Operating System Notes

University of Spoken English and Computer Science

DIT: Diploma in Information Technology

IST Semester Notes:

Head of Department of IT: Professor Abdul Salam

Overview of an Operating System

1.1What is Operating System:

An operating system (OS) is a collection of system programs that controls and coordinates
the overall functions and operations of a computer system. It creates an interface between
hardware and application programs. The operating system manages the computer resources
such as CPU, memory and I/O devices.
An operating system is a system software that tells a computer what to do and how to do.
Operating system is soul for a computer system, without OS computer is like a dead body.

1.2Type of Operating System:

There are two types of operating system.

1) Single user operating system

2) Multi user operating system

Single User Operating System

Single user operating system allows only one user to use the system.

It means that only one user is in command of the system in given time.

Examples:

Some of the examples of single user operating systems are,

 DOS (disk operating system)

 MAC (Macintosh)

 Mostly used in Micro-Computers.

FUNCTION:

1. INITIALIZATION:

It must have an initial loader program to initialize the system properly.

2. FILE MANAGEMNET:
 It is responsible for storing files in different directories and sub-directories.
Operating system contains file management program that controls the creation, deletion and
access to files of data and program.

3. MEMORY MENAGEMENT:

This Memory management function is responsible to make sure that file or

program doesn’t over write another program.

4. I/O MANGEMNENT:

It handles the transfer of data, between peripherals and CPU.

Multi User Operating System:

Multi user operating system allows more than one user to use the system at a time.

OR:

Such operating systems can run two or more computer programs concurrently. This system is
required for such PC’s that can perform more than one task at a given time.

 Mostly used in Mainframe-Computers.

Examples: UNIX, ZENIX, LINUX

FUNCTION:

1. INITIALIZATION:

In this, initialization is more complex, because it is possible that more than one
computer be initialized by server.

2. FILE MANAGEMNET:

File management in this is more complex, why because a file maybe accesses or
shared by more than one user. If a user is using currently a file and another user also trying to
access the same file, then this is the duty of file management in multitasking operating system to
lock the file for the user and set the security.

3. RESOURCE MANGEMNENT:
 This let the user to share peripherals such as printers, scanners, and other hardware
and can share files on network

1.2.1. Desktop Operating System:

Desktop operating system works on desktop or notebook computer and is called

standalone system. It is normally used for client computers for normal users, like Windows 98,
2000, XP, 7, 8, 8.1, 10 etc.

1.2.1.1 Batch Operating System:

A Batch Operating System is a type of operating system that allows multiple users to use it
at the same time , without direct communication between them. This is done by having the users
submit their jobs to the operating system, which then processes them one at a time.

1.2.1.2 Multiprogramming Operating System:

An Operating system that is capable of running multiple programs on a single processor is
known as Multiprogramming operating system. If a program has to wait for an I/O transfer in a
multiprogramming operating system, other programs utilize the CPU and other resources
meanwhile.

1.2.1.3 Multiprocessing Operating System:

Multiprocessor Operating System are used in operating systems to boost the performance of
multiple CPUs within a single computer system. Multiple CPUs are linked together so that a job
can be divided and executed more quickly. These operating system include Windows NT, 2000,
XP and Unix.

1.2.1.4 Multitasking Operating System:

Multitasking , in an operating system is allowing a user to perform more than one computer
task ( such as the operation of an application program ) at a time. Or

The running of multiple programs at the same time on single processor is called Multitasking.

1.2.1.5 Network Operating System:

A Network operating System is a computer operating system that’s designed primarily to

support workstations, PCs and in some instances, older terminals that are connected on a local
area network (LAN).

1.2.1.6 Real time Operating System:

A Real time operating system , commonly known as an RTOS, is a software component that
rapidly switches between tasks, giving the impression that multiple programs are being executed
at the same time on a single processing core.

1.2.1.7 Time sharing Operating system:

Time sharing Operating system is a method of allowing multiple individuals at different

terminals to access the same computer system simultaneously. Or

Time sharing Operating system is a type of operating system. An operating system is basically,
a program that acts as an interface between the system hardware and the user. Moreover , it
handles all the interactions between the software and the hardware.

1.2.1.8 Distributed Operating system:

Distributed operating system is a model where distributed applications are running on multiple
computers linked by communications. A distributed operating system is an extension of the
network operating system that supports higher levels of communication and integration of the
machines on the network.

This system looks to its users like an ordinary centralized operating system but runs on multiple,
independent central processing units (CPUs).

1.2.2 Mobile/ Tablet Operating system:

A Mobile operating system is an operating system that helps to run other application software
on mobile devices . It is the same kind of software as the famous computer operating systems
like Linux and Windows, but now they are light and simple to some extent. Or

A Mobile operating system platform designed specifically for mobile devices such as
smartphones, tablets and other embedded devices.

1. Android:
The Android operating system is the most popular operating system today. It is a mobile OS
based on the Linux kernel and open source software. The android operating system was
developed by Google. The first Android device was launched in 2008.

a. What is Android System

The Android operating system is a mobile operating system developed by Google . It is

primarily used on mobile devices like smartphones and tablets. Android is based on the
Linux kernel and designed to be open source, which means that developers can easily modify
and customize the software to their own specifications.

Android is designed to be user friendly and supports a range of applications, including

games, productivity tools, and media players.

b. Version and Upgrades:

Android Version: Android version are used to describe the various updates for the open
source Android mobile operating system.

Upgrades Android: Upgrade an be defined as a process of shifting to a newer version of

any existing application or software. For example , we upgrade our windows whenever any
latest version comes in the marked because the newer version contains certainly more
features than the older one.
2. IOS:
IOS is a mobile operating system that is provided by Apple Incorporation. It is mainly
designed for Apple mobile devices like iPhone and iPod Touch. It was earlier known as
iPhone OS. It is mainly written in C, C++ language and Swift.

FUNCTIONS OF AN OPERATING SYSTEM

2.1 Operating System Structure:

An operating System has a complex structure, so we need a well-defined structure to

assist us in applying it to our unique requirements. Just as we break down a big problem
into smaller, easier to solve subproblems, designing an operating system in parts is a
simpler approach to do it. The approach of interconnecting and integrating multiple
operating system components into the kernel can be described as an operating system
structure.

There are many structures of the Operating system. Which are given below

A. Simple Structure
B. Monolithic Structure
C. Layered Approach
a. Simple Structure:
It is the simplest Operating System Structure and is not well defined; It can only be used
for small and limited systems. In this structure, the interfaces and levels of functionality
are well separated.
b. Monolithic Structure:
The Monolithic Operating System in which the kernel acts as a manager by managing all
things like file management, memory management, device management, and operational
processes of the Operating system.
In Monolithic Systems, Kernels can directly access all the resources of the operating
system like Physical hardware , exp keyboard , Mouse etc.
c. Layered Approach:
In this type of structure, OS is divided into layers or levels. The hardware is on the
bottom layer , while the user interface is on the top layer. These layers are arranged in a
hierarchical way in which the top-level layers use the functionalities of their lower level
levels.

2.1.1 User Interface:

This part of operating system is directing what we see on the screen and reacting to our
key presses and other inputs. User interface is a basic command line interface as normally
Graphical User Interface (GUI) provided by windows, Linux Operating systems.

2.2Functions:

Let us discuss the function of the operating system (OS) in detail.

2.2.1 Memory Management:
The operating system controls the primary memory or main memory. Primary
memory is a large array of bytes or words where each byte or word is assigned a
certain address. It is a fast storage, and it can be accessed directly by the CPU which
is present inside the system. If a program wants to be executed, it should be first
loaded in the main memory.
2.2.2 Process Management:
 The OS manages the order in which processes have access to the processor, and how
much processing time that each process must stay in the multiprogramming
environment. This is called process scheduling.
2.2.3 Resources Management;
An Operating system manages computer resources such as CPU, memory, disk space
and input/output devices.
2.2.4 File Management:
An operating system manages files stored on the computer’s hard drive, including
creating , deleting and managing files and directories.
2.2.5 Security:

The operating system uses a password protection to protect user data it also prevents
unauthorized access to programs and user data, but for external functionality we need to
install malware software to protect the system.

2.2.6 Deadlock Prevention:

Deadlock prevention refers to the set of techniques and methods used to prevent a
system from entering a state of deadlock.
Deadlock can cause a system to freeze or crash and can be a serious issue in
computer systems. Deadlock prevention involves designing a system in a way that
ensures that deadlocks do not occur.
2.2.7 Coordination between users and software’s:
Operating systems also coordinate and assign interpreters, compilers, assemblers,
and other software to the various users of the computer systems. .

PROCESSES
3.1Processes:

A process is essentially running software. The execution of any process must occur in a
specific order. A process refers to an entity that helps in representing the fundamental
unit of work that must be implemented in any system.
 In other words, we write the computer programs in the form of a text file, thus when we
run them, these turn into processes that complete all of the duties specified in the
program.

3.2Process States (05)

The operating system’s processes can be in one of the following states:

 NEW – The creation of the process.

 READY – The waiting for the process that is to be assigned to any processor.
 RUNNING – Execution of the instructions.
 WAITING – The waiting of the process for some event that is about to occur (like an
I/O completion, a signal reception, etc.).
 TERMINATED – A process has completed execution.

3.3 Process Structure:

In operating systems, the process structure refers to the way that programs and applications
are organized and run within the system.
Processes are what enable multiple programs to run simultaneously without
interfering with each other.
Here are the basic components of the process structure.
1 Process control block (PCB):

This is a data structure that contains the process’s state, it associated I\O
information , scheduling data and more.

2.Process Scheduling:

This is the act of assigning processes to their respective resources in order to

optimize their performance.

3 Interprocess communication:

This is the ability of two or more processes to communicate with one another in order to send
and receive data or instructions.

4 Memory Management:

This is the ability of the operating system to manage the memory usage within the system.
This includes allocation, protection and deallocation of memory to processes.

5 Deadlocks:

This is a type of system issue that occurs when two or more processes are waiting for one
another for resources in order to complete their task.

6 Context Switching:

This is the act of switching form one process to another in order to reduce latency in the
system.

3.3.1 PCB and components:

A process control block (PCB) is a data structure used by computer operating systems to store
all the information about a process. It is also known as a process descriptor. When a process is
created , the operating system creates a corresponding process control block.

OR
 When the process is created by the operating system it creates a data structure to store the
information of that process. This is known as Process Control Block (PCB)

Process Control Block is a data structure maintained by the operating system to store information
of each process.

Components of PCB: There are many components of PCB which are given below.

Process State:

Basically stores the respective stage of the program whether the process is in a new, ready,
running, or terminated state, etc. So, to understand this process state clearly, we have to understand
the process life cycle first.

Process Counter: Process Counter is a special kind of register that is used by the processor to
hold the address of the next instruction to be executed.

Process Number: A unique identifier for the process.

CPU Register: CPU register tells us about the different kinds of registers that are being used by a

particular process. They may include accumulators, index registers, stack pointer, and general-

purpose registers.

Memory Limit: It contains information about the memory management system used by the

operating system. This may include page tables, segment tables, etc.

List of open files: It represents the files associated with the process. So the CPU should maintain a

list of files that are being opened by a process to make sure that no other process can open the files

at the same time.

Miscellaneous Accounting and Status data: This includes information about the amount of

CPU used, time constraints, process number, etc.

3.4 Operation on Processes:

In an Operating System, a process is an instance of a program in execution. An operating
system performs several operations on processes to manage their execution and to ensure that
they don not interfere with each other.
Some of the common operations on processes in an operating system Include:

Process Creation:

When a User requests to run a program, the operating system creates a process to execute that
program . The process is given a unique process ID to identify it.

Process Scheduling: The operating system allocates CPU time to each process, using
scheduling algorithms to determine which process to run next. The scheduler ensures that each
process gets a fair share of the CPU and that high priority processes get more CPU time than low
Priority processes.

Process Monitoring:

The Operating system can monitor the performance of processes such as CPU usage, memory
usage, and I/O activity, to detect and diagnose problems or performance issues.

Process Termination:

When a process finishes executing or is terminated by the user or the operating system, the
operating system release any resources allocated to the process and removes it from the system.

Process Preemption:

An Interrupt mechanism is used in preemption that suspends the process executing currently
and the next process to execute is determined by the short-term scheduler. Preemption makes
sure that all processes get some CPU time for execution.
3.5Threads:
In an Operating system, a thread is a unit of execution within a process. Threads share the
same memory space as the process that created them and can share resources, such as files or
network connections.
Components of Threads:
There are few components of threads which are given below.
Program counter
Register set
Stack space

Some common operations performed on threads in an operating system.

Include.
Thread creation: When a process creates a thread, the thread is given a unique thread ID
and is added to the process’s list of threads.

Thread scheduling: The operating system schedules threads for execution, using scheduling
algorithms to determine which threads to run next.

Thread termination: When a thread finishes executing or is terminated by the user or the
operating system, the thread is removed from the system.
 INTRODUCTION TO WINDOW 10
4.1 Installation Requirements:
The system requirements for installing Windows 10 on a PC are:
Processor: 1 GHz or faster processor or SoC
RAM: 1 GB for 32-bit or 2 GB for 64-bit
Hard disk space: 16 GB for 32-bit OS or 20 GB for 64-bit OS
Graphics card: DirectX 9 or later with WDDM 1.0 driver
Display: 800 x 600 resolution
If you are upgrading from an earlier version of Windows, you should also make sure that your
current PC meets the requirements for that version of Windows.
Additionally, before installing Windows 10, you should make sure that you have a valid
product key and backup any important data on your PC. You may also need to update your
device drivers and firmware to ensure compatibility with Windows 10.

4.2 How to Create Bootable USB /DVD/CD

To create a bootable USB/DVD/CD for installing Windows 10, you can follow these steps:

1. Download the Windows 10 ISO file from the Microsoft website.

2. Insert a USB flash drive or DVD/CD into your computer.
3. Open the Windows 10 ISO file using Windows Explorer or File Explorer.
4. If you are using Windows 10, you can right-click the ISO file and select "Mount" from
the context menu. If you are using an earlier version of Windows, you can use a third-
party program to mount the ISO file.
5. Once the ISO file is mounted, copy all of the files and folders to your USB flash drive
or DVD/CD.
 6. If you want to create a bootable USB flash drive, you can use a tool like Rufus or the
Windows USB/DVD Download Tool to make the USB flash drive bootable.
7. If you want to create a bootable DVD/CD, you can use a tool like ImgBurn or Windows
Disc Image Burner to burn the ISO file to a DVD/CD.
Once you have created the bootable USB/DVD/CD, you can use it to install Windows 10 on a
computer. Make sure to change the boot order in your computer's BIOS to boot from the
USB/DVD/CD before the hard drive.

4.2.1 Rufus Software:

Rufus is a free and open-source utility software that allows you to create bootable USB flash
drives for installing operating systems or running live operating systems. It is available for
Windows operating systems and is easy to use.
With Rufus, you can create bootable USB drives from ISO images or other bootable image
formats, including DD images. It supports a wide range of file systems, including FAT32,
NTFS, exFAT, UDF, and ReFS.
Rufus is a powerful and reliable tool for creating bootable USB drives and is often
recommended for users who need to create bootable media for installing or running operating
systems. However, it is important to be careful when using Rufus, as it can overwrite data on
your USB drive if used incorrectly.
4.3Step by Step Installation Process:
Here is a step-by-step guide to installing Windows 10:
1. Create a bootable USB drive: Use a tool like Rufus to create a bootable USB drive with
the Windows 10 ISO file.
2. Insert the USB drive: Insert the bootable USB drive into your computer.
3. Boot from USB drive: Restart your computer and press the appropriate key to enter the
boot menu (usually F2 or F12). Select the USB drive as the boot device and press
Enter.
4. Install Windows 10: Follow the on-screen instructions to install Windows 10. You will
be prompted to select the language, time zone, and keyboard layout.
5. Enter product key: Enter the product key when prompted or choose to skip this step and
enter it later.
6. Select installation type: Choose between a clean installation (erases all data) or custom
installation (allows you to select where to install Windows 10).
7. Wait for the installation process to complete: The installation process can take up to an
hour, depending on your computer's hardware specifications.
8. Set up Windows 10: After the installation process is complete, follow the on-screen
instructions to set up Windows 10. This includes setting up user accounts, connecting to
a network, and selecting privacy settings.
9. Install drivers and software: Once Windows 10 is installed, install any necessary drivers
and software for your hardware.
That's it! You should now have a fully functional installation of Windows 10 on your
computer.

4.4 Hard Disk Partition:

A hard disk partition is a logical division of a physical hard drive into multiple sections, each
of which can be used to store data separately. Partitioning your hard drive can be useful for a
number of reasons, such as separating your operating system and programs from your personal
data, or setting up a dual-boot system with multiple operating systems.

Here is a step-by-step guide to creating a hard disk partition in Windows 10:

1. Open Disk Management: Right-click on the Start menu and select "Disk
Management" from the context menu.
2. Identify the hard drive: Identify the hard drive you want to partition in the list of disks
in Disk Management.
3. Shrink the volume: Right-click on the volume you want to shrink and select "Shrink
Volume". Enter the amount of space you want to allocate to the new partition in MB
(1GB = 1024MB).
4. Create a new partition: Right-click on the unallocated space and select "New Simple
Volume". Follow the prompts in the wizard to create the new partition, including
assigning a drive letter and formatting the partition with a file system.
5. Complete the partition: Once the new partition is created, it will be listed as a separate
drive in Windows Explorer.
6. Repeat steps 3-5 if you want to create additional partitions on the same hard drive.
It is important to note that partitioning a hard drive can result in data loss if not done correctly.
It is recommended to backup all important data before partitioning a hard drive, and to use
caution when making changes to disk partitions.
4.5 GUI Basics/Desktop Basic:
GUI Basic, also known as Visual Basic, is a programming language and integrated
development environment (IDE) developed by Microsoft. It was designed to be easy to learn
and use, with a graphical user interface (GUI) for building Windows applications..
Desktop Basic, on the other hand, is a general term that can refer to any basic programming
language that is used for desktop applications. Desktop Basic languages are typically used for
developing applications that run on a single computer, rather than over a network or the web.
In summary, GUI Basic is a specific implementation of a desktop Basic language, designed
specifically for building Windows applications with a graphical user interface.

4.6 Start Menu:

The Start Menu is a feature in Microsoft Windows operating systems that provides quick
access to programs, settings, files, and other features on a computer. It was first introduced in
Windows 95 and has undergone several changes and updates over the years.
The Start Menu typically appears as a button or icon located in the bottom left corner of the
screen.

4.7 Task Bar:

The Taskbar is a feature in the Microsoft Windows operating system that allows users to
access running applications and other features. It is typically located at the bottom of the screen
and displays icons representing running programs, open windows, and other system functions.
The Taskbar is designed to help users easily switch between running applications, monitor
system status, and access commonly used features. When a program is opened, its icon appears
on the Taskbar, allowing the user to switch to that program by clicking on the icon. If multiple
instances of the same program are open, they will be grouped together on the Taskbar.

The Taskbar also includes a notification area, where system icons for volume, network
connectivity, and other features are displayed. Users can customize the Taskbar by pinning
their favorite programs or folders, adding toolbars, or resizing the Taskbar.

4.8 Settings:
Settings, also known as Control Panel or System Preferences, is a feature in modern
operating systems that allows users to manage and customize various system settings and
configurations. It typically includes options for adjusting display and sound settings, managing
user accounts, setting up network connections, configuring security and privacy settings, and
more.
In Microsoft Windows, the Settings app was introduced in Windows 8 to replace the traditional
Control Panel, and has since been updated in Windows 10 with a more streamlined interface.
The Settings app can be accessed by clicking the Start menu and selecting the gear icon, or by
using the keyboard shortcut Windows key + I.
Overall, the Settings feature is an essential part of modern operating systems, allowing users to
customize and manage various settings and configurations to suit their needs.

4.9 Driver/Hardware Installation:

In computing, a driver is a software component that allows the operating system to
communicate with a hardware device. It acts as an interface between the hardware device and
the operating system, enabling the device to function properly. When a new hardware device is
connected to a computer, the appropriate driver software needs to be installed for the device to
work correctly.
Hardware installation refers to the process of physically connecting a new device to the
computer and installing the necessary drivers and software to enable the device to work
properly. This typically involves plugging in the device to the appropriate port, such as a USB
port, and running the installation software provided with the device. The installation software
will typically guide the user through the installation process, which may involve selecting the
correct driver, agreeing to license agreements, and configuring settings for the device.

4.9.1 VGA/SVGAVAGP/ Gaming Card:

VGA, SVGA, AGP, and gaming cards are all types of graphics cards used in computing.

VGA (Video Graphics Array) is an older standard for video display on computer monitors,
originally introduced by IBM in 1987. It supports resolutions of up to 640x480 pixels and up to
16 colors.
SVGA (Super Video Graphics Array) is a later and more advanced standard for video
display on computer monitors. It was introduced in 1989 and supports resolutions of up to
800x600 pixels and up to 256 colors.
AGP (Accelerated Graphics Port) is a type of graphics card slot that was commonly used in
desktop computers in the late 1990s and early 2000s. AGP allowed for faster communication
between the graphics card and the rest of the computer, improving graphics performance.
Gaming cards, also known as graphics processing units (GPUs), are specialized graphics
cards designed for gaming and other graphics-intensive applications. They have dedicated
graphics processing units and high-speed memory to handle the demands of high-resolution
gaming and other graphics-intensive tasks.

4.9.2 Sound Card:

A sound card is a hardware component that is installed in a computer to provide audio
capabilities, such as playing and recording sound. Sound cards typically include audio
processors and audio drivers to manage sound input and output, and may include additional
features such as surround sound processing and MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface)
support.
Sound cards are commonly used in desktop computers and some high-end laptops to improve
the quality of audio output and enable advanced audio features. They can be installed internally
in a computer's PCI or PCIe slot or externally via a USB connection. External sound cards are
often used by musicians and audio professionals who require high-quality audio interfaces for
recording and mixing music.
4.9.3 Network Interface Card:
1. Wired
2 Wireless
A network interface card (NIC) is a hardware component that is installed in a computer to
allow it to connect to a network, such as the internet or a local area network (LAN). NICs are
available in two types:
wired Interface Card:
A wired network interface card, also known as an Ethernet card, is designed to connect a
computer to a network using a physical cable, typically an Ethernet cable. It enables the
computer to communicate with other devices on the network, such as other computers, printers,
and servers. Wired NICs can support different speeds and standards, such as 10/100/1000
Mbps Ethernet, depending on the requirements of the network.
Wireless Interface Card:
A wireless network interface card, also known as a Wi-Fi card, is designed to connect a
computer to a network wirelessly. It uses radio signals to communicate with other devices on
the network and can connect to Wi-Fi access points, routers, and other wireless devices.
Wireless NICs can support different standards and frequencies, such as 802.11a/b/g/n/ac/ax,
depending on the requirements of the network.
4.10 Software Installation:
Software installation is the process of installing software or programs on a computer or other
electronic device. This process typically involves downloading an installer file or installation
package from a website or other source, and then running the installer to install the software.

The installation process typically involves several steps, including accepting the software
license agreement, choosing the installation location, selecting any optional features or
components to install, and configuring any settings or preferences for the software. Once the
installation is complete, the software should be ready to use.

4.11 User Creation:

User creation is the process of creating a new user account on a computer or other electronic
device. User accounts are typically used to separate different users and their activities on a
shared device, such as a family computer or a work computer.
To create a new user account, you will typically need administrative privileges on the device.
The exact process for creating a new user account can vary depending on the operating system
and device you are using, but the general steps are as follows:

1) Open the "Settings" or "Control Panel" application on your device.

2) Navigate to the "Users" or "Accounts" section.
3) Click "Add User" or "Create New Account."
 4) Enter the user's name and select a username and password for the account.
5) Choose the type of account you want to create. For example, you may create a standard
user account, an administrator account, or a guest account.
6) Customize any additional settings or permissions as desired.
7) Click "Create" or "OK" to create the new user account.
8) Once the new user account is created, the user will typically be able to log in and begin
using the device with their own settings and preferences.

4.11.1 Setting Properties:

Settings properties refer to the various customizable options and preferences available in an
operating system or application that allow users to personalize and configure their experience.

Examples of settings properties include options for changing the appearance of the interface,
adjusting sound and display settings, configuring network connections, setting up user
accounts, managing privacy and security settings, and more.

4.11.2 Assigning Role and Permission:

Assigning roles and permissions is the process of granting access and specific privileges to
users within an organization or system. This process helps to ensure that users have access to
the necessary resources and functions to perform their job or task, while also preventing
unauthorized access to sensitive data or systems.

Here are the general steps involved in assigning roles and permissions:
Assign roles: Once the roles are defined, assign them to specific users or groups of users based
on their job functions and responsibilities.
Assign permissions: Grant permissions to users based on their assigned roles. This can be
done through a user management system or through manual settings adjustments.
 4.12 Tablet Mode:
Tablet mode is a feature in Windows 10 that optimizes the operating system for use on a
touchscreen device. When you switch to tablet mode, the Start menu becomes a full-screen
Start screen, and apps open full screen rather than in windows.

In tablet mode, the taskbar is minimized, and you can use touch gestures to navigate through
the operating system. For example, you can swipe from the left edge of the screen to switch
between open apps, or swipe from the right edge of the screen to access the Action Center.

4.13 Dual Desktop:

Dual desktop, also known as multiple desktops or virtual desktops, is a feature in modern
operating systems that allows you to create multiple virtual workspaces on your computer. Each
desktop is like a separate workspace where you can open and organize different windows,
programs, and files. You can switch between desktops easily, and each one can have its own
wallpaper and icons.

This feature is particularly useful for people who work with multiple applications or projects
simultaneously, as it can help you stay organized and reduce desktop clutter. For example, you
could have one desktop for work-related applications and documents, and another desktop for
personal activities like web browsing, social media, or entertainment.

Dual desktop is available in various operating systems, including Windows, macOS, and Linux.

4.14 Network Settings:

Network settings are a set of configuration options that determine how your computer or
device communicates with other devices and networks. These settings can be adjusted to
improve network performance, troubleshoot connection issues, or set up network security
protocols.

4.14.1 Join Workgroup:

A workgroup is a group of computers that are connected to each other and share resources
such as files, printers, and internet connectivity. When you join a workgroup, your computer
can communicate and share resources with other computers in that workgroup.
To join a workgroup in Windows, follow these steps:
1) Click on the Start button and select Settings.
2) Click on System and then select About.
3) Under "Related settings", click on System info.
4) In the System window, click on "Change settings" next to "Computer name, domain,
and workgroup settings".
5) In the System Properties window, select the "Computer Name" tab.
6) Click on the "Change" button next to "To rename this computer or change its domain or
workgroup, click Change".
7) In the "Computer Name/Domain Changes" window, select the "Workgroup" option and
enter the name of the workgroup you want to join.
8) Click OK and restart your computer to apply the changes.
You will now be part of the selected workgroup and will be able to share resources with other
computers in that workgroup. It's important to note that all computers in the same workgroup
must have the same workgroup name for proper communication and resource sharing.

4.14.2 Connecting with DSL MODEM:

To connect to the internet using a DSL modem, you will need to follow these steps:

Connect your DSL modem to a power source and to your computer using an Ethernet cable.
Connect the phone line from your wall jack to the DSL modem.
Power on your modem and wait for it to establish a connection with your internet service
provider (ISP).
Open your web browser and enter the IP address of the modem in the address bar. This IP
address is typically printed on the bottom of the modem or in the user manual.
Enter the login credentials for the modem, which are also provided in the user manual or on a
sticker on the bottom of the modem.
If you are having trouble connecting to the internet using your DSL modem, try restarting the
modem and your computer, or contact your ISP for further assistance.

4.14.3 Connecting With Hotspot:

To connect to a hotspot from your computer or mobile device, you will need to follow these
steps:
Turn on the hotspot on your mobile device. This is typically found in the settings menu under
"Hotspot" or "Mobile hotspot".
Connect your computer or mobile device to the hotspot network. This can be done by selecting
the hotspot network from the list of available Wi-Fi networks in your device's Wi-Fi settings.
Enter the password for the hotspot network when prompted.
Once connected, you should be able to use the internet on your device through the hotspot
connection.
4.15 Updates and Security:
Keeping your computer or device up to date with the latest updates is important for both
performance and security reasons. Software updates often contain bug fixes, performance
enhancements, and security patches to address vulnerabilities that could be exploited by
malicious actors.
To update your computer or device, follow these steps:

Check for updates: Most operating systems have an option to check for updates
automatically. You can usually find this option in the settings or system preferences menu.

Download and install updates: Once updates are found, download and install them. This
process may take several minutes or longer depending on the size of the updates.
In addition to updating your computer or device, it's important to practice good security habits
to protect yourself from cyber threats. Here are some tips to enhance your device security:
1. Use strong passwords and change them frequently.
2. Enable two-factor authentication where possible.
3. Use anti-virus software and keep it up to date.
4. Be cautious of suspicious emails or links, and don't download files or click on links
from unknown sources.
5. Keep your personal information private and avoid sharing sensitive information online..
4.16 Mouse and Keyboard Settings:
Mouse and keyboard settings can be adjusted to suit your personal preferences and to
improve your computing experience. Here are some steps to adjust the settings for your mouse
and keyboard:

Mouse settings:

1. Open the Control Panel on your Windows computer.

2. Click on "Hardware and Sound" and then "Mouse".
3. In the "Mouse Properties" window, you can adjust settings such as pointer speed,
pointer trails, and button configuration.
4. Click "Apply" and then "OK" to save your changes.

Keyboard settings:

1. Open the Control Panel on your Windows computer.

2. Click on "Hardware and Sound" and then "Keyboard".
3. In the "Keyboard Properties" window, you can adjust settings such as repeat delay,
repeat rate, and cursor blink rate.
4. Click "Apply" and then "OK" to save your changes.
4.17 Adding Urdu Keyboards:

To add an Urdu keyboard on a Windows computer, follow these steps:

1. Open the Control Panel on your Windows computer.

2. Click on "Clock, Language, and Region" and then "Language".
3. In the "Language" window, click on "Add a language".
4. Scroll down to find and select "Urdu" from the list of available languages.
5. Click "Add" to add the Urdu language to your system.
6. Once the language is added, click on "Options" next to the language name.
7. Click "Add a keyboard" and select "Urdu Pakistan" or "Urdu India" from the list of
available keyboards.
8. Click "OK" to save your changes.

After adding the Urdu keyboard, you can switch to it by pressing the Windows key + Spacebar
on your keyboard

4.18 Installing and Configuring Printers and Scanner:

To install and configure a printer or scanner on your computer, follow these general steps:

Connect the printer or scanner to your computer: Use the USB cable that came with the printer or
scanner to connect it to your computer. If you're connecting a wireless printer or scanner, follow
the manufacturer's instructions for connecting it to your wireless network.

Install the printer or scanner software: Insert the installation CD that came with your printer or
scanner or download the software from the manufacturer's website. Follow the on-screen
instructions to install the software on your computer.
Configure the printer or scanner settings: Once the software is installed, open the printer or
scanner settings and configure them to your preferences. This may include settings such as paper
size, quality, and orientation. You may also need to set up the scanner settings, such as the
resolution and file format.
 NETWORK CONNECTIVITY (NETWORKING)

5.1 Creating Workgroup:

Creating a workgroup involves the following steps:

Determine the purpose of the workgroup: Before you start creating a workgroup, it's
important to identify the purpose or goal of the group. This will help you determine who should
be involved and what tasks need to be completed.

Identify potential members: Once you have a clear purpose for the workgroup, you can identify
potential members. Consider individuals who have the skills and knowledge necessary to
accomplish the group's goals.

Invite members to join: Once you have identified potential members, you can invite them to
join the workgroup. Be sure to communicate the purpose and goals of the group, as well as any
expectations or commitments required of members..

Set meeting schedule: Determine how often the workgroup will meet and establish a regular
meeting schedule. This will help ensure that everyone is on the same page and that progress is
being made toward the group's goals.

Define roles and responsibilities: Clearly define the roles and responsibilities of each member
in the workgroup. This will help ensure that everyone knows what is expected of them and that
tasks are completed efficiently.

By following these steps, you can create an effective workgroup that achieves its goals and
produces high-quality work

5.2 Assigning IP Address to NIC/HOST/Computer:

Assigning an IP address to a NIC (Network Interface Card), host, or computer involves the
following steps:
Determine the network requirements: Before assigning an IP address to a NIC, host, or
computer, it's important to determine the network requirements. This includes the network
topology, subnet mask, and gateway address.

Access network settings: To assign an IP address, you need to access the network settings on
the NIC, host, or computer. This can typically be done through the operating system's network
settings or control panel.

Choose a static or dynamic IP address: You can choose to assign a static or dynamic IP
address. A static IP address is manually assigned and remains the same, while a dynamic IP
address is automatically assigned by a DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) server.

Assign the IP address: If you choose to assign a static IP address, enter the IP address, subnet
mask, and gateway address in the appropriate fields. If you choose to use a dynamic IP address,
select the option to obtain an IP address automatically.

By following these steps, you can assign an IP address to a NIC, host, or computer and ensure
that it can communicate on the network.

5.3 File Sharing:

File sharing is the process of sharing digital files, such as documents, images, videos, and
audio, between computers or devices connected to a network. There are different ways to share
files, including:
Direct file transfer: This involves physically transferring files from one computer to another
using a USB drive or other storage device.

Email attachments: Files can be shared by attaching them to an email and sending them to
another person.

Cloud storage services: Online storage services such as Google Drive, Dropbox, and OneDrive
allow users to store files in the cloud and share them with others by sending a link to the file or
folder.

Network file sharing: This involves sharing files over a network using file sharing protocols
such as Server Message Block (SMB) or Network File System (NFS). This allows multiple users
to access the same files on a shared network drive.

When sharing files, it's important to consider security and privacy. Some best practices for
secure file sharing include:

Password-protecting files or folders before sharing them.

Limiting access to files or folders to only those who need them.

Using encryption to protect sensitive files.

Regularly monitoring and auditing file access to detect any unauthorized access.

By following these best practices, you can ensure that your files are securely shared and accessed
only by those who need them.

5.4 Printer Sharing:

Printer sharing allows multiple computers or devices to use the same printer. There are different
ways to share a printer, depending on the network and operating systems involved. Here are the
general steps for printer sharing:

Connect the printer to a computer: Connect the printer to a computer that will act as a print
server. This computer should be turned on and connected to the network whenever printing is
needed.
Enable printer sharing: Open the printer settings on the computer and enable printer sharing.
This allows other devices on the network to locate and use the printer.

Locate the printer on other devices: On other devices on the network, locate the shared printer
by opening the "Devices and Printers" menu in the Control Panel or searching for available
printers in the "Add Printer" wizard.

Install the printer driver: If the printer driver is not already installed on the device, download
and install the driver from the printer manufacturer's website.

Print to the shared printer: Once the printer is set up and installed on the device, print to the
shared printer as you would with a locally installed printer.

It's important to note that the process of printer sharing may vary depending on the operating
systems and network configurations involved. Additionally, printer sharing may require
administrative privileges on the computers involved. Therefore, it's recommended to consult the
documentation or support resources for the specific operating system and printer model to ensure
successful printer sharing.

5.5 Assigning Permission to users:

Assigning permissions to users involves defining what actions they can perform on specific
files, folders, or resources. Here are the general steps for assigning permissions to users:

Identify the resources: Identify the resources, such as files or folders, that you want to assign
permissions to.
Determine the types of permissions: Determine the types of permissions you want to assign to
users, such as read, write, modify, or execute.

Create user groups: Create user groups with similar permission needs. Assign permissions to
groups rather than individual users, which will make it easier to manage permissions over time.

Assign permissions to groups: Assign the appropriate permissions to each user group for the
resources they need to access. For example, you may give read-only access to some groups and
full access to others.

Add users to groups: Add users to the appropriate groups based on their permission needs.

Test access: Test access to ensure that the users have the appropriate permissions to access the
resources they need.

It's important to periodically review and update permissions to ensure that users have appropriate
access and that unauthorized access is prevented. Additionally, it's recommended to limit the
number of users with administrative access, as this can help to prevent accidental or intentional
changes to permissions or access levels.

5.6 Practically demonstrate the data sharing between computers:

general overview of the steps involved in sharing data between two computers over a network:

Connect the computers to a network: Connect the two computers to a network, such as a local
area network (LAN) or a wireless network.

Enable file sharing: Enable file sharing on both computers. This can be done by opening the
network and sharing center on the control panel and selecting the option to enable file and printer
sharing.

Create a shared folder: Create a shared folder on one of the computers and specify the
appropriate permissions for access.

Access the shared folder: On the other computer, access the shared folder by navigating to the
computer's network location and selecting the shared folder.
Transfer files: Transfer files between the computers by dragging and dropping files from one
computer to the shared folder on the other computer.

Note that the exact steps for data sharing may vary depending on the network configuration,
operating system, and security settings. Additionally, it's important to ensure that appropriate
security measures are in place to protect the shared data and prevent unauthorized access.
 WINDOW SERVER 2019/2016

6.1 Definition:

Windows Server 2019 and Windows Server 2016 are two versions of the Windows Server
operating system developed by Microsoft.

Windows Server 2019 is the latest version, released in 2018, while Windows Server 2016 was
released in 2016. Both operating systems are designed to run on server hardware, and are used
for managing and sharing resources, such as files, printers, and applications, across a network of
computers.

6.2 Difference between client and Server:

In computing, a client and a server are two different types of computer programs that
communicate with each other over a network. The primary difference between a client and a
server is the role they play in this communication.

A client is a program or device that requests services or resources from a server. For example,
when you open a web browser and enter a URL, the browser acts as a client and sends a request
to a web server, asking for the webpage associated with that URL. The server then processes the
request and sends back the requested webpage to the client.

On the other hand, a server is a program or device that provides services or resources to clients.
The server receives requests from clients and responds by providing the requested resources or
services. For example, a file server stores files and allows clients to access and share them over
the network.

In summary, a client is a program or device that requests services or resources from a server,
while a server is a program or device that provides services or resources to clients.

6.3 Role and Service:

6.3.1 Print and Document Services:

Print and Document Services is a Windows Server role that enables administrators to
manage and control the printing and document-related activities within an organization. This role
allows users to create, manage, and share documents and printers, and to print documents from
remote locations.

Print and Document Services includes several sub-roles, including:

Print Server: This sub-role allows administrators to manage printers and print jobs.
Administrators can add, remove, and configure printers, create print queues, and manage printer
drivers.
Distributed Scan Server: This sub-role allows administrators to manage scanners on the
network. Users can scan documents and save them to a network location, email them, or send
them to a printer.

Print and Document Services is an important role in a Windows Server environment, as it allows
administrators to centralize printer and document management and provides users with the
ability to access and share documents and printers from remote locations

6.3.2 Active Directory:

Active Directory is a Microsoft technology that provides a centralized system for managing
user accounts, computers, and other resources in a networked environment. It is used primarily in
enterprise-level organizations to manage and control access to resources on a network.

With Active Directory, administrators can create and manage user accounts, assign users to
groups, manage group policies, and manage network resources such as printers and shared
folders.

Active Directory is organized in a hierarchical structure called a domain, which contains objects
such as users, computers, and resources.

Overall, Active Directory is a powerful tool for managing user accounts and network resources
in a Windows Server environment.
6.3.3 DHCP:

DHCP stands for Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol, and it is a network protocol that
automatically assigns IP addresses and other network configuration information to devices on a
network.

DHCP allows network administrators to manage and assign IP addresses in a centralized and
automated manner, which reduces the workload and potential errors associated with manually
assigning IP addresses.

When a device connects to a network, it sends a DHCP request to the DHCP server. The DHCP
server then responds with an available IP address, subnet mask, default gateway, and other
network configuration settings. The device then configures itself automatically with this
information, allowing it to communicate on the network.

DHCP can also be used to manage the allocation of other network configuration settings, such as
DNS server addresses, WINS server addresses, and time server addresses.

DHCP servers can be implemented on Windows Server, Linux, or other network devices such as
routers or switches.

6.3.4 DNS:

In Windows Server 2019, the DNS (Domain Name System) service is an important feature that
is included in the operating system. DNS allows you to resolve domain names to IP addresses,
which is essential for accessing resources on a network or on the internet.
6.3.5 WINS:

WINS stands for Windows Internet Naming Service, and it is legacy network protocol used
in older Windows operating system to resolve NetBIOS names to IP addresses. NetBIOS
(Network Basic Input/ Output System) is an older networking protocol used by Windows
operating system to communicate with each other on a network.

WINS provides a centralized database for mapping NetBIOS names to IP addresses, which
allows Windows computers to find each other on a network.

WINS is considered a legacy technology and is no longer used in modern Windows Server
environments.