from visual
stimulation
OTHER BIOELECTROMAGNETIC PHENOMENA
THE ELECTRIC SIGNALS ORIGINATING IN THE EYE
 The eye is a seat of a steady electric potential field that

is quite unrelated to light stimulation. In fact, this field may
be detected with the eye in total darkness and/or with the
eyes closed. It can be described as a fixed dipole with
positive pole at the cornea and negative pole at the retina.
 The magnitude of this corneoretinal potential is in the range
0.4-1.0 mV. It is not generated by excitable tissue but, rather,
is attributed to the higher metabolic rate in the retina. This
potential difference and the rotation of the eye are the basis
for a signal measured at a pair of periorbital surface
electrodes.
 The signal is known as the electro-oculogram, (EOG) and it is
useful in the study of eye movement.
OTHER BIOELECTROMAGNETIC PHENOMENA. THE ELECTRIC SIGNALS ORIGINATING IN THE EYE
 An illustration of
the electro-
oculogram (EOG)
signal generated by
horizontal
movement of the
eyes. The polarity
of the signal is
positive at the
electrode to which
the eye is moving.
 With the eye at rest the electrodes are effectively at the same
potential and no voltage is recorded. The rotation of the eye to the
right results in a difference of potential, with the electrode in the
direction of movement (i.e., the right canthus) becoming positive
relative to the second electrode. The opposite effect results from a
rotation to the left, as illustrated.
 A particular application of the EOG is in the

measurement of nystagmus, which denotes small
movements of the eye. The resulting signal is called
an electronystagmogram.
 It depends both on the visual system and the vestibular

system and provides useful clinical information
concerning each.
The lens of the eye brings the illuminated external scene to a

focus at the retina. The retina is the site of cells that are
sensitive to the incident light energy; as with other peripheral
nerve cells, they generate receptor potentials.
The collective behavior of the entire retina is a bioelectric
generator, which sets up a field in the surrounding volume
conductor. This potential field is normally measured between
an electrode on the cornea (contact-lens type) and a reference
electrode on the forehead.
The recorded signal is known as
the electroretinogram (ERG).
It may be examined both for basic science studies and for
clinical diagnostic purposes.
REFERENCES
 Jaakko Malmivuo, 2006, Video lectures on bioelectromagnetism, RagnarGranit Institute (http://www.evicab.eu/bme/06malmi/video/index.htm)
 Bioelectromagnetism, Principles and Applications of Bioelectric and Biomagnetic Fields, J. Malmivuo & R. Plonsey, Oxford University Press,1995
(http://www.bem.fi/book/index.htm)
 2020 Foresight: Future Directions in Clinical Epilepsy and Neurophysiology June 9-10, 2011, Robert Knowlton, MD, MSPH University of
Alabama at Birmingham
 Auditory Neuroscience with Magnetoencephalography: New Quantitative Approaches, Jonathan Z. Simon University of Maryland, College
Park APAN 2010
 Functional characterization of human second somatosensory cortex by magnetoencephalography, Y.Y. Lin a,b,c,d,*, N. Forss a Behavioural
Brain Research 135 (2002) 141 /145
 Basics of Bioimpedance and Admittivity Imaging , Eung Je Woo Impedance Imaging Research Center (IIRC) Department of Biomedical
Engineering, Kyung Hee University KOREA http://iirc.khu.ac.kr
 Signal Processing for Magnetoencephalography, Rupert Benjamin Clarke, Submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, University of
York, Department of Electronics, September 2010
 Smith et al., Magnetocardiography and electrocardiographyAnatol J Cardiol 2007: 7 Suppl 1; 20-2
 Universitateade Medicinăşi Farmacie“Victor Babeş” Timişoara, CatedradeFiziologie, Catedra de Fiziologie, Sistemul Cardiovascular Sistemul
Cardiovascular, Cursul4, Electrocardiografia, Carmen Bunu
 Magnetoencephalography as a Research Tool in Neuroscience: State of the Art, ANDREAS A. IOANNIDES THE NEUROSCIENTIST
Magnetoencephalography in Neuroscience REVIEW 􀂄􀂄 Volume 12, Number 6, 2006
 http://www.uninet.edu/union99/congress/confs/mis/08Zouridakis.html MAGNETIC SOURCE IMAGING: FUNDAMENTALS AND
APPLICATION EXAMPLES
 EXPANDING THE APPLICABILITY OF MAGNETOENCEPHALOGRAPHY, Doctoral Dissertation, Lauri Parkkonen
 International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences, Magnetoencephalography, R. J. Ilmoniemi and R. K. Na a ta nen
 Belle Dumé: Brain Scans Made Easy. http://physicsweb.org/articles/news/8/5/5
 CTF MEG Systems: http://www.ctf.com/products/meg/ctf/software.htm, http://www.ctf.com/products/meg/meg_apps/overview.htm
 National Society for Epilepsy: Information on Epilepsy. http://www.epilepsynse.org.uk/pages/info/leaflets/explaini.cfm
 Basic Principles of Electroencephalography & Magnetoencephalography, Po-Lei Lee, PhD Department of Electrical Engineering, National
Central University, TAIWAN Yung-Yang Lin, MD, PhD National Yang-Ming University Taipei Veterans General Hospital, TAIWAN
 Inverse Problems in Magnetoencephalography Christian Sobkowski University Of Bonn Spring 2011
 Highly sensitive magnetometers—a review, D. Robbes / Sensors and Actuators A 129 (2006) 86–93
 INVESTIGAREA CORDULUI, Catedra de Fiziologie, UMF “Carol Davila” Dr. Raluca Papacocea – 2005
 http://www.uninet.edu/union99/congress/confs/mis/08Zouridakis.html MAGNETIC SOURCE IMAGING: FUNDAMENTALS AND APPLICATION
EXAMPLES CONFERENCES, George Zouridakis
ELECTRICAL IMPEDANCE TESTING?
• The assessment of characteristics of a

material by measuring changes to an
applied electrical current
• Used in forestry, metallurgy, geology
BUT ALSO IN HUMANS…
 Whole body bioimpedance analysis
Total body water/fat
 Electrical impedance tomography
Imaging
 Electrical
impedance mammography
(also EIM)
Breast cancer detection
 Electrical impedance dermography
ELECTRICAL IMPEDANCE MYOGRAPHY
The broad hypothesis:
Alterations in composition and structure

of muscle with disease will impact the
electrical impedance of muscle in unique
and reproducible ways.
DIFFERENT DISORDERS, DIFFERENT PATHOLOGIES
Normal
Neurogenic
Myopathy/Dystrophy Disuse Atrophy

Current Generator
Voltmeter
Tissue
Applied reactance (X),
electrical related to
current capacitance,
Measured causes shift in
voltage timing
amplitude is
proportional
to muscle
resistance (R) Measured voltage
From neuromuscular.wustl.edu
Current Generator
Voltmeter
Applied
electrical
current Reduced
tissue
Increased Reactance
tissue (X)
Resistance causes
(R) reduced shift
causes in timing
higher
amplitude Phase will decrease
voltage Measured voltage Phase = arctan(X/R)
OFF-THE-SHELF BIOIMPEDANCE DEVICES
Useful, but limited
 Single Frequency
 Multifrequency
INSTRUMENTATION: PAST AND PRESENT
2001
2005
2009
MACHINES FOR BIOIMPEDANCE ANALYSIS
 Quantum II (RLJ System)
 SC-331 S (Tanita Corporation)
 ElectroFluidGraph (Akern s.r.l.)
 SFB7 (Impedimed Ltd.)
 Bioscan 916S (Maltron Ltd.
 Body Composition Monitor (Fresenius Medical Care)

THE BODY AS AN RC CIRCUIT
(Liedtke, Principles of Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis 1997)
•Reactive components due to cellular walls

•Resistive components due to both intra- and extracellular fluid
•Current flows primarily through Fat Free Mass
SERIES EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
Single Frequency
Bio-Impedance Analysis BIA
Evaluation of Nutrition and Hydration Status Using Vectorgram and BiaGram, Series Equivalent
(rjlsystems.com)
•Body impedance frequency dependent
•Single Frequency BIA uses 50kHz
•More complex body models

approximated with series circuit
CIRCUIT ANALYSIS
• Comparison of voltage across a known

resistor gives gain and phase
• Measured Impedance and Phase Leads

to Reactance and Resistance
Z = R2 + X c2 Z2
R=
1 + tan 2 ϕ
Xc
tan ϕ = X c = R tan ϕ
R
MASS CALCULATION
In human testing
 Cylinder model
 Measure of Fat Free Mass
 Length Height
 Density approximately equal to
that of water
 Coefficients and fitting factors
empirically derived
Wikipedia, Electrical resistivity and conductivity
Lukaski and Bolonchuk, Aviation Space and Environmental Medicine 59 1163-1169,

1988)
http://nutrition.uvm.edu/bodycomp/bia/lesson4.html
CLINICAL USE OF BIA
 BODY COMPOSITION ASSESSMENT

FAT MASS
Mineral
Protein
FAT-FREE
MASS
Water
BODY COMPARTMENTS
 TBW: Total Body Water

 ECW: Extracellular Water
 ICW: Intracellular Water
 BF: Body Fat
 FFM: Fat-free Mass
 FM: Fat Mass

CLINICAL USE OF BIA
 MANAGEMENT OF EXTRACELLULAR FLUID
(DRY WEIGHT)
VOLUME
 Body Weight
 Blood Pressure
 Edema
 Diuresis
 Skin and Mucous hydration
 Hematocrit
 Electrolites Disorders
 Chest X-Ray
VOLUME EVALUATION
NO INVASIVE INVASIVE
 U.S.
Inferior vena  CentralVenous
caval diameter Pressure
(CVP)
 Bio
Impedance  Pulmunary Artery
Analysis (BIA) Occlusion
Pressure
(PAOP)
 Natriuretic
Peptides
(ANP, BNP,CNP)  Cardiac Output
( SVV, SVO2)
INFERIOR VENA CAVAL DIAMETER
Overhydration: VCD > 11, CI < 40%

Ideally measured 2hrs post dialysis
Limitations: Operator variability, heart failure
Timing of measurements is of pivotal importance for VCD, reference
value of 8mm/m2 obtained 2 h after dialysis.
REFERENCES
 Jaakko Malmivuo, 2006, Video lectures on bioelectromagnetism, RagnarGranit Institute
(http://www.evicab.eu/bme/06malmi/video/index.htm)
 Bioelectromagnetism, Principles and Applications of Bioelectric and Biomagnetic Fields, J. Malmivuo & R. Plonsey, Oxford University
Press,1995 (http://www.bem.fi/book/index.htm)
 Arch. Biol. Sci., Belgrade, 64 (3), 1165-1171, 2012 DOI:10.2298/ABS1203165S 1165 ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF FEMALE
AND MALE HUMAN SKIN , JOVANA SIMIĆ-KRSTIĆ1, A. KALAUZI2, S. RIBAR1, G. LAZOVIĆ1 and R. RADOJIČIĆ3
 Advances in Magnetic Resonance Electrical Impedance Mammography Nataliya Kovalchuk, University of South Florida
 Physiol. Meas. 32 (2011) 755–765 doi:10.1088/0967-3334/32/7/S03 Evaluation of algorithms for calculating bioimpedance phase
angle values from measured whole-body impedance modulus
 Basics of Bioimpedance and Admittivity Imaging, Eung Je Woo Impedance Imaging Research Center (IIRC) Department of Biomedical
Engineering, Kyung Hee University KOREA http://iirc.khu.ac.kr
 Bioelectrical impedance analysis Fpart I: review of principles and methods Ursula G. Kylea, Ingvar Bosaeusb, Antonio D. De Lorenzoc,
Paul Deurenbergd, Marinos Eliae, Jos!e Manuel G!omezf, Berit Lilienthal Heitmanng, Luisa Kent-Smithh, Jean-Claude Melchiori,
Matthias Pirlichj, Hermann Scharfetterk, Annemie M.W.J. Scholsl, Claude Pichardm,*, Composition of the ESPEN Working Group,
Clinical Nutrition (2004) 23, 1226–1243
 Bioelectrical impedance analysis—part II: utilization in clinical practice Ursula G. Kylea, Ingvar Bosaeusb, Antonio D. De Lorenzoc, Paul
Deurenbergd, Marinos Eliae, Jose´ Manuel Go´mezf, Berit Lilienthal Heitmanng, Luisa Kent-Smithh, Jean-Claude Melchiori, Matthias
Pirlichj, Hermann Scharfetterk, Annemie M.W.J Scholsl, Claude Picharda , Clinical Nutrition (2004) 23, 1430–1453
 Bioimpedance Monitoring for physicians: an overview Antoni Ivorra July, 2002 Centre Nacional de Microelectrònica Biomedical
Applications Group
 Electrical Bioimpedance Cerebral Monitoring: Fundamental Steps towards Clinical Application FERNANDO SEOANE MARTINEZ ISBN
978-91-7291-971-6, Doktorsavhandlingar vid Chalmers Tekniska Högskola Ny serie nr 2652 ISSN 0346-718X, Division of Biomedical
Engineering Department of Signals and Systems Chalmers University of Technology SE-412 96 Göteborg Sweden
 ELECTRIC PROPERTIES OF TISSUES, DAMIJAN MIKLAVCˇ ICˇ NATAS ˇ A PAVS ˇ ELJ University of Ljubljana
 Ljubljana, Slovenia FRANCIS X. HART University of the South Sewanee, Tennessee Wiley Encyclopedia of Biomedical Engineering,
Copyright & 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Electrical Bioimpedance Cerebral Monitoring Fernando Seoane University College of Borås, Sweden Kaj Lindecrantz University College
of Borås, Sweden http://www.igi-global.com/chapter/electrical-bioimpedance-cerebral-monitoring/12975
 Touch Current Basics prepared for CTL PTP Workshop May 2010 Ronald Vaickauski Senior Staff Engineer Underwriters Laboratories
Inc.
 Non-invasive Bio-impedance Measurement Using Voltage-Current Pulse Technique -Sagar K. Dhar and Quazi D. HossainInternational
Conference on Electrical, Electronics and Biomedical Engineering (ICEEBE'2012) Penang (Malaysia) May 19-20, 2012
 Roth, B. J. “The Electrical Conductivity of Tissues.” The Biomedical Engineering Handbook: Second Edition. Ed. Joseph D. Bronzino
Boca Raton: CRC Press LLC, 2000
IIRC: Impedance Imaging Research Center, Korea (http://iirc.khu.ac.kr) January 2010
Basics of Bioimpedance
and Admittivity Imaging
Eung Je Woo
Impedance Imaging Research Center (IIRC)
Department of Biomedical Engineering, Kyung Hee University
KOREA
http://iirc.khu.ac.kr
Fundamental Quantity
• Length (dimension or size) in meter (m)
• Time (sequence or duration or interval) in second (s)
• Mass in kilogram (kg)
• Charge in coulomb (C)
• Temperature in kelvin (K)
• Amount of substance in mole (mol)
• Luminous intensity in candela (cd)
• Mechanics
• Electromagnetics
• Optics
• Thermodynamics
• Chemistry
Charged Particle and Charge Density

• Free electron and hole are mobile
• Unbounded ion and molecule are mobile
• Bounded atom and molecule are immobile but may vibrate
• Polar molecule has no net charge but dipole moment and may
rotate
• Mass
• Charge
• Size
• Position
( m, Q, r, d )
Field
• Space with nothing
• Space with a single charged particle
• Space with two charged particles
• Space with multiple charged particles
• Space with a charge density distribution
z Qr
r
y
x
Q
0
Potential or Voltage
• Space with electric field E(r)
• Put a point charge at r1 from the infinity (a reference point)
• Move the point charge from r1 to r2
E(r)
Qr
r2
Qr
r1
Conductivity and Resistance

e- e-
I I
S
V Na +
Cl- l V
Na +
Cl-
I e-
e- I
E = −∇u = E ma v d = µ E
F q= J = cv v d J =cv µ E =σ E =−σ∇u
V V V
=
E J σ=
, = E σ ,= = σ S
I JS
l l l
1 l l 1 l l
=
V = I ρ= R = ρ
I RI ,=
σ S S σ S S
Permittivity and Capacitance
e- +Q e- -Q
S +++++++++ ---------
+
+ - + + - - - - - - - - - + + + + + + + + +
-
-
-
+ V + + + + + + + + +
V - - - - - - - - -
+
-
+
- -
+
+ +
- - - - + - - - - - - - - - + + + + + + + + +
- -
+
-
+ + -
+ + + + + + + + + - - - - - - - - -
+ +
l
-
--------- +++++++++
e- -Q e- +Q
S Im
= Q CV = , C ε= i (t ) I= m cos ( ωt ) , v (t ) sin (ωt )
0
l ωC
dQ(t ) dv(t ) I V 1
=i (t ) = C I =∠ I m 0, V =m ∠90 , Z = =
dt dt ωC I jωC
Polarization, Permittivity and

Capacitance
e- +Q e- -Q
S +++++++++ ---------
+
+ - + + - - - - - - - - - + + + + + + + + +
-
-
-
+ V + + + + + + + + +
V - - - - - - - - -
+
-
+
- -
+
+ +
- - - - + - - - - - - - - - + + + + + + + + +
- -
+
-
+ + -
+ + + + + + + + + - - - - - - - - -
+ +
l
-
--------- +++++++++
e- -Q e- +Q
Im
m cos ( ωt ) , v (t ) sin (ωt )
S
=Q CV = ε 0ε r = i (t ) I=
l ωC
dQ(t ) dv(t ) I V 1
=
i (t ) = C I =∠ I m 0, V =m ∠90 , Z = =
dt dt ωC I jωC
Cell and Bio-impedance

Extra-cellular
Fluid
Cell Membrane
R1
Na + Cl- C1
+
+_ +_ +_ _ +_ +_ +_ V
V Na + Cl-
C2
_+ _+ _+ _+ _+ _+ +
_
R2
Na + Cl-
Intra-cellular
Fluid
1 1
Z =R + jX =R1 + + + R2
jωC1 jωC2
i (t ) = I m cos (ωt )
Z= R + jX =Z ∠θ
v(t ) I m Z cos (ωt + θ )
= cos θ , X Z sin θ
R Z=
Conductivity and Permittivity of Tissues

Extra-cellular
Fluid
Intra-cellular
Fluid
Cell
Membrane
Conductivity and Permittivity of Tissues

• Tissues themselves
– Molecular composition of cells
– Shape and density of cells
– Direction of cells
– Concentration and mobility of ions
– Amounts of intra- and extra-cellular fluids
• Amplitude and frequency of current

• Temperature
Hepatic Tumor Conductivity

Necrosis
Fibrosis
Normal Cells Tumor
D. Haemmerich, S.
T. Staelin, J. Z. Tsai,
S. Tungjitkusolmun,
D. M. Mahvi and J.
G. Webster, “In vivo
electrical
conductivity of
hepatic tumours,”
Physiol. Meas., vol.
24, pp. 251–260,
2003.
Breast Tumor Conductivity

Normal
Tissue
Lobular
Carcinoma
Ductal
Carcinoma
A. J. Surowiec, S. S. Stuchly, J. R. Barr, and A. Swarup, ”Dielectric properties of breast carcinoma and the surrounding
tissues,” IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng., vol. 35, no. 4, pp. 257–263, 1988.
Conductivity and Neural Activity

• Cole K S and Curtis H J 1939 Electrical impedance of the squid giant axon during
activity J. Gen. Physiol. 22 649-670
• Cole K S 1949 Dynamic electrical characteristics of squid axon membrane Arch.
Sci. Physiol. 3 253-258
• Adey W, Kado R and Didio J 1962 Impedance measurements in brain tissue of
animals using microvolt signals Exp. Neruol. 5 47-66
• Van-Harreveld A and Schade J 1962 Changes in the electrical conductivity of
cerebral cortex during seizure activity Exp. Neurol. 5 383-400
• Rank J B 1963 Specific impedance of rabbit cerebral cortex Exp. Neurol. 7 144-
152
• Aladjolova N A 1964 Slow electrical processes in the brain Prog. Brain Res. 7 155-
237
• Geddes L A and Baker L E 1967 The specific resistance of biological material: a
compendium of data for the biomedical engineer and physiologist Med. Biol. Eng. 5
271-293
• Meister M, Pine J, Baylor, DA 1994 Multi-neuronal signals from the retina:
acquisition and analysis J. Neurosci. Meth. 51 95-106
Neural activity produces

3-5% local conductivity changes at low frequency.
Bio-electric Signal and Source Imaging
∇ ⋅ (σ (r ; t )∇V (r ; t ) ) = − f (r ; t )
Amplifier
ECG
Medical Instrumentation: Application and Design, 3rd ed., by J. G. Webster

Bio-magnetic Signal and Source Imaging
MEG
f(r;t)
µ0 r −r'
J(r;t)
Ω=B (r ; t )
4π ∫ Ω
J (r '; t ) ×
r −r'
3
dv '
∇ ⋅ (σ (r ; t )∇V (r ; t ) ) = − f (r ; t )
−σ (r ; t )∇V (r ; t )
J (r ; t ) =
Defibrillation and Cardioversion
R. S. Yoon, T. P. DeMonte, and M. L. G. Joy, “Measurement of thoracic current flow in pigs for the study of defibrillation
and cardioversion,” IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng., vol. 50, no. 10, pp. 1167-1173, 2003.
Transcranial Electrical Stimulation
M. L. G. Joy,V. P. Lebedev, and J. S. Gati, “Imaging of current density and current pathways in rabbit brain during
transcranial electrostimulation,” IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng., vol. 46, no. 9, pp. 1138-1148, 1999.
Motivation and Goal

• Physiological functions and pathological changes
alter conductivity and permittivity values.
• Neural activity induces changes in conductivity.
• Source imaging needs conductivity values.
• Electromagnetic stimulations need conductivity
values.
Cross-sectional Imaging of
Conductivity, Permittivity and
Current Density Distribution

Curs ACEMSC - Cap I Si II - LB - Engl.

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‘THE ACTION OF

Conf. univ. dr. Loredana MEREUTA

 (1) the cell body, also

 - smooth muscle, are involuntary. Their

 - striated muscle (skeletal muscle)

 - cardiac muscle, is also striated

Striated muscle are

Striated muscles are connected to the bones via tendons.

 The function of the synapse is to transfer electric

 Direct electric communication between pre- and

On average, each neuron divides into

Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc. or its affiliates. http://www.phschool.com/science/biology_place/biocoach/cardio1/muscle.html

 In the heart muscle cell, or myocyte,

 The amplitude of the action

 The different waveforms

 in humans is in the shape of a

 is located at the boundary between

 In this arrhythmia the contraction of the ventricular muscle is

 Left atrial hypertrophy is a consequence of left atrial overload.

Left ventricular hypertrophy is a consequence

 The voltage on the loop changes as a

 The MCG is a non-invasive electrophysiological mapping

r = radius vector (distance)

 Note that the direction of the

 One of the most important

 If the diagnosis is based on the combination of electric and

 50,000 neurons need to fire to generate a

 1971 dispozitivele SQUID (superconductor quantum

Prima inregistrare MEG realizata in 1971

 Creierul uman este alcatuit dintr-un

 In particular suprafata externa a

 In timpul transmiterii impulsului nervos prin intermediul

Activitatea EEG este dependenta

 MEG permite o mai buna localizare a

 In investigarea epilepsiei, masuratorile magnetice efectuate la nivelul

 MEG poate confirma daca undele tipice bolii epileptice sunt

 Several medical conditions, such as brain tumors,

 Until recently, the most reliable means to map the human

 Magnetic source imaging (MSI) is a procedure that combines

 The human brain is composed of vast numbers of electrically

 In particular, the outer surface of the brain, the cerebral cortex,

 During cell activation, large quantities of positive and negative

 For all practical purposes, this ion movement is equivalent to a

 In particular, the electrical potentials and the magnetic fields

 However, signals measured by the EEG primarily

 MEG, on the other hand, detects the magnetic fields arising

where d = r - r' is the distance between the observation

 Determining the potentials and magnetic fields that result from

It is important to emphasize that the fields recorded on the scalp

 The MSI procedure consists of several steps that culminate in

 The precise location of the measurement points on the scalp is

 The latter consist of time-varying magnetic field measurements

 However, unlike the conventional EEG in which the time-

 The ECD model yields a description of the instant current

MSI Application Examples

 Somatosensory Evoked Responses

 Visual Evoked Responses

 Epileptogenic Spike Source Localization

 Cortical activation during language tasks

 Localization of sources resulting

 The eye is a seat of a steady electric potential field that

 A particular application of the EOG is in the

 It depends both on the visual system and the vestibular