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While our basic approach is well known — applying a Vessel track anomaly detection models have been lim-
BN learner to produce normality models to be used in 1
We note, however, that since such stops may them-
assessing degrees of anomaly — in practice the exper- selves indicate an anomaly, deciding what constitutes a
imental workflow was complex, as shown in Figure 1. track warrants future investigation.
based on summaries of each track — e.g., identifying
for a given track the number of times the vessel stops,
the main stopping locations, etc. While track sum-
maries cannot be used as easily in real-time surveil-
lance, they can capture patterns that occur at the time
scale of the track as a whole. For example, if a ves-
sel heads straight out to sea, turns around at a con-
stant rate, then returns directly home, each timestep
in the track may appear perfectly normal to any time
series-based normality model. However, the behaviour
embodied by the track as a whole may be anomalous
and worthy of attention. The variables for each type
Figure 2: Example AIS tracks. of model are in Figure 3 (see Mascaro et al., 2010).
ClosestType Lon
None 72.9
ClosestSpeed 151.189 6.63 Lon_t2
Tug 14.6 151.208 20.6 0 0.48
Pilot Vessel 3.14 151.209 1.11 151.209 49.9
Cargo 2.85 151.21 8.87 151.243 1.01
Tanker 1.68 151.219 0.39 151.27 8.87
Cargo Hazard A Major 1.64 ClosestCourse ClosestDistance 151.219 10.4 151.524 39.7
Tanker Hazard A Major 0.56 151.458 52.1
other- 2.64
ShipType
Speed Speed_t2
Cargo 23.3
7.42e-05 24.2 8.39e-05 24.0
Tug 17.0
NumLocalInteractions NumCloseInteractions Tanker 16.8
0.00963 0.15 0.00696 0.11
0.0827 5.70 0.0811 5.96
Pilot Vessel 13.2
0.155 0.12 0.161 0.10
Dredger 7.39
0.897 16.5 0.876 15.9
Cargo Hazard A Major 5.54
1.6 0.36 1.55 0.85
Passenger Ship 4.41 2.62 12.5 2.59 12.5
MaxTemp other- 12.4 4.13 0.18 4.56 0.23
7.41 15.5 7.43 15.8
14.2 24.4 14.3 24.0
65.9 0.12 24.6 0.16
ShipSize
EstOktas 102 0.34 102 0.34
-10 8.47
-2.08 24.0
-0.973 21.6
-0.324 0.26
Course Course_t2
0.067 24.6
Rainfall EstWindSpeed 0.827 21.1
Heading Heading_t2
CourseChangeRate
DayOfWeek SinceDusk
HeadingChangeRate
HourOfDay SinceDawn
Acceleration Acceleration_t2
(a)
shipType
Cargo 35.5
Tug 17.7
timeDeltaAvg Tanker 10.1 NumLocalInteractions LongestCloseMyAvgLon LongestCloseMyAvgLat
Pilot Vessel 9.07 flag
Cargo Hazard A Major 6.72
Passenger 2.31 NumCloseInteractions
Tanker Hazard A Major 2.29 AvgClosestDistance LongestCloseType
other- 16.4 None 40.6
duration Class Tug 32.0
4 13.2
CloseInteractionsPc Pilot Vessel 13.1
5 8.89 LocalInteractionsPc Cargo 4.63
shipSize
6 18.6 Tanker 2.60
-10 5.25
7 6.76 Cargo Hazard A Major 2.24
-2.3 4.54 LongestCloseMyAvgSpeed
8 21.3 Passenger 0.80
-2.04 17.3
avgRainfall avgEstOktas 11 5.33 other- 3.98
-0.223 40.0
0.293 32.9 13 20.3
14 5.67
straightSections
avgSpeedRecorded speedSd maxSpeed
avgMaxTemp avgEstWindSpeed
straightPc main2Course mainCourse
endPointLat endPointLon
maxLat maxLon
(b)
Figure 3: Example BNs produced by CaMML for the (a) time series data and (b) track summary data.
Anomaly scores for all data
likely reason is that the track summary scores are sim-
ply based on more variables, making each instance
Time series
Track summary
more specific and less probable. There is a surpris-
0.025
ingly small correlation between the two sets of scores
(r =0.159; p < 0.001).2 The two models look at differ-
ent aspects of each track, and, as we see below, rein-
0.020
We started from the same assumption as Cansado and 3.3.1 The False Ship Effect
Soto, however we think choosing any particular thresh-
old for deciding when tracks are anomalous would be For each track in the training set, the ship type infor-
arbitrary. In real applications a specific threshold may mation was swapped with that of another randomly
present itself as most suitable, but in general we feel it selected ship of a different type, leaving the track data
is better to present the probability itself to surveillance alone. Figure 5(a) shows how this affected the anomaly
operators, albeit in a more convenient form. score. In most cases this false ship effect is positive,
increasing the anomaly score. The false ship effect for
Thus, for track summary data, we first computed each
the time series model is positive in around 87.2% of
track’s prior probability given the normality model.
the cases as opposed to 69.4% of cases for the track
Since these probabilities are usually very low (around
summary model. Sometimes, however, tracks have be-
the order of 1−10 ) we took the negative log (base 2) to
come more probable given incorrect ship information,
produce an “anomaly score” (i.e., the number of bits
which itself seems anomalous! To be sure, many of the
required to describe the data, given the model). Put
ship types are in fact quite similar (e.g., there are sev-
simply, the higher the anomaly score, the less probable
eral sub-categories of cargo ship) so switching between
the track.
these may randomly produce a more likely track. How-
For time series networks we took a similar approach, ever, this does not account for all the cases. A closer
but instead fed each timestep of the track into the net- look at these showed that many are highly improbable
work to yield a probability estimate for that timestep. (i.e., have high anomaly scores), suggesting that ei-
We then took the average probability over all timesteps ther they have been mislabelled or, more intriguingly,
to generate a negative log anomaly score. For time se- that they do indeed behave anomalously according to
ries data it is possible, of course, to base anomaly cri- their type. This suggests a new criterion for anoma-
teria upon changes in the track over time. Johansson lousness based not merely upon the probability of the
and Falkman (2007), for example, used sliding win- given track but on what alterations might explain the
dows across a track, looking for any anomalous win- track better. This has some of the spirit of Jensen and
dows. For this study, however, we focused on criteria Nielsen’s conflict measure, though is clearly quite dif-
for assessing the tracks as wholes, leaving this kind of ferent; we leave this possibility for future exploration.
alternative for future investigation.
Figures 5(b) and 5(c) show scatter plots of the anomaly
Calculating anomaly scores for all the tracks in our score versus the false ship effect. With the time series
data set and plotting the distribution of the results model, we can see that as the anomaly score grows, the
(using a Gaussian Kernel Density Estimator [KDE]), 2
we obtained Figure 4. These show a fair amount of Earlier iterations with cruder discretizations and more
variables in common showed a stronger correlation — how-
diversity among anomaly scores, i.e. they do not sim- ever, as models grew more detailed, the correlation shrank.
ply clump around the lowest possible score. Note that 3
Wang et al. (2008), without known anomalous data,
the scores produced by the time series model are quite simply weakened their threshold to find “anomalies”,
distinct from those of the track summary model. One whether they were there are not!
False ship effect for all data
false ship effect falls (r =-0.70, p 0.01). This also
occurs with the track summary model, to a smaller
Time series
Track summary
extent (r =-0.31, p 0.01).
0.06
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(43.8), the lower score was not (p 0.01). Here we
can see the advantage of the higher level view of the
−40
20 40 60 80
track summaries.
Anomaly score
3.3.3 Manually drawn anomalies
(b)
Track summary anomaly score vs false ship effect Finally, we tested models using anomalous tracks
drawn with a mouse over a map, where the mouse loca-
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tion and speed generated the vessel location and speed
respectively. Other factors were created randomly, in-
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pare the performance of both models across several
10
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travelling over land, overly short tracks in the middle
−10
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of the sea and vessels behaving against their type. In
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all, 107 such tracks were created.
40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Anomaly score
When combined with the normal track test data, and
scored using the two models both independently and
(c) combined, the ROC (receiver operating characteristic)
curves of Figure 6 are the result. The ROC curves
demonstrate the tradeoffs that can be made (if we
Figure 5: False ship effect: (a) anomaly score differ-
were to settle on specific thresholds for anomalies) be-
ences for false ship information versus correct ship in-
tween false positives and true positives; the greater
formation, sorted by score; and scatter plots for (b)
time series and (c) track summary networks.
Time series ROC curve Track summary ROC curve Combined ROC curve
1.0
1.0
1.0
0.8
0.8
0.8
True positive rate
0.6
0.6
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.2
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0.0
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0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Figure 6: ROC curves for test data, containing both normal tracks and manually created anomalous tracks,
given the (left) time series, (middle) track summary and (right) combined models.
the area under the curve (AUC), the less severe the Combined ROC curve
tradeoff needs to be. We can see that the track sum-
1.0
mary model (with an AUC of 0.780) performs better
than the time series model (AUC 0.712). Adding the
0.8
anomaly scores from the two models together (in effect,
0.6
each individual model) performs better again (AUC
0.809). Table 3 shows the average scores each model
yielded for various kinds of anomalous tracks. We can 0.4
45.7, giving Deltas of +49.1 and +30.1 for track sum- 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
mary and time series models, respectively). The time False positive rate
gests that learning networks at still additional time Conf. on Intelligent Sensors, Sensor Networks and In-
scales, intermediate between the full track and each formation Processing, pp. 395–400.
AIS snapshot, may improve anomaly detection even Korb, K. B. and A. E. Nicholson (2010). Bayesian Artificial
further. Such approaches may well generalize to other Intelligence (2nd ed.). Chapman & Hall/CRC Press.
kinds of anomaly detection and can be extended to Laxhammar, R. (2008). Anomaly detection for sea surveil-
work with other kinds of track, such as those created lance. In The 11th Int. Conf. on Information Fusion,
by cars, planes and humans. pp. 55–62.
Li, X., J. Han, and S. Kim (2006). Motion-Alert: Au-
Acknowledgements tomatic anomaly detection in massive moving objects.
In Proc. of the 2006 IEEE Intelligence and Security In-
formatics Conference (ISI 2006), Berlin, pp. 166–177.
The authors would like to thank the DSTO for sup- Springer.
porting this work, Göran Falkman and especially
Fredrik Johansson for providing access to their data Loy, C., T. Xiang, and S. Gong (2010). Detecting and
discriminating behavioural anomalies. Pattern Recogni-
and generously answering many questions about their tion.
approach, and SAAB Microwave Systems for permit-
Mascaro, S., K. B. Korb, and A. E. Nicholson (2010).
ting us the use of their simulated data. Learning normal vessel behaviour from AIS data with
Bayesian networks at two time scales. Technical Report
TR 2010/, Bayesian Intelligence.
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