J. Chem Soc. Nigeria, Vol. 44, No.

3, pp 433 -452 [2019]

Synthesis of biodegradable superabsorbent hydrogel from carboxymetylated cassava

starch for use in sanitary pads

T. A. Afolabi

Department of Chemistry, Federal University of Agriculture, P.M.B. 2240, Abeokuta, Nigeria.

E-mail: niyiafo@yahoo.com Telephone: +234 803 5718 657

Received 07 February 2019; accepted 26 April 2019, published online 12 May 2019

Abstract

The synthesis of biodegradable superabsorbent hydrogel from native and carboxymethylated cassava
starch was carried out. The native starch isolated from cassava was chemically modified by
carboxymethylation, and used in the production of the superabsorbent hydrogel. The FTIR spectra
confirmed the presence of the carboxymethylated group on the modified cassava starch granule, while the
X-ray diffractogram revealed the loss of crystallinity after the carboxymethylation of the starch. The DSC
study showed that the gelatinisation temperatures and enthalpy of gelatinization (∆Hgel) of the starch was
reduced after carboxymethylation. The superabsorbent hydrogel produced from the native and
carboxymetylated cassava starch absorbed water and saline more than 100 times their dry weight, with the
carboxymethylated starch – hydrogel having higher water absorbing power. The hydrogels also have good
biodegradability, since about 70% of it was biologically degraded within 14 days. The physicochemical
properties of the superabsorbent hydrogel produced from native and carboxymetylated cassava starch was
at par with that of the commercial ‘synthetic’ hydrogel, while its biodegradability was better than the
commercial hydrogel.

Keywords: biodegradable, carboxymethylation, cassava, starch, superabsorbent hydrogel

Introduction applications [7]. The food and agricultural

Hydrogels are hydrophilic, three dimensional
polymer with cross-linked networks, capable of
absorbing large amounts of water or saline
solution. Hydrogels produced by simple reaction
of one or more monomers, are able to swell
rapidly and retains large volumes of water in its
swollen three-dimensional structure without
dissolution. It can absorb water, more than
thousand times its original weight and the
swelled composite can retain the liquid even
under some pressure [1]. Hydrogels can be
formulated in a variety of physical forms such as
films, gels, slabs, coatings, microparticles,
nanoparticles, etc [2].
Due to their unique characteristics compared
with traditional water absorbing materials,
hydrogels, found wide applications in medicine -
for diagnostic, barrier materials, or cellular
immobilization [3,4] drug delivery [5,6], and a
wide range of commercial biomedical
industry used hydrogels for delivery and
packaging [8 – 11]. Hydrogels also find wide
applications in hygiene products such as sanitary
napkins, disposable diapers, etc [7]. The bulk of
the superabsorbent hydrogel of commercial
importance are used in disposable materials [10].
Hydrogels can be classified based on source as
natural or synthetic polymers [1]. Most of the
‘traditional’ superabsorbent hydrogel
synthesized from synthetic polymers
(polyacrylamide, polysodium acrylate, etc)
exhibit poor biodegradability which limit their
applications, as a result of the environmental
hazards associated with its disposals [7].
Consequently, the developments of eco-friendly
‘green’ superabsorbent hydrogels with
biodegradability properties are gradually gaining
wide acceptance. Natural biopolymers, such as
starch [12], chitin [13], cellulose [14], chitosan
[15], chitosan and alginate [16, 17], gum [18],
gelatin [19], etc., have shown good potential as
 J. Chem Soc. Nigeria, Vol. 44, No. 3, pp 433 -452 [2019]
possible substitutes for the traditional fossil–fuel
based superabsorbent hydrogels. The application
of these low cost, renewable and biodegradable
polysaccharides for superabsorbent hydrogels
production offered a cheaper and
environmentally friendly product. Starch, a non-
toxic, biodegradable, biocompatible and
abundant polysaccharide is one of the potentially
viable alternatives to synthetic polymeric
materials in the superabsorbent hydrogels
production.
Starch is next to cellulose in abundance as a
naturally occurring polysaccharide. Starch found
wide applications in the food, pharmaceutical,
textile, adhesive, biodegradable, and cosmetic
industries. The main disadvantage of starch is its
easy solubility in water and low thermal
degradation which limits its ability to form a
stable hydrogel. To overcome these limitations,
native starch can be modified chemically or
physically to enhanced its liquid absorbing
power when used in hydrogel production.
Research has shown that chemical and physical
modifications have considerable effect on the
physicochemical properties of the starches most
especially its swelling and solubility power [20].
Liu and co-workers [12] synthesised
thermoresponsive poly (2-(2-methoxyethoxy)
ethylmethacrylate) hydrogels with starch-based
nanospheres as cross-linkers, with excellent
properties. Another group of researchers [21]
prepared hydrogels with hydroxyethyl starch
using freeze–thawing method. The synthesis of
superabsorbent hydrogel based on sodium starch
Materials and Methods
Materials
Fresh cassava tuber was harvested from an
experimental plot at the Federal University of
Agriculture, Abeokuta, Nigeria.
Dimethylsulphoxide, dimethylaminopyridine,
succinic anhydride, and sodium hydroxide were
purchased from Aldrich, USA. All reagents used
were of analytical grade.
Isolation and carboxymethlation of cassava
starch.
The cassava starch was isolated from its tuber as
shown in Fig 1. The carboxymethylation of the
sulfate was also carried out [22]. El-Rehim [23]
also synthesized eco-friendly starch based
hydrogel for use in the cement industry. Graft
copolymerisation of starch [24] was also used to
produce hydrogels with special characteristic.
Witono and co-worker [25] prepared
superabsorbent hydrogel with promising water
absorption capacity using cassava starch grafted
with polyacrylic acid, while another group of
researchers [26] synthesised hydrogel using
carbocabxymethylated cassava starch
crosslinked with di – or polyfunctional
carboxylic acids with high swelling properties.
However, most hydrogels prepared from starch
are on corn, wheat, potato, rice starch, few
reports are available on the use of cassava
starch.
The objective of this research is to synthesized
superabsorbent hydrogel using cassava starch.
Cassava was used because it’s renewable,
readily available and relatively cheap in Nigeria,
the largest producer of cassava in the world [27].
The native cassava starch was chemically
modified by carboxymethylation to enhance its
physicochemical properties. The
physicochemical properties of the starch and
hydrogels were determined. The
biodegradability of the hydrogels and its water
and saline retention capacity (for use in sanitary
pads) was studied and compared with that of the
commercial hydrogel made from synthetic
polymers. It is hoped that the development of a
viable industrial product from cassava will
increase its economic potentials.
native cassava starch, the determination of its
degree of substitution and reaction efficiency,
was carried out following the procedure of
Afolabi [20]. (The starch yield of the native
cassava starch from its tubers was 71.50% (on
dry basis). The degree of substitution of the
carboxymethyl cassava starch was 0.71 with
reaction efficiency of 65.70%).
Synthesis of the superabsorbent hydrogels
from starch
1g of the starch was dissolved in 99g of
dimethylsulphoxide, and 2.38g of 4-
dimethylaminopyridine was added to the
mixture in an Erlenmeyer flask, with constant
 J. Chem Soc. Nigeria, Vol. 44, No. 3, pp 433 -452 [2019]
stirring for 24 h at room temperature. After
complete dissolution, 1.86g of succinic
anhydride was added to the solution with
continuous stirring for another 24 h. The mixture
was dialysed by the use of seamless cellulose
tube against deionized water at room
temperature for 7 days. During the dialysis, the
reaction product gradually separated as a gel,
followed by neutralization with aqueous NaOH
solution. The product was precipitated in 500ml
of methanol, and filtered. The solid product was
dried under reduced pressure, blended and
finally screened through a 16-mesh sieve.
Degree of substitution of the hydrogel
The degree of substitution (DS) of the hydrogel
was determined by titration method. All the ester
linkage was saponified by NaOH, and the
Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC)
The thermal properties of the starch were studied
with the aid of a differential scanning
calorimeter (DSC – Mettler TA 4000,
Switzerland). 12μl of distilled water was added
to 3.00mg of starch in the DSC pans. The pan
was sealed, reweighed, and allowed to stand for
3h at room temperature before the DSC analysis.
This is to allow the sample to have an even
distribution of water. The scanning temperature
range was 30 – 140oC, while the heating rates
was 10oC/min, an empty aluminum pan was
used as the reference. The transition
temperatures reported are the onset (To), peak
(Tp), and conclusion (Tc). The enthalpy of
gelatinisation (ΔH) was estimated by integrating
amount of remaining excess NaOH was
determined by titration with HCl [28].
Fourier Transform Infra-red spectroscopy
(FTIR)
FTIR spectroscopic analysis of the native and
modified starch sample was carried out as
follows: the sample was ground using a Mikro-
Dismembrator (2000 rpm for 3 min; Satorius
Biotech Inc., Bohemia, NY, USA). The fine
powder sample was then mixed with dry KBr in
a sample to KBr ratio of 1:100, and mixing was
performed in a vibratory ball mill capsule for 5
min. The ground mixture was transferred to a
Specadie to produce an 8.5 mm diameter film
that was analysed in the beam of the FT-IR
spectrophotometer (Horiba FT-IR).
the area between the thermogram and a base line
under the peak and was expressed in terms of
Joules per gram of dry starch.
Wide angle X-ray Diffraction
X-ray diffractograms of starch powders were
obtained with a Rigaku D-Max- 2200 X-ray
diffractometer (Rigaku Denki Co. Tokyo,
Japan). The scanning region of the diffraction
angle was from 3 to 40o, with target voltage 40
kV, target current, 100mA, aging time 5 min,
and radiation wavelength of 0.1542nm. The
degree of crystallinity was quantitatively
determined as using the methods of Nara &
Komiya [29].
 J. Chem Soc. Nigeria, Vol. 44, No. 3, pp 433 -452 [2019]

Cassava (fresh roots)

PEELS (‘waste’)
Peeling

Water

Washing

Water

Mechanical grating

Water
‘WASTE’
Sieving Pulp ( 5 – 7 %)
HCN (< 0.0001%)

Water

‘WASTE’
Sedimentation Solids (0.2%)
HCN (0.03 – 0.05%)

Starch residue

Drying

STARCH

Fig 1: Schematic diagram for isolation of cassava starch

 J. Chem Soc. Nigeria, Vol. 44, No. 3, pp 433 -452 [2019]
Granule Morphology
Granule morphology of the starch was studied
by scanning electron microscopy (SEM).
Samples were sputter-coated with Au/Pd using a
vacuum evaporator (Edwards, Milano, Italy) and
examined using a scanning electron microscope
(model 500, Philips, Eindhoven, The
Netherlands) at 10 KV accelerating voltage
using the secondary electron technique.
Absorbency
The water absorbency of the hydrogels was
carried out using the teabag method (Japanese
Industrial Standard, JIS K 7223) as follows: A
200 X 100 mm nylon teabag was prepared by
heat sealing, the blank tea bag was dipped in
liquid, drained, and then weighed (Wb). 0.2g
(Wh) of the hydrogel sample was placed into a
teabag, and the bag was dipped in an excess
amount of water or saline solution (0.9% and
3.5% NaCl solution) for specified time. The
excess solution was removed by hanging the bag
for 5 min (until no liquid is dropped off) before
the teabag was weighed (Wt). The water
absorbency was calculated using equation 1.
This procedure was also repeated for saline
solution (0.9% NaCl and 3.5% NaCl).
Absorbency = (Wt – Wb – Wh)/Wh
[Equation 1]
Biodegradability
The biodegradability of the superabsorbent
hydrogel was measured at 25oC for 14 days
(Japanese Industrial Standard, JIS K 6960) by
placing it in an activated sludge. The
biodegradability was evaluated by monitoring
the biological oxygen demand (BOD) with the
aid of an OM3001 coulometer (Ohkura Electric
Co., Ltd., Japan) which detected the oxygen gas
consumption.
Statistical analysis
All determinations were done in triplicate, and
the results were then averaged. Data were
assessed by General Linearized Model (GLM)
of Statistical Analysis System (SAS) to generate
analysis of variance (ANOVA), means, standard
error, and range. Correlation and regression
analysis were also performed using procedure
for correlation (Proc Corr) and procedure for
regression (Proc Reg), procedures of SAS [30,
31]
Results and Discussion
Fourier transforms infrared spectroscopy
(FTIR)
The infra-red spectra of the native and
carboxymethylated cassava starch are presented
in Fig 2. In the native cassava starch (NCS), the
absorbencies at 2934.16cm-1 was attributed to
the methylene C-H asymmetrical stretch, while
that of 1456.96cm-1 was attributed to the methyl
C-H asymmetrical bend. Also the band at
996.05cm-1 is indicative of the vinyl C-H out of
plane bend. Since the major structure of a starch
is the hydrogen bonded hydroxyl groups, most
of the frequencies observed in the NCS are
indicative of the hydrogen-bonded hydroxyl
group of the starch.
After carboxymethylation of the starch, the new
peaks observed at 1094.4 cm-1 was attributed to
the C-O-C alkyl substituted ether, while the
858.17 cm-1 is attributed to the carbonate ions
present in the modified starch. Also the peaks at
1601.59 and 1425.14 cm-1 were indicative of the
presence of carboxylate (carboxylic acid salt) in
the carboxymethyl cassava starch (CCS) starch.
This confirms the presence of the
carboxylmethyl group on the starch structures.
The carboxymethyl cassava starch synthesized
by the reaction between the starch and
(sodium)monochloroacetic acid in the presence
of NaOH product will be:
 J. Chem Soc. Nigeria, Vol. 44, No. 3, pp 433 -452 [2019]

OH OR
OH
O + O
Cl
HO RO
O
HO O RO O

ONa
R = H or O
O
Carboxylmethyl starch
(starch glycolate)

[Equation 2]

There is a possibility of a side reaction taken glycolate (at the expense of starch

place from the reaction of NaOH with the glycolate).

monocholoroacetic acid producing sodium

 J. Chem Soc. Nigeria, Vol. 44, No. 3, pp 433 -452 [2019]

1425.14cm-1
858.17cm-1

CCS

NCS

1601.59cm-1

1094.40cm-1 1456.96 cm-1 2934.16 cm-1

996.05cm-1

0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500

Wavenumber (cm-1)

Fig 2: The Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy spectra of native (NCS) and
carboxymethlated (CCS) cassava starch.

Thermal properties chains after the carboxymethylation of the starch

The thermal property of the native and
carboxymethylated cassava starch was studied
with the aid of Differential Scanning
Calorimeter – DSC (Table 1). There was
significant reduction in the onset and peak
temperatures after carboxymethylation of the
native cassava starch. The decreased in the
melting temperatures (To, Tp, Tc) after
carboxymethylation of the starch, maybe an
indication of the presence of short amylopectin
[32]. Incorporation of the carboxylmethyl group
into the starch structure probably leads to the
breakdown of the α-1,6- glycosidic bond of the
amylopectin, with concomitant effect on the
amylose to amylopectin ratio. The increase in
the amylose content of the starch after
carboxymethylation of the cassava starch, leads
to loss of crystallinity in the carboxymethyl
starch as evidenced in the X-ray diffractogram
of the starch.
 J. Chem Soc. Nigeria, Vol. 44, No. 3, pp 433 -452 [2019]

Table 1: The thermal properties of the native (NCS) and carboxymethylated (CCS)
cassava starch measured with DSC.
1 2
SAMPLE TEMPERATURES ∆Tgel ∆Hgel

ONSET PEAK CONCLUSION (oC) (J/g)

To (oC) Tp (oC) Tc (oC)

NCS 59.15±0.04b 95.16±0.06b 150.65 ± 0.35b 91.50±0.04b 27.95±0.02b

CCS 49.22±0.01a 93.38±0.02a 132.59± 0.47a 83.37±0.07a 27.63±0.01a

Mean values of triplicate determinations ± standard error. Values in the same column with same
superscript are not significantly different (P < 0.05).

1
∆Tgel = Change in gelatinization temperature (Tp – To).
2
∆Hgel = Enthalpy of gelatinization.

Starch crystallinity crystallinity of the carboxymethylated starch.

The X-ray diffractogram of the native and
carboxymethylated cassava starch is presented in
Fig 3. The native cassava starch exhibits Type
‘C’ crystallinity pattern with strong peaks at
3.86Å and 5.10A; medium peak at 5.89 Å and
weak peaks at 7.97 Å. The degree of
crystallinity of the native cassava starch was
34.45%, with pronounced reduction in the
Loss of crystallinity as a result of
carboxymethylation of starch has been reported
for bambara groundnut [20], jack fruit starch
[33], kudzu root [34], cocoyam and water yam
[35], and mung bean [36]. The loss in
crystallinity of the starch after
carboxymetylation is an indication of the
concomitant increase in the amorphous region of
the starch relative to the amylopectin.
 J. Chem Soc. Nigeria, Vol. 44, No. 3, pp 433 -452 [2019]

5.10Å

5.89Å 3.86Å

3.43Å
7.97Å

NCS
CCS

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

Diffraction angle (2θ)

Fig 3: X-ray diffractogram of native (NCS) and carboxymethyl (CCS) cassava starch.

Granule morphology granules appears dishevelled, with flat

The starch’s granule size and shape was
studied with the aid of Scanning Electron
Micrograph (SEM), the result is presented in
Fig 4. The native cassava starch (NCS)
have smooth, round, irregularly shaped ball-
like granules with axes of 7 - 10μm. The
carboxylmethylated cassava starches (CCS)
wrinkled surfaces. Some granules had been
ruptured as a result of the
carboxymethylation of the cassava starch.
Incorporation of the carboxylmethyl group
into the starch structures leads to the
granules disorganisation and rupture of the
starch granular structures [20, 26, 35].
 J. Chem Soc. Nigeria, Vol. 44, No. 3, pp 433 -452 [2019]

NCS (500X)
CCS (500X)

NCS (1000X) CCS (1000X)

Fig 4: The scanning electron micrograph of native (NCS) and carboxylmethylated (CCS) cassava starch
at 500X and 1000X magnifications.
 J. Chem Soc. Nigeria, Vol. 44, No. 3, pp 433 -452 [2019]
Absorbency
The superabsorbent hydrogel produced from
the native and carboxymethylated cassava
starch, along with a commercial
superabsorbent hydrogel – AQUA®
(Sumitomo Seika Company Ltd, Japan)
were subjected to absorbency test in water
and saline solutions (0.9% and 3.5%), the
results are presented in Fig 5 – 7. The
swelling of hydrogel is dependent on the
.
OH
O O
O
O +
HO
HO O Succinic
anhydride
R = H or
After 1 hour in distilled water solution, AQUA
had the highest water absorbency power (312.6
g/g), however, the absorbency power of AQUA
significantly reduced by more than half (Fig 5)
in the second hour, with pronounced drop in the
retention power after 3 hour, and couldn’t retain
the water by the end of 48 hour test. The native
and carboxymethylated cassava starch based
hydrogel have higher absorbing and retention
power than the commercial hydrogel (AQUA).
Unlike the commercial hydrogel –AQUA, the
native and carboxymetyl cassava starch-based
hydrogel can retain the water absorbed for over
ability of the solvent (water, saline, etc) to
continuously overcome the osmotic pressure
inside the absorbent [10]. The reaction
between the starch and succinic anhydride in
the hydrogel preparation (Equation 4) leads
to the introduction of hydrophilic groups
(COO-, CHO, OH, etc) on the hydrogel.
This strengthen the osmotic difference of the
hydrogel (due to electrostatic repulsion
enhancement), with consequential increase
in the absorbent powers of the hydrogels
OR
O
RO
RO O
O
O-H(Na)
O
O
Starch succinate
(starch-ester carboxylate)
[Equation 4]
48 hour, with concomitant increase in its
absorption power.
The absorbency power of the hydrogels was
significantly different in 0.9% saline solution
(Fig 6). The absorbing power of the
carboxymethyl cassava starch-based hydrogel
was slightly lower than that of its native starch
between 0 – 3 hour, however, the value was at
par after 24 hour. The commercial hydrogel
(AQUA) absorbing power in 0.9% was about
80% lower than that observed in water, but with
higher retention power since it could retain
about 90% of the solvent after 48 hr. This is an
indication that the carboxylmethyl cassava
 J. Chem Soc. Nigeria, Vol. 44, No. 3, pp 433 -452 [2019]

starch-based hydrogel have high water absorbing hydrogel was higher than that of the
power and high retention power over a carboxymethyl cassava starch. AQUA
prolonged period of time in the 0.9% saline absorption was almost constant in the first 3 hr
solution. of the test, and it retained more than 80% of
solvent for 48hrs.
In 3.5% saline solutions (Fig 7), the absorbing
power of the native cassava starch based
 J. Chem Soc. Nigeria, Vol. 44, No. 3, pp 433 -452 [2019]

400
Solvent: Water

350

300
Absorbency (g/g)

250
h-NCS

200

150
h-CCS
100

50

AQUA
0
1hr 2hr 3hr 24hr 48hr
Absorption time (hour)

Fig 5: The absorbency power (g/g) of the AQUA, native (h-NCS) and carboxymethylated
(h-CCS) cassava starch based hydrogels in water solution (bar represents standard error).
 J. Chem Soc. Nigeria, Vol. 44, No. 3, pp 433 -452 [2019]

Solvent: Saline solution (0.9% NaCl)

90.00

80.00
CCS

70.00 NCS
Absorbency (g/g)

60.00

50.00

AQUA
40.00

30.00

20.00

10.00

0.00
1hr 2hr 3hr 24hr 48hr

Absorption time (hour)

Fig 6: The absorbency power (g/g) of the AQUA, native (h-NCS) and
carboxymethylated (h-CCS) cassava starch based hydrogels in 0.9% saline
solution (bar represents standard error).
 J. Chem Soc. Nigeria, Vol. 44, No. 3, pp 433 -452 [2019]

SOLVENT: Saline solution [3.5% NaCl ]

120.00

100.00

NCS
80.00
Absorbency (g/g)

60.00
CCS

40.00

AQUA

20.00

0.00
1hr 2hr 3hr 24hr 48hr
Absorption time (hour)

Fig 7: The absorbency power (g/g) of the AQUA, native (h-NCS) and carboxymethylated (h-
CCS) cassava starch based hydrogels in 3.5% saline solution (bar represents standard
error).
 J. Chem Soc. Nigeria, Vol. 44, No. 3, pp 433 -452 [2019]
Biodegradability
Biodegradability test which is a measure of
the biological oxygen demand (BOD) is
done to ascertain the samples potential to
biodegrade in the environments. The
biodegradability test of the starch-based
superabsorbent hydrogel, AQUA, and
cellulose is presented in Fig 8. Cellulose was
used as a standard since it would completely
biodegrade and its rate of biodegradtion was
used to compare the rate of biodegradation
of other hydrogels. Carboxymetylated
cassava starch-based hydrogel had better
biodegradation than its native starch, and its
rate of biodegradation is comparable with
that of cellulose. AQUA on the other hand
did not biodegrade within the 14 days test
period. This observation is understandable
since AQUA was developed from synthetic
fossil-fuel based chemicals that are non-
biodegradable. The high biodegradability of
the carboxymethylated cassava starch was
probably due to the incorporation of the
carboxylmethyl group into the starch
structure which leads to rupture of some of
the starch granules as shown in the Scanning
electron micrograph of the starch.
 J. Chem Soc. Nigeria, Vol. 44, No. 3, pp 433 -452 [2019]

100.000

90.000 Cellulose

80.000

70.000

60.000 h-CCS
Biodegradability (%)

50.000

h-NCS
40.000

30.000

20.000

10.000
AQUA
0.000
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
(10.000)
Time (days)

Fig 8: The biodegradability of the cellulose, AQUA, native (h-NCC) and carboxylmethlated
cassava starch (h-CCS) based superabsorbent hydrogels.

Conclusion biodegradable superabsorbent from native and

The development of superabsorbent hydrogel
from native and carboxylmethylated cassava
starch, revealed the potential of the starch based
superabsorbent hydrogel as a possible
replacement for the synthetic non-biodegradable
hydrogels. The carboxylmethylated cassava
starch based hydrogel had good biodegradability
properties and high water and saline absorbing
power and can retain the solvent for about 48
hours, making it a suitable choice material in
production of sanitary napkins and disposable
diapers. Since the bulk of the superabsorbent
hydrogels are applied in ‘one-use’ disposable
articles, the production of eco-friendly, cheaper,
carboxylmethlated cassava starch becomes
expedient. This will militate against the
environmental hazards associated with the non-
biodegradable fossil-fuel based superabsorbent
hydrogels currently available in the markets.
Acknowledgement
The author acknowledge the support of Prof
Toshio Yoshimura (Faculty of Human
Environmental Science, Fukuoka Women’s
University, Fukuoka 813-8529, Japan) for the
provision of laboratory space. This research was
sponsored by the Matsumae International
Foundation, Tokyo, Japan.
 J. Chem Soc. Nigeria, Vol. 44, No. 3, pp 433 -452 [2019]

Conflict of interest [8] S. Mun, Y. Kim, M. Shin, D.J. McClements.

Control of lipid digestion and
There is no known conflict of interest or nutraceutical bioaccessibility using
whatsoever in this research or with any of the starch-based filled hydrogels: Influence
researchers. of starch and surfactant type. Food
Hydrocol. 2015, 44, 380 – 389.
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