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    CIOB - Foundations Problems Associated With Low-Rise Housing. Part 1

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    Nelson Chin

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    TECHNICAL INFORMATION SERVICE Foundation prob! with low-rise h by Roger Johnson, Prior to joining the National House-Building Council (NHBC) in 1979, Roger Johnson was responsibie for the design and super. Vision of a wide range of structures in concrete, steel and ‘masonry, including a power station complex in the Middle East — designed as an earthquake-resistant structure — bridges, high-rise flats/otices and the refurbishment of historic buildings. ‘Agrowing interest in the development of sites for low-rise hous- ‘ng with complex geotechnical problems brought him to NHBC 1s an advisory engineer for the South-East and South-West Region. He became involved in the appraisal of sites with ‘geotechnical problems for developments which were to be in- ‘cluded within the NHBC Ten-Year Warranty. In addition, he has investigated claims against NHBC where ‘major structural distress has occurred. He has served on two BSI committees. {In 1985 Mr Johnson became NHBC’s Chief Engineer with responsibilities or co-ordinating a national NHC policy for sites with complex geotechnical problems, INTRODUCTION Nearly 99% of the earth's crust is composed of only eight of the ninety or so different elements, yet those that are present combine together to form a colossal number of different ‘minerals, rocks and soils. Add to the soils and rocks differing degrees of weathering, varying amounts of water and let the earth processes move them around and we have an almost in finite number of different, highly variable soils, upon which to, construct a building. In addition, the effect of man’s past ac: tivity on the land introduces a further variable into the equation. TSGN No. cas2esm2 No 61. 1986 lems associated ousing Part 1. CEng, MiStructE A shortage of available building land has forced the developer, ‘and house-builder to purchase and develop land with inherent ‘geotechnical problems, which would have either rendered it ‘economically non-viable or technically impossible to develop in the past. ‘This paper will assist those involved in house building to iden: tity possible hazards on sites zoned for development. An im- Portant feature in assessing land for potential development is. the solution which may be required to overcome the problem, ‘A comprehensive list of solutions related to each hazard is beyond the scope of this paper. Nevertheless, some solutions. ‘are brietly described. They will allow the assessment of the Viability of a site prior to purchase and the development co- ‘ordinator in programming construction. Naturally, the house- builders’ professional advisers will prepare a design and recom- mendations tailored to the individual needs of the developerihouse-builder and the particular hazards en- ‘countered on the site. ‘The opinions and recommendations expressed in this paper are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect NHBC requirements, ‘They are presented in the form of general information and no liability or responsibilty (including liability for negligence) can ‘be accepted in instances where information, opinions or recom mendations are used for specific situations. 1. Site visit checklists ‘The following should be noted during the first visit to site. SERIES EDTOR PETER HARLOW Enalomer, King's Ride, Ascot, Berks. SLS 8B Tet Ascot (0900) 23355 ‘Areas adjoining the © are there signs of damage to existing buildings? © are any existing buildings supported on special foundations? © will the development atfect adjacent developments or land? © winy was that gap left between houses? © do place or road names indicate potential problems, Quarry Lane? do local residents know anything about the site? ‘© discuss the proposals with the local authority building con- trol and NHBC officers. ‘The sloping site (see Section 2 for follow up action) © are there signs of landslip or erosion of the slopes? eg surface rippling or tension cracks in the surface. © do the trees have vertical trunks? Leaning trees or curved trunks can signify slope movement. © clay slopes of gradients greater than 1:10 can be subject to creep. Made ground or filled site (see Section 3 for follow up action) © 's there evidence of imported soil, tipped material or rub- bish and is it hot? © did a railway cutting pass under the site? © check with old Ordnanace Survey maps and aerial photographs. They may show a depression prior to the fil ing of a quarry or claypit. © road and place names may assist, eg Chalkpit Lane. Clay site with vegetation (see Section 4 for follow up action) © Sstickiness when wet and cracking when dry may indicate a clay with a shrinkage/swelling character ‘© what are the species, height, girth and condition of the trees? «© is there evidence that trees, bushes or hedges have been cut down or grubbed out? ‘Alluvial tlood plain (see Section 5 for follow up action) © is the site within a valley? ‘© reeds or other water-loving vegetation can suggest water- ‘courses or high water table; ‘© bounciness under foot can signify a high water table; ‘© a stream or river may have flooded or been wider in the past, and periodically deposited organic material and soft silts, gravels, etc. over a wide area. Soils with a high sulphate and acidic content (see Section 6 for follow up action) © ‘sulphates are often found in the following clays: kimmeridge, lias, London, Oxford and Wealden. Sometimes in the associated glacial clays; © demolition material containing gypsum plaster and clinker {and then used as infill can lead to sulphate attack; © wherever there is made ground there isa risk of sulphate and acidic concentrations; © sites adjacent to pine forests and on peaty soils may have 2 high acidic content. ‘Contaminated land (see Section 7 for follow up action) (© how was the site used previously? © check with the list of former uses; © if contamination is suspected professional advice must be sought. Mine and mineral workings (see Section 8 for follow up action) © is the site situated in a known area of coal or mineral ‘extraction? ¢@ is there evidence of workings; shatts, pit props, etc? © road and place names may assist, eg Coalpit Lane. © the National Coal Board can give guidance upon past, pre- sent and proposed coal mining in the area; © check with old Ordnance Survey maps and aerial photographs. Inner city infil site (see Section 9 for lollow up action) © check relationship of the site with adjacent buildings: ‘© will demolition prior to development affect the stability of acjacent buildings? © ‘should buttresses be left or raking shores erected to ensure stability of adjacent buildings until the new building is constructed? © are the adjoining owners aware of the implications of the development on their property? © has adequate insurance been taken out to cover damage to adjoining properties? Have adjacent buildings been photographed, surveyed and their condition recorded prior ‘to, during, and following demolition and the construction of the new building? «wil the public highway or footpath need to be closed? The police and local authority will need to be informed ‘The effect of frost on soils and foundation concrete (see Section 10 for follow up action) are the underiying sols trast susceptible, eg chalk, sity soils ‘and fine sands? «will the construction continue through the winter? © where the soils are frost susceptible, concrete floor slabs and ratt foundations are particularly vulnerable to damage: © are the foundations at a depth sufficient to overcome the ‘effects of frost penetration? is there a maximum/minimum thermometer on site? © are the procedures for concreting in temperatures below freezing well understood? Hard rock soils (see Section 11 for follow up action) Before construction the type of rock and its structure needs to be defined. Non-suspended oversite slab (see Section 12 for follow up action) ‘© fit is proposed to construct non-suspended ground floors ‘then check NHBC requirements with regard to the permis ble depth of infil. infill must not exceed 0.6m unless a suspended floor is specified; ‘© sloping sites often require regrading and terracing which results in an infil depth in excess of NHBC requirements for a non-suspended oversite; © is there made ground or fillon the site? NHBC requirements with regard to 0.6m depth of fill apply to existing as well as new fill; € isthe site underlain by clay? If it is shrinkable, has it been considered how a non-suspended oversite will perform i the clays beneath the slab swell? © if vegetation on the non-cay site has been removed will he removal of the soil containing root growth result in a depth of infill exceeding 0.6m? ‘© does the underlying strata contain layers of peat which may cause settlement of the oversite slab © does the architectural layout drawing show load-bearing par- titions supported on the oversite (even if thickened)? Load: bearing partitions must be supported on their own founda- tions constructed upd soils competent to support the loading. © is the underlying soll too soft to provide full support to the infil? Is a blinding layer of concrete required to prevent granular fill sinking into the soil? 2. The sloping site The sloping site can be stable but only just. Movement may have ‘occurred in the past and with any changes in the characteristics of the slope during construction, movement caused by instabil- ty may occur again. ‘The slope gradient may remain unaltered during construction but the development will influence the ground water regime thus affectinig stability ‘There is no safe gradient which can be applied to all sites since there are a number of factors which can affect stability. ‘Some common slope movements. (A) rock slide” (8) scree slide (©) rock fall (0) flow slide (©) rotational slide sliding surface W = weathered zone (©) multi-rotational slides Figure 2.1 Some common slope movements The advice of a suitably qualified engineer or geologist is re- quired to determine whether the slope is safe to develop or whether it requires stablising prior to building The engineer or geologist may, following a ground investiga tion, conclude the overall gradient of the site is stable. However, some form of terracing is inevitable when roads, driveways and original slope profile New slope profile — may be steeper than original slope gradient Possible retaining wall required L Figure 2.2 Terracing 4 the formation plateau for the properties are formed. Hence, in some local areas gradients may have to be formed which are steeper than the overall gradient of the site. These may be unstable. Retaining walls or soil stablising techniques may be required. The engineerigeologist must be retained to advise fon the final slope profile of the site. If the top of the slope is surcharged with spoil, ete. or an ex- cavation is formed at the base of the gradient, the slope may become unstable as illustrated in Figure 2.3. ‘The stability of the slope is often related to the ground water conditions. If drains or water courses are modified, the stabili- \ excavations can reduce stability Surcharge load i.e. deposited spoil can reduce the stability of the slope Figure 2.3 ty of the slope may be improved or impaired. ‘Springlines and changes in stratum can act as a slip plane allow- ing the upper mass of soil to slide over the lower. This is shown in Figure 2.4 Clay slopes, even when quite shallow, can be subject to creep. London clay for example can creep at gradients of 11° or more. Split level properties require retaining walls. Particular care ‘is required with damp proofing, The NBHC Ciaims Department report that damp penetration through retaining walls into habitable areas is a common defect in split level properties. To avoid excessive foundation depths, it is usual practice to form stepped footings. The Building Regulations, NHBC Hand- book and Cade of Practice CP2004 all give guidance upon the dimensions of the steps in a strip foundation. In essence, the formula as illustrated in Figure 2.5 is to be applied? instability elt i= w 2 spring line can lubicate a potential slip plane causing a whole mass of soil can slide over the stratum below Figure 2.5, Figure 2.6 Dimensions as specified in the same source! may be adopted for trench fill foundations. ‘On steep sites larger steps may be necessary. It is sensible to seek advice from an engineer who will be able to advise upon. the height, frequency of the steps and whether reinforcement is required, (0.6m permitted by NHBC. In this case a suspended timber, precast or reinforced concrete floor will need to be considered (see Figure 2.7). Suspended floor original slope profile Suspended Figure 2.7 ‘Many slopes are stable and will safely support a low-rise develo- ‘ment, Nevertheless, there are a few precautions which ensure satisfactory performance of a building: © a nominal mesh reinforcement introduced into the founda- tion offers tensile strength. The mesh should be properly lapped in the foundation and carefully formed around steps in the foundation construction. The consulting engineer must be involved in producing the appropriate detail and spetication; © soils on a slope can vary in their strength and settlement characteristics. Its important that the foundations are form- ed on uniform soils throughout. 3. Made ground or the filled site ‘Made ground must always be treated with suspicion and a thorough ground investigation is essential. Variations in the ‘made ground are a common feature and all these may not be detected in the trial pits or bore holes. Industrial andior ‘chemical waste may be present with potentially harmful effects tupon site operatives and eventual residents. (More informa: tion is contained in Section 7) Fills often placed in disused quarries and clay pits. Informa- tion upon the boundary and extent can be obtained from old ‘Ordnance Survey maps, aerial photographs and local authori ty records. The boundary of the fillinaturally deposited soils is an impor- tant feature which should be determined prior to the prepara: tion of any foundation scheme. ‘An important consideration in assessing the filed site is whether it s natural material, eg sands, gravels, etc. or material liable to decomposition, eventually leaving voids and resulting in settlements at the ground surface. AA suitably qualified engineer is required to undertake the ground investigation and prepare the foundation designs. ‘The following are the most common methods of forming foun- dations on the made ground site: Pile and beam Care needs to be exercised to ensure the piles have penetrated through the made ground and are supported by the indigenous underlying soils. A riven pile may achieve a set on an object prone to decom- position or an unstable stratum, resulting eventually in the set- tlement of the pile Dramatic changes in the length of the pile in close proximity cone to another must be treated with suspicion. The shorter pile ‘may be supported on an outcrop or an obstruction. Settlement of the made ground can impose drag on the pile shaft causing the end load to increase. The pile must be design- ‘ed to accommodate this additional load. Pier and beam It the made ground is sufficiently shallow to allow an excavator to penetrate through the naturally deposited soils, a mass con- crete or blockwork pier supporting ground beams may offer an attractive alternative to piling. However, like piling it is ‘essential to establish that the indigenous soils beneath the fill ‘are competent to support the pier foundations. Ground floor construction in domestic dwellings In all instances of made ground exceeding 0.6m a suspended ground tloor is required if the properties are to benefit from the NHBC Warranty Scheme. Ratt foundations NHBC engineers have produced suggested guidelines for the design of semi-raft foundations on made ground? The follow- ing minimum requirements are suggested: (a)the raft foundation must be designed by a chartered civil or structural engineer with the benefit of an adequate site investigation; (©) sufficient internal beams are to be provided to stiffen the slab adequately; (€) the minimum depth of perimeter and party wall beams is to be 450mm; on larger dwellings some internal beams. should be of the same depth as the perimeter; (@)perimeter and internal beams should be sufficiently wide ‘at their base to carry their total loading at the allowable bear- ing capacity for the site; (e)beams are to be designed to span 3m and cantilever 1.5m ‘and are to use properly formed reinforcement in accordance with CP114 or CP110 current editions. Where mesh is us- ed in beams it should be delivered to the site pre-bent. All ‘beams should be cast off a minimum 50mm concrete lin ding with minimum cover to reinforcement of 50mm; () the floor slab should be a minimum of 150mm thick with Rominal reinforcement in the top face as a minimum. Steel ‘or proprietary chairs should be used to support the mesh during casting; (g)corners and junctions of the beam should be adequately tied Using similar reinforcement to the beams; (h)a minimum cavity drain of 225mm below dpc is to be maintained, ‘Notwithstanding these precautions, rafts are unsuitable if the {ill is liable to allow substantial differential settlements to oc- Cur. Variations in the depth, consistency and the nature of the made ground under a raft can cause differential settlements resulting in tilting. In some instances little damage may be ap- parent but visually unacceptable tilt will dramatically reduce the market value of the building and possibly cause matfunc- tioning of the services. More often damage does occur to the superstructure causing unsightly cracking affecting the ser: Viceability of the building. Ground improvement techniques. Using dynamic methods, the made ground may be compacted toa density where either a reinforced strip footing or raft foun- dation can be constructed. Extra care is required if peats, timber or other material likely to decompose are encountered within the fil. The dynamic compaction is only valid while the compacted material is contained. The formation of voids reduces the degree of compaction and settlement of the foun- dations may take place. Soft sitts and clay fill require special treatment. Unless oversite slabs are placed on the treated soils, suspended floors are required. The top 600mm or sois not fully compacted because itis unrestrained. Fill placed on top of the treated soils and then compacted with a vibrating roller is one solution. (On deep fill sites it is only the top 3-4m which is treated. The underlying untreated soils need careful investigation. Voids which may form due to decomposition of the fll material will migrate towards the surface. The treated soils will lose their state of compaction, resulting in possible settlement to the buildings. 4. Clay sites ‘Some clay sites in the United Kingdom possess characteristics which cause an increase and decrease in volume with the rise ‘and fallin moisture content. The majority of these clays occur east of the Hull/Exeter axis. However, shrinkable clays can be encountered in other areas of the country. Clays deposited in flood plains, old river beds ‘and wherever there are glacial deposits, may possess shrinkable/swelling characteristics. A change in volume of a clay General distribution of firm shrinkable clays - besed on BRE records and Institute of Geological Sciences maps Figure 4.1 supporting a building can result in damage andior distortion, ‘especially if the volume changes are not consistent throughout the building plan. ‘Some clays are subject to more volume change than others. It itis possible to roll in both hands a sample of clay to the diameter of a pencil without breaking, it may have high shrinkage/swelling characteristics. Cracks in trench sides can also indicate potential shrinkable/swelling potential. Several laboratory tests are available. The cheapest and ‘simplest is the index Limit Test, which will classify the clays, into high, medium and low shrinkage potential Plasticity Index (PI)% ‘Shrinkage potential Greater than 40% High 20-40% Medium 10.20% Low Figure 4.2 The factors commonly causing changes in clay moisture con- tent are seasonal effects and trees and vegetation. Seasonal effects A grassed field may rise and fall 20mm in a normal year, in- creasing to 40mm during a dry summer followed by a wet winter. The depth of clay influenced in this way is between 1 and 1.5m. Hence trench fill or strip footing foundations would ‘need to be constructed at least 1m deep in normal cimatic con- ditions, increasing to 1.5m if constructed during a dry summer. ‘Sand and gravel partings within the clay stratum increase the Permeability and hence the moisture variation during the seasonal cycle. The depth of soils influenced in this way can exceed the 1.0m to 1.5m quoted. Trees and vegetation ‘Trees and vegetation rely upon the extraction of moisture from soils for survival and growth. The moisture content and hence potential volume change of clays can be influenced to depths ‘as great as 6.0m with-high water demand trees. Trees or hedges ‘removed prior to building lead to acute problems as the clays. rehydrate, causing swelling pressures to develop and often resulting in structural damage to any buildings. The rate of rehydration depends upon the permeability of the clays. The Building Research Establishment (BRE) monitored a building ‘constructed on a site formerly occupied with trees, Swelling pressure from rehydrating clays was causing movement in the building 13 years after construction’. Figure 4.3 Under these conditions the foundations and floor slab design need careful consideration. Trees adjacent to a building can grow and may die during the life of the building. The founda- tions will need to be designed to accommodate the shrinkage and swelling of the underlying soils these conditions represent. Foundations Pile and beams Piling designed to penetrate soils unaffected by any trees or vegetation is considered the most satisfactory solution. The piles must be designed to resist the additional downward ver- tical load from shrinkage and the upward force imposed by the swelling pressures. oi or iow density pobstyrene [— Eenoath a landor sp membrane} Toeoth atectes by Feat system Cia acted cortege by shrinkage back fit Figure 4.4 Pile and ring beam with the pile extending beyond the depth of soil affected by shrinkage and designed to resist vertical forces Deep strip and trench fill Deep strip foundations and trench fill are an alternative solu- tion. However, precautions must be taken to accommodate lateral and vertical heave. Where trees are present it may be concluded that as the distance from the tree increases, the depth of the foundation may be reduced to accord with the foundation depths quoted. eee sp suspended Noor | ' | L Trench fit Figure 4.5 Trench fill This is only valid by complying with the following criteria: (a) the step dimension in any foundation must conform to the Building Regulations, NHBC Handbook, or the CP2004. (See Section 2); (b)the soil type, its compressibility and bearing capacity must bbe uniform throughout the foundation. The strength of the supporting soils can be reduced by a periodically rising ‘ground water level. if deeper foundations are constructed upon soils which are occasionally submerged in water, the strength of the clays will reduce and their compressibility increase, resulting in possible damaging settlements to the building; (©) deep trench fill foundations involve large quantities of con- crete. Shrinkage cracks can develop during curing. These cracks can be attracted to a change in section like the step in the foundation. Any differential settlement which may oc cur in the future would be concentrated towards these cracks. Light mesh reinforcement is often introduced into the trench fill foundation to help distribute the shrinkage stresses. Where trees and hedges have been removed from a site the NHBC Practice Note 3 (1985) and BRE Digest 298 give com: prehensive guidance upon precautions to accommodate clay swelling, Pier and beam Pier and beam foundations are a solution often considered as a suitable alternative to piling, The precautions for swelling pressures are similar to those applicable to pile and beam. However, the depth of pier is restricted to that which can be conveniently excavated by a machine. In some instances this, may not be deep enough to penetrate the influence of the vegetation and the piling solution is the only alternative, suspended toe Low density pobstyrene void oF or similar ‘ow density Pier polstyrene reinforced beneath ‘ndor beam Slip membcane toaeoth afected by Foot system Figure 4.6 Pier and beam Ratt foundations ‘A reinforced concrete raft foundation constructed upon granular compacted fill has been used successfully in the north of England on the boulder clays. The success of this solution is attributable to the removal of the area of clay that is liable to volume change. This clay is replaced with a compacted granular bed which tends to behave compositely with the raft producing a stiff foundation. The depth of the granular bed is, ‘dependent upon the depth to which the clays have been in fluenced by vegetation. Terraced or long buildings are not ad visable unless movement joints are incorporated. , Excavate firm, shrinkable clay for area of dwelling and apron. Fill with clean well compacted and rolled fil and use raft foundation. Mainly suitable for detached and semi-detached dwellings. Figure 4.7 Root barriers It is tempting when properties are constructed in close prox- imity to trees on conventional foundations to provide a con. ‘crete root barrier. Root barriers can, however, sever the root growth of a tree thereby allowing swelling to occur beneath the building. In this case the damage to the property can be more ‘severe than if the root barrier had not been constructed. One damaged building investigated had a root barrier 2.0m deep and foundations constructed to a depth of 1.0m. The root bar: rier had severed the tree roots and so initially swelling of the clays beneath the property took place, causing cracking and deformation to the superstructure. Eventually the roots from the trees grew under the root barrier and affected the under. side of the foundations. This caused shrinkage of the clays resulting in further damage to the property. Ground floor construction ‘The greatest problem with the ground floor construction is the Underlying clays, causing lifting of the ground floors, as the clays ‘swell. Suspended pre-cast beams or timber joists with a void between the underside of the floor and the top of the clay is the obvious solution. To form a suspended in situ floor it is necesary to provide a compressible material beneath the siab soffit. Proprietary void formers which collapse or compress when exposed to the swelling sub-soil are available. Suspend: 4 ground floors with a void or compressible material are essen- tial with the pile and beam, and pier and beam solution. Where the swelling risk is moderate, a granular fill such as ‘rejects’ are an alternative. 5. The alluvial flood plain Alluvial soils are relatively recent deposits. Quite large areas of alluvium were formed in coastal margins and river flood plains during and immediately after the last Ice Age, which, in Britain, terminated about ten thousand years ago. The retreating ice shields caused rivers and the sea level to rise with the resulting deposition of silts, sands, gravels and decom- posing vegetation. As the seal level fell and areas of land sur- face rose, so areas of low lying land previously submerged became exposed. Smaller pockets of land have received the deposition of alluvial soils from phenomenon like the changing course of a river or a dried up pond, etc. In some alluvial areas a desiccated crust may have formed, The crust developed as the ground water level was progressively lowered. Alluvial deposits are usually a poor foundation material as any increase in loadings can give rise to large settlements. The clays and silts are often soft and highly compressible. The gravels may conceal underiying inferior soils. Significant variations can ‘occur in the soil profile which may cause differential settlement to.a building. For example, at Southsea in Hampshire the tran- sition from well compacted plateau gravels to very compressi- ble soft silts occurs dramatically over short distances, even within the planned area of a small house. There are a number of deformed and tilting buildings which bear testimony to the

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