Temperature Measurement

00826-0100-0004, 07/09
Process Control Fundamentals
Module 4
Temperature Measurement
Emerson Process Management - Rosemount Measurment, 2009. All Rights Reserved. Printed in U.S.A.
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Measurement does not guarantee satisfactory results from reliance upon such information. Nothing contained herein is to be
construed as a warranty or guarantee, expressed or implied, regarding the performance, merchantability, fitness or any other matter
with respect to the products, nor as a recommendation to use any product or process in conflict with any patent. Emerson Process
Management - Rosemount Measurement reserves the right, without notice, to alter or improve the designs or specifications of the
products described herein. The training material contained in this manual was developed by Emerson Process Management -
Rosemount Measurement for their exclusive use. This manual and the material contained herein may not be copied, reproduced,
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Emerson Process Management - Rosemount Measurment.
© July 2009
Table of Contents
Introduction..................................................................................................................................................... 5
Why Measure Temperature? .......................................................................................................................... 7
Why Measure Temperature?............................................................................................................................ 8
Product Quality and Yield ........................................................................................................................ 8
Efficiency .................................................................................................................................................. 8
Safety......................................................................................................................................................... 8
Monitoring ................................................................................................................................................ 8
Custody Transfer ...................................................................................................................................... 9
Temperature Measurement Scales ............................................................................................................... 11
Temperature Measurement Scales................................................................................................................. 12
Fahrenheit Scale..................................................................................................................................... 13
Celsius Scale........................................................................................................................................... 13
Absolute Scales ....................................................................................................................................... 14
Kelvin Scale ..................................................................................................................................... 14
Rankine Scale .................................................................................................................................. 14
Equation for converting between Kelvin and Rankine .................................................................... 14
Temperature Sensors .................................................................................................................................... 15
Common Construction Characteristics ......................................................................................................... 16
Sensing Element...................................................................................................................................... 16
Sensor Sheath.......................................................................................................................................... 16
Lead Wires .............................................................................................................................................. 17
Threaded Adaptor................................................................................................................................... 18
DIN Plate Sensor - RTD ......................................................................................................................... 18
Resistance Temperature Detectors ................................................................................................................ 19
RTD Sensing Element Materials............................................................................................................. 19
Platinum .......................................................................................................................................... 19
Copper ............................................................................................................................................. 19
Nickel............................................................................................................................................... 20
RTD Sensing Element Design................................................................................................................. 21
Wire-wound RTD Sensing Elements................................................................................................ 21
Thin-Film RTD Sensing Elements ................................................................................................... 22
RTD Sensing Element Resistance Measurement .................................................................................... 23
Two-Wire RTDs ............................................................................................................................... 23
Three-Wire RTDs............................................................................................................................. 24
Four-Wire RTDs.............................................................................................................................. 25
Converting Resistance to Temperature .................................................................................................. 25
The IEC 751 Standard ..................................................................................................................... 25
Using the Callendar-Van Dusen Equation...................................................................................... 28
Thermocouples (T/C) ..................................................................................................................................... 30
Thermocouple Types............................................................................................................................... 30
Creating a Hot Junction ......................................................................................................................... 32
Hot Junction Configurations ........................................................................................................... 33
Voltage Measurement and the Seebeck Effect ........................................................................................ 34
Cold Junction Compensation .......................................................................................................... 34
Extension Wire........................................................................................................................................ 35
Temperature Measurement Page 3

© 2009 Rosemount Inc.
Table of Contents
Temperature Sensor Comparison .................................................................................................................. 37
Why Use an RTD Rather Than a T/C? ................................................................................................... 37
Why Use a T/C Rather Than an RTD? ................................................................................................... 38
Thermowells .................................................................................................................................................. 39
Thermowell Design and Selection ................................................................................................................. 40
Materials................................................................................................................................................. 40
Mounting Methods .................................................................................................................................. 42
Threaded.......................................................................................................................................... 42
Welded ............................................................................................................................................. 42
Flanged............................................................................................................................................ 42
Stem Designs........................................................................................................................................... 43
Thermowell Performance .............................................................................................................................. 44
Thermowell Failure ................................................................................................................................ 44
Preventing Thermowell Failure ...................................................................................................... 44
Temperature Point Response Time......................................................................................................... 45
Thermowell Design.......................................................................................................................... 45
Tip Thickness and Diameter............................................................................................................ 46
Sensor Sheath Fill............................................................................................................................ 46
Transmitting the Temperature Sensor Signal ............................................................................................. 47
Transmitters ................................................................................................................................................... 48
Why Use a Temperature Transmitter? ................................................................................................... 48
What Does a Transmitter Do?................................................................................................................ 49
Transmitter Mounting Styles .................................................................................................................. 49
Field-Mount Transmitters ............................................................................................................... 50
Head-Mount Transmitters ............................................................................................................... 50
Rail-Mount Transmitters ................................................................................................................. 52
Rack-Mount Transmitters................................................................................................................ 52
Wiring Direct ................................................................................................................................................. 53
Input/Output Cards ........................................................................................................................................ 54
Transmitters and Input Cards................................................................................................................. 55
Wiring Direct and I/O Cards.................................................................................................................. 55
Workbook Exercises....................................................................................................................................... 57
Workbook Answers ........................................................................................................................................ 66
Page 4 Temperature Measurement

Introduction
Introduction
Temperature is a measure of a material’s internal molecular activity. As the level of molecular activity
rises, the temperature of a substance increases. Hot and cold are subjective, qualitative descriptions of
the rise in molecular activity. The need for more consistent and accurate ways to describe temperature
led to the invention of temperature-measuring devices, or sensors.
Sensors use standard, universally recognized temperature scales. Because these scales rely on fixed
points in nature (e.g., freezing point of water), they provide a way to describe temperature that is both
objective and quantitative. The principles of the four universally-recognized temperature measurement
scales and their relationships to one another are presented in this module.
Many types of sensors are available for applications both in the home and in industry. Two commonly
used types are discussed in this module: resistance temperature detectors (RTDs) and thermocouples
(T/Cs). You will learn about the principles on which RTDs and T/Cs operate and how they are
constructed. You will also learn about additional apparatus needed to protect sensors and to transmit
their signals to process control systems.
The following five sections are included in this module:
T Why Measure Temperature?
T Temperature Measurement Scales
T Temperature Sensors
T Thermowells
T Transmitting the Temperature Sensor Signal
PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVE
After you have completed this module, you will understand and be able to explain the basis upon
which temperature products are differentiated in the process measurement industry.

Why Measure Temperature?

LEARNING OBJECTIVE
After you have completed this section, you will be able to:
T List and briefly explain the four most common reasons for measuring temperature:
• Product quality and yield
• Efficiency
• Safety
• Custody transfer


Activities
PRODUCT QUALITY AND YIELD
Many chemical reactions can only create the desired products
under specific conditions, which often requires a specific
temperature. Even a few degrees of variation from the
optimum temperature often results in very little production of
the desired product—instead, waste product is created. To
ensure a quality product, accurate temperature measurement
and precise control are necessary. Effective separation of
products in a distillation column relies upon precise
temperature control, as do catalytic cracking processes.
EFFICIENCY
Accurate temperature measurements increase process 1. List three valid reasons for
efficiency. For example, consider an air conditioning supplier measuring temperature in
that services several large facilities. An accurate measurement process industries.
of energy expenditure determines customer billings. The
supplier measures the amount of cooling provided by
comparing the temperature of the hot air coming into the air
conditioner to the temperature of the cooler air given off by the
air conditioner. If one or both of these temperatures is
inaccurately measured, the supplier may expend more energy
than is necessary to cool the air and thus overcharge customers.
Accurate temperature measurements prevent the supplier from
overcooling the air, which saves energy and increases
efficiency.
SAFETY
Accurate temperature measurements help to ensure safety in
process industry environments. Temperatures can increase
rapidly in exothermic (giving off heat) chemical reactions—if
the temperatures are not closely watched and controlled,
explosions could result.
MONITORING
A temperature measurement point may be required, but it is not
critical to the plant operation.
safety
greater process efficiency, assurance of
Improved product quality and yield, 1.


CUSTODY TRANSFER Activities
Often, the amount of material that is bought and sold (referred
to as custody transfer) is based on a measurement of the
volumetric flow rate of gas. The amount of material contained
in a specific volume of gas decreases with rising temperatures
and increases with falling temperatures. Therefore, it is
extremely important to know the exact temperature of the gas
when determining volumetric flow rate. Inaccurate temperature
measurements during custody transfer applications result in
over- or undercharging of customers. This can directly impact a
customer’s financial performance. A natural gas custody
transfer application is one example of when temperature
measurements are required.
COMPLETE WORKBOOK EXERCISE 4.1 ON PAGE 57

Temperature Measurement Scales

Temperature measurement scales provide an accurate, consistent, and universally understood way to
measure temperature.
LEARNING OBJECTIVE
T List and briefly explain the three types of temperature scales:
• Fahrenheit
• Celsius
• Absolute (Kelvin and Rankine)


The three temperature measurement scales in use today are: Activities
T Fahrenheit
T Celsius (also called Centigrade)
T Absolute (Kelvin and Rankine)
Three features are common to the development of these scales, 1. List the three temperature
even though the scales were developed at different times and measurement scales in use
by different people: today.
T Two or more fixed points are chosen and assigned to a
specific temperature on the scale. For example, the
freezing point of water is used as a fixed point for both
Celsius (0 °C) and Fahrenheit (32 °F) scales.
T Each fixed point is associated with an observable or 2. List two of the three features
measurable phenomenon—usually a physical property that temperature measurement
that changes predictably at the fixed point (e.g., the points scales have in common.
at which water boils or freezes).
T A standard method is used to establish numerical values
for measurements that fall between the fixed points.
Figure 4.1 shows where the boiling and freezing points of
water (fixed points) fall on each of the four temperature scales.
Water 212° 100° 671° 373°

373
Boils
Based
Based on
on
Absolute
Absolute Zero
Zero
Water 32° 0° 491° 273°

273
Freezes
Fahrenheit Celsius Rankine Kelvin
Figure 4.1: Temperature Measurement Scale Comparison
fixed points
numerical values that fall between the
a standard method is used to establish
observable or measurable phenomenon;
each fixed point is associated with an
correspond to a specific temperature;
Two or more fixed points that 2.
Fahrenheit; Celsius; absolute 1.


FAHRENHEIT SCALE Activities
Gabriel Fahrenheit is credited with creating the first 3. Water boils at how many
universally recognized temperature scale. The scale originally degrees Fahrenheit?
used three fixed points:
T Temperature of a mixture of ice water and salt (assigned
0°)
T Temperature of ice water (assigned 30°)
T Body temperature of a healthy person (assigned 98.6°)
On this scale, Fahrenheit measured the boiling point of water to

be 212°. He later adjusted the freezing point of water to
32° so that the interval between the boiling and freezing points
of water could be represented by the more rational number 180.
Temperatures measured on this scale are given in degrees
Fahrenheit (°F).
To convert a temperature from Fahrenheit to Celsius, use the
following equation:
5
°C = ( °F – 32 ) ---
9
CELSIUS SCALE
The Celsius scale, also known as the Centigrade scale, was 4. How many degrees separate the
devised by Anders Celsius. On the original scale, the freezing two fixed points of the Celsius
point of water was 100° and the boiling point of water was 0°. scale?
Several years later, the two points were reversed. Today, 100°
designates the boiling point of water, and 0° designates the
freezing point of water. Temperatures measured on this scale
are given in degrees Celsius (°C).
To convert a temperature from Celsius to Fahrenheit, use the
following equation:
°F = 1.8 * °C + 32
100 4.
212 3.


ABSOLUTE SCALES Activities
The search for more consistency and accuracy than the 5. Define absolute zero.
Fahrenheit and Celsius scales provided led to the development
of the Kelvin and Rankine scales, or absolute scales. Absolute
scales are scales that measure temperature relative to absolute
zero. Absolute zero is the lowest possible temperature of
matter, or the temperature at which molecular activity ceases.
Absolute scales are not often used in process industries.
Kelvin Scale 6. Name the two scales based on
absolute zero.
Absolute zero on the Kelvin scale is equal to 0 °K. Increments
on the Kelvin scale are equal to increments on the Celsius
scale—that is, 1 °K = 1 °C.
Rankine Scale
Absolute zero on the Rankine scale is equal to 0 °R.
Increments on the Rankine scale are equal to increments on the
Fahrenheit scale—that is, 1 °R = 1 °F.
Equation for converting between Kelvin and Rankine

Rankine (R) = 1.8 * Kelvin (K)
Kelvin; Rankine 6.
matter
The lowest possible temperature of 5.

Temperature Sensors
Temperature Sensors
In industrial environments, high process temperatures, pressures, and vibration make it necessary to
have a robust temperature sensor. Fast response time, accuracy, and stability are also needed. While
several types of temperature sensors are available, the two most commonly used in the process
measurement industry are resistance temperature detectors (RTDs) and thermocouples (T/Cs).
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
T Describe the general construction and identify the materials of temperature sensors:
• RTD element
• T/C element
T Explain the operation of RTDs and T/Cs and how a temperature measurement is obtained
T Compare RTDs and T/Cs in terms of their overall performance and cost

Temperature Sensors
Common Construction Characteristics

RTDs and T/Cs have several construction characteristics in Activities
common (Figure 4.2):
T Sensing element 1. List four construction elements
T Sensor sheath that RTDs and T/Cs have in
T Lead wires common.
T Threaded adaptor (optional)
Internal Threaded
Sensor Lead Wires Adaptor Fill
Packing
External
Sensing Sensor Lead
Element Sheath Wires
Figure 4.2: Common Temperature Sensor Characteristics
SENSING ELEMENT
The sensing element is located at the tip of the temperature 2. The _________________ is the
sensor on an RTD, while the sensing element on a T/C consists part of a temperature sensor that
of the entire length of the T/C’s wires. The sensing element, responds directly to the process
which is constructed of metal, responds to the process temperature.
temperature by generating a measurable resistance (in RTDs)
or voltage (in T/Cs) signal.
SENSOR SHEATH
The sensor sheath, or cable housing, is constructed of metal 3. True or False? The sensor
and holds most of the component parts of the temperature sheath of a temperature sensor
sensor. Typically magnesium oxide (MgO) sensor packing is packed with Magnesium
(also called a minerally insulated (MI) cable) surrounds the Oxide.
sensing element and is contained within the sensor sheath. The
sensor packing decreases the impact of process vibration on the
sensing element and thus ensures a more accurate
measurement. The end of the sensor sheath is sealed with a fill
(e.g., epoxy) that keeps moisture out of the sheath and away
from the sensing element.
True 3.
Minerally insulated (MI) cable is becoming a standard Sensing element 2.
for temperature sensor construction. wires; threaded adaptor
Sensing element; sensor sheath; lead 1.

Temperature Sensors

LEAD WIRES Activities
Lead wires are attached to the sensing element and then passed 4. Lead wires connect the
through the sensor sheath. The lead wires are insulated before _________________________
exiting the sensor sheath. Lead wires connect the sensing to the____________________
element either directly to a distributed control system (DCS) or or ______________________.
to a temperature transmitter connected to a DCS (see
Transmitters on page 48).
Internal lead wires are the part of the lead wires inside the
sensor sheath. External lead wires are the part of the lead wires
outside the sensor sheath.
transmitter
Sensing element; DCS; temperature 4.

Temperature Sensors

THREADED ADAPTOR Activities
The threaded adaptor is welded over the rear housing of the
sensor sheath. One end of the threaded adaptor threads into a
thermowell or directly into the process piping. The other end is
typically threaded into a temperature transmitter, connection
head, or conduit connection (Figure 4.3).
Threaded Adaptor
Threads into
Thermowell
or Process Threads into
Piping Transmitter,
Connection Head, or
Conduit
Figure 4.3: Threaded Adaptor
DIN PLATE SENSOR - RTD

The DIN mounting plate style is more commonly used in
Europe and Asia Pacific, where integral mounting of
transmitters is the norm. The transmitter is connected directly
to the sensor. It is common practice to withdraw them from the
thermowell to check calibration in the field.
Figure 4.4: DIN Mounting Plate Style

Temperature Sensors
Resistance Temperature Detectors

RTDs operate on the principle that the electrical resistance of a Activities
metal increases as temperature increases, a phenomenon
known as thermoresistivity. A temperature measurement can be
inferred by measuring the resistance of the RTD element.
RTD SENSING ELEMENT MATERIALS 5. Describe the phenomenon of

thermoresistivity.
Thermoresistive characteristics of RTD sensing elements vary
depending on the metal or alloy from which they are made. To
be useful in an RTD element, the metal or alloy must have the
following characteristics:
T A predictable relationship between temperature and 6. List four characteristics that an
resistance RTD element material must
T Relatively high resistance that can be measured easily have in order to be useful.
T Physical strength
T Stability (will not melt or freeze) over the measured
temperature range
T A large, easily measurable change in resistance for a given 7. List the three most common
change in temperature types of resistance metals used
to construct RTDs.
The three types of resistance metals most commonly used to
construct RTDs are platinum, copper, and nickel.
Platinum
Platinum RTD elements are the most common type of RTD 8. The preferred resistance metal
element used in process industries. Platinum elements have used in RTDs in process
high accuracy, high repeatability, and a high resistance change industries is ___________.
per degree of temperature change. In addition, platinum RTD
elements are highly linear throughout their temperature range.
Copper
Copper RTD elements are highly linear throughout their
temperature range, but have limited accuracy and a narrower
temperature range than platinum elements. Copper elements Platinum 8.
are most often used for measuring temperature in bearings and Platinum; copper; nickel 7.
motor windings—applications in which accuracy is not critical. temperature
resistance for a given change in
range; produce a large change in
or freeze over the measured temperature
easily; physically strong; will not melt
high resistance that can be measured
temperature and resistance; relatively
Predictable relationship between 6.
increases
materials increases as temperature
The electrical resistance of certain 5.

Temperature Sensors

Nickel Activities
Nickel RTD elements have a high resistance change per degree
of temperature change but have poor linearity, limited
accuracy, and a relatively narrow temperature range. Nickel
elements are most commonly used in applications in which
accuracy is not critical.
Figure 4.5 compares thermoresistive characteristics for 9. Throughout its temperature
platinum, nickel, and copper RTD elements. (Note the range, the element that is most
platinum element’s wider temperature range and more linear linear is ____________, while
curve). ______________ is the least
linear.
Figure 4.5: Thermoresistive Characteristics of

RTD Elements
Table 4.1 compares resistance temperature characteristics for

platinum, nickel, and copper RTD elements.
Characteristic 100 Ω Platinum 120 Ω Nickel 100 Ω Copper

Useful
temperature –260 to 800 °C –100 to 500 °C –100 to 150 °C
range
Linearity
throughout
Very good Poor Very good
temperature
range
Table 4.1: Thermoresistive Characteristics of RTD Elements
Platinum, nickel 9.

Temperature Sensors

RTD SENSING ELEMENT DESIGN Activities
RTD elements are available in several designs. The two most 10. What are the two most common
common designs are: RTD sensing element designs?
T Wire-wound
T Thin-film
Wire-wound RTD Sensing Elements

Wire-wound RTD sensing elements are constructed by coiling 11. True or False? A dual-element
a platinum (or other resistance metal) wire in or around a sensor can decrease the
ceramic mandrel (spindle). Figure 4.6 shows an externally reliability of the temperature
wound sensing element. measurement.
A dual-element RTD can be created by coiling a second set of
wires inside (internally wound) or outside the ceramic mandrel.
If connected to a second transmitter, a transmitter with
dual-sensor capabilities, or to another DCS card, a
dual-element sensor increases the reliability of the temperature
measurement.
Lead Wires
Mandrel
Resistance Wire
Figure 4.6: Externally Wound RTD Sensing Element

Wire-wound RTD elements are very sturdy and reliable. 12. Is the time response of
Compared to thin-film RTD elements, their accuracy tends to wire-wound RTD elements
be higher, and their time response (how quickly the output faster / slower than that of
reflects the temperature change) is several seconds faster than thin-film element RTDs?
thin-film RTD elements. Wire-wound RTD elements work well
for a wide variety of applications, although they may fail in
high-vibration areas.
12. Faster
11. False
10. Wire-wound, thin-film

Temperature Sensors

Thin-Film RTD Sensing Elements Activities
Thin-film RTD sensing elements (Figure 4.7) are constructed
by depositing a thin film of resistance metal onto a ceramic
substrate (base piece) and trimming the metal to specifications.
Sensing elements of thin-film construction are typically less 13. Elements of thin-film
expensive than those of wire-wound construction because less construction are typically less /
resistance metal is required for construction. more expensive than those of
wire-wound construction
because less / more resistance
Lead Wires metal is required for
construction.
Resistance Metal
Figure 4.7: Thin-Film RTD Element
Wire-wound Wire-wound
Thin-film
(Internally wound) (Externally wound)
Inexpensive due to
Very stable due to
Very vibration efficient
unconstrained
resistant manufacturing
platinum
process
Pros Minimal hysteresis Wider temperature
vs. external wound ranges available
Quick time response
Wider temperature
due to less thermal Small sizes available
ranges available
mass
Less resistant to Susceptible to
Less stable than
vibration than temperature-induced
wire-wound
externally wound strain (hysteresis)
Hysteresis issues at
More expensive than More expensive than
Cons cryogenic
thin-film thin-film
temperatures
Limited temperature
range (between -50°
and 400° C)
Table 4.2: Comparison of Sensing Elements
13. Less; less

Temperature Sensors

RTD SENSING ELEMENT RESISTANCE Activities
MEASUREMENT
To get an accurate temperature reading from an RTD, the
resistance of the RTD sensing element must be measured.
Each copper lead wire that connects the RTD sensing element 14. Describe the lead wire effect.
to the resistance measuring device adds a small amount of
resistance into the measurement. If this added resistance is
ignored, an error is introduced and an inaccurate temperature
measurement results. The error is referred to as a lead wire
effect. The longer the wire run, the greater the error, or lead
wire effect, reflected in the temperature measurement.
To compensate for lead wire effect, three-wire and four-wire 15. Two-wire RTDs can / cannot
RTDs are used instead of two-wire RTDs. Three-wire RTDs compensate for lead wire
are created by soldering one additional copper wire onto one of effects.
the lead wires. Four-wire RTDs are created by soldering one
additional copper lead wire to each of the existing lead wires
(Figure 4.8).
2-wire RTD 3-wire RTD
2 lead wires
3 lead wires
Resistance of Resistance of
RTD element lead wire
4-wire RTD
Resistance
Wire 4 lead wires
Figure 4.8: Two-, Three-, and Four-Wire RTDs
Two-Wire RTDs
Two-wire RTDs do not compensate for lead wire effects.
Resistance of the two lead wires is added into the resistance of
the RTD element, which results in an inaccurate temperature 15. Cannot
reading. the lead wires
measurement due to the resistance of
14. An error introduced into a temperature

Temperature Sensors

Three-Wire RTDs Activities
Three-wire RTDs allow for compensation of lead wire effects.
There are several methods for performing lead wire
compensation and finding the resistance of the RTD element.
One common method uses Ohm’s law (Voltage [V] = Current
[I] × Resistance [R]):
1. A small, known current is sent through LW1 and LW2
(Figure 4.9), and the voltage drop across LW1 and LW2 is
measured. The resulting value is used later in the
calculation.
LW1
Voltage Drop
LW2 Measured (1 → 2)
LW3 Voltage Drop

Measured (1 → 3)
Figure 4.9: Three-Wire RTD Lead Wire Compensation
2. Next, the voltage drop across LW1 and LW3 is measured. 16. _________ law is used in the
The resulting value includes the effects of the lead wires: calculation to compensate for
lead wire effects in a three-wire
Vmeasured 1Æ3 = VRTD element + Vlead wires 1&3 = IRtotal
RTD.
From Ohm’s law, the resistance of the RTD element plus
the lead wires is equal to the measured voltage drop
divided by the known current (R = V/I).
3. To find the voltage of the RTD element alone, the lead
wire voltage of LW1 and LW3 must be subtracted from the
measured voltage across LW1 and LW3. The voltage of
LW1 and LW2 found in Step 1 can be used as a close
approximation to the voltage of LW1 and LW3.
VRTD element = Vmeasured 1 → 3 – Vlead wires 1&2
4. Calculate the resistance of the RTD element using Ohm’s

law. (Some error may still be present since Vlead wires 1&3
will never exactly equal Vlead wires 1&2).
RRTD element = VRTD element ÷ I
Three-wire RTD lead wire compensation is less accurate than

four-wire RTD because of the assumption that the resistance of
LW2 and LW3 is equal. 16. Ohm’s Law

Temperature Sensors

Four-Wire RTDs Activities
Four-wire RTDs provide the best lead wire compensation. The 17. What type of lead wires provide
following steps are used to find the resistance of a four-wire the best lead wire
RTD element: compensation?
1. A small, known current is sent through LW1 and LW4
(Figure 4.10), and the voltage drop is measured across
LW2 and LW3.
LW1
LW2
Voltage Drop
Current = 0 Measured
(2 → 3)
LW3
LW4
Figure 4.10: Four-Wire RTD Lead Wire Compensation
2. Because no current runs along LW2 and LW3, the

measured voltage drop is due only to the RTD element:
RRTD element = Vmeasured ÷ I
CONVERTING RESISTANCE TO TEMPERATURE

Once the resistance measurement is determined, it is converted 18. What are the two methods a
to a temperature measurement. One of two conversion methods temperature transmitter may use
is used by the transmitter: to convert a resistance
T RTD standard (e.g., IEC 751 standard) measurement into a temperature
T Callendar-Van Dusen equation measurement?
The IEC 751 Standard

The IEC 751 standard describes an ideal relationship between
the resistance of a platinum RTD and the temperature to which
the RTD is subjected. For example, at 212 °F (100 °C), the IEC
751 standard shows that an ideal platinum RTD (one that
exactly matches the IEC 751 standard) would have a resistance
value of 138.5 Ω (Figure 4.11).
When a transmitter or control system accepts a resistance
signal from a platinum RTD subjected to 212 °F (100 °C), the
IEC 751 standard curve is used to translate that resistance Dusen equation
signal into a temperature reading. However, since actual RTDs 18. IEC 751 Standard; Callendar-Van
are never ideal, they do not match the resistance versus 17. Four-wire

Temperature Sensors

temperature relationship as described in the IEC 751 standard. Activities
The difference between the actual RTD curve and the ideal
RTD curve results in a measurement error, which is referred to
as a sensor interchangeability error (Figure 4.11).
19. Define sensor
interchangeability error.
Actual RTD
Behavior
194.07Ω
Ideal IEC 751 Curve

Resistance
Sensor
Interchangeability
Error
Temperature
Figure 4.11: Sensor Interchangeability Error
curve
RTD curve and the ideal IEC 751
19. The difference between the actual

Temperature Sensors

The maximum allowable sensor interchangeability error at a Activities
given process temperature is defined by two IEC 751 standard
classifications—Class A and Class B. These classifications are
used to identify platinum RTDs. Figure 4.12 compares these
two classes to the IEC 751 standard ideal.
20. What are the IEC 751 standards
Class A and Class B used to
classify?
Class B Tolerance Area
IEC 751
Curve
Resistance
Class A Tolerance Area
32 °F (0 °C)
Figure 4.12: IEC 751 Ideal versus Class A and B Tolerance
Table 4.3 shows the sensor accuracy requirements for Class A

and Class B RTDs as defined by the IEC 751 standard.
Temperature Class A Class B

–50 °F ±0.43 °F ±0.95 °F
32 °F ±0.27 °F ±0.54 °F
212 °F ±0.63 °F ±1.44 °F
400 °F ±1.06 °F ±2.38 °F
500 °F ±1.21 °F ±2.88 °F
750 °F ±1.71 °F ±4.13 °F
Table 4.3: IEC 751 Standards
Class A RTDs
Class A RTDs are defined as being accurate to the IEC 751
standard ideal ±0.15 °C + (0.002 × T) °C (where T is the
process temperature in °C). Class A RTDs are more expensive
than Class B RTDs.
platinum RTD
process temperature for a given
interchangeability error at a given
20. The maximum allowable sensor

Temperature Sensors

Class B RTDs Activities
Class B RTDs are defined as being accurate to the IEC 751 21. Class A / Class B RTDs are
standard ideal ±0.3 °C + (0.005 × T) °C (where T is the process more accurate, while Class A /
temperature in °C). Class B RTDs, while less accurate than Class B RTDs are most
Class A RTDs, are sufficient for most industry applications. commonly used.
Using the Callendar-Van Dusen Equation

The Callendar-Van Dusen equation offers an alternative to the 22. The __________________ may
IEC 751 standard. The equation, used in Transmitter-Sensor be used as an alternative to the
Matching, can be used to create a curve that approximates an IEC 751 standard to get a
RTD’s resistance-temperature relationship. temperature measurement.
The Callendar-Van Dusen equation is:
3
R t = R o + R o α [ t – δ ( 0.01t – 1 ) ( 0.01t ) – β ( 0.01t – 1 ) ( 0.01t ) ]
Where: 23. When using the Callendar-Van

T t = Temperature in °C Dusen equation, transmitters
T Rt = Resistance of the RTD at t use the actual / ideal RTD
T Ro = Resistance of the RTD at t = 0 °C (a Callendar-Van curve.
Dusen constant)
T α, β, and δ = Callendar-Van Dusen constants
The Callendar-Van Dusen equation can be programmed into a

transmitter so that the transmitter can use the actual RTD curve
rather than an ideal curve (e.g., IEC 751 standard) to translate
the sensor’s resistance signal into a temperature value.
The Callendar-Van Dusen equation provides a significant
improvement in measurement accuracy, even when compared
to Class A RTDs.
The Four Callendar-Van Dusen Constants

Each RTD is associated with four Callendar-Van Dusen 24. Describe the process of
constants specific to that particular RTD. The process of calibrating an RTD.
generating the specific constants for each RTD is referred to as
calibration or characterization. During calibration, an RTD’s
resistance is measured at several temperatures in different
temperature baths.
determined
Callendar-Van Dusen constants are
plotted on a curve from which the four
multiple temperature and the data is
An RTD’s resistance is measured at 24.
Actual 23.
Callendar-Van Dusen equation 22.
Class A; Class B 21.

Temperature Sensors

The data collected are fit to a fourth-order curve, from which Activities
the four Callendar-Van Dusen constants can be determined:
T Ro (ice point resistance)—Resistance output of the RTD at
0 °C (32 °F)
T α—Constant that gives the linear approximation to the
R versus t curve; common values are 0.00385 and
0.00392 Ω/Ω °C
T αRo—Average slope between 0 °C and 100 °C; common
values are 0.385 Ω/°C and 0.392 Ω/°C.
T β—Constant that adjusts for nonideal behavior at <0 °C
temperatures
T δ—Constant that adjusts for nonideal behavior at >0 °C
temperatures
A resistance versus temperature curve can be generated for any
RTD by plugging the RTD’s four constants into the
Callendar-Van Dusen equation. (Figure 4.13).
Rt = Ro + Roα[t-δ(0.01t-1)(0.01t)-β(0.01t-1)(0.01t)3]
Real RTD Curve

α
Resistance
RO
0 °C 100 °C Temperature
(32 °F) (212 °F)
β δ
< 0 °C >0 °C
(32 °F) (32 °F)
Figure 4.13: Callendar-Van Dusen Equation Constants

Temperature Sensors
Thermocouples (T/C)
A T/C consists of two wires of dissimilar metals (e.g., iron and Activities
constantan) that are joined at one end to form a hot junction (or
sensing element). The temperature measurement is made at the 25. Two wires of dissimilar metals
hot junction of the T/C, which is in the process. The other end form a ___________ when
of the T/C lead wires, when attached to a transmitter or volt joined at one end.
meter, form a cold or reference junction (Figure 4.14).
Insulated T/C Lead

Wires
Metal A
Voltmeter
Metal B Cold Junction

Hot
Junction
Figure 4.14: T/C Construction
THERMOCOUPLE TYPES
Several types of T/Cs are available, each differing by the 26. Type E T/Cs have the highest /
metals used to construct the element. The T/C categories are: lowest millivolt output and can
T Type E—Chromel and constantan be used over a wide / narrow
T Type J—Iron and constantan range of temperatures.
T Type K—Chromel and alumel
T Types R and S—Platinum (Pt) and rhodium (Rh)
(differing in the % of platinum)
T Type T—Copper and constantan
Figure 4.15 compares five types of T/Cs.
80
E
60
K
Millivolts
40 J
20
R
S
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000
Temperature °C
Figure 4.15: Comparison of T/C Types

26. Highest; narrow
25. Hot junction

Temperature Sensors
Thermocouples (T/C)
Type E Activities
Type E T/Cs (chromel-constanan) are gaining popularity
because they have the highest output (most sensitive) and can
be used over a wide range of temperatures.
Type J
Type J T/Cs (iron-constanan) are among the first 27. The iron wire in Type K /
thermocouples to be widely used. The materials are rugged, but Type J T/Cs is susceptible to
iron wire is susceptible to oxidation, especially at high oxidation.
temperatures. The corrosive effects of oxidation (poisoning)
reduce the accuracy of the T/C. Type J T/Cs remain one of the
most common T/C types in use today.
Type K
Type K T/Cs (chromel-alumel) are commonly used for
high-temperature applications. Because they are relatively
inexpensive and offer a wide measurement range, Type K T/Cs
are the most popular T/C type in industrial environments.
Types R and S
Types R (Pt/13%Rh, Rh) and S (Pt/10%Rh, Rh) T/Cs are 28. When are Type R and Type S
useful for extremely high temperature measurements. Because T/Cs typically used?
they are constructed from a platinum alloy, types R and S T/Cs
are expensive and are used only when the process temperatures
are too high for other T/Cs to function properly.
Type T
Type T T/Cs (copper-constanan) are generally used in very low
temperature (cryogenic) applications. Type T T/C elements are
robust in high-humidity environments.
function properly
high for other thermocouples to
28. When the process temperatures are too
27. Type J

Temperature Sensors
Thermocouples (T/C)
CREATING A HOT JUNCTION Activities
Several different methods are used to join the T/C lead wires at
the hot junction, such as twisting, clamping, soldering, brazing,
and various types of welding (e.g., bead and butt welding)
(Figure 4.16).
For good performance, the hot junction must be constructed to 29. List two characteristics of
be mechanically sound, electrically continuous, and not well-performing hot junctions.
poisoned by the chemical ingredients of welding or brazing
materials.
Twisted
Butt Weld
Bead
Figure 4.16: Hot Junction Styles
brazing materials
chemical ingredients of welding and
continuous, not poisoned by the
29. Mechanically sound, electrically

Temperature Sensors
Thermocouples (T/C)
Hot Junction Configurations Activities
Junctions can be grounded or ungrounded to the sensor sheath. 30. Junctions can be grounded or
With dual-element T/Cs (two T/Cs in one sheath), the elements ungrounded to their
can be isolated or connected (unisolated) (Figure 4.17). Each ___________.
configuration offers benefits and limitations:
T Grounded—Grounding creates improved thermal 31. Grounded / ungrounded
conductivity, which in turn gives the quickest response junctions have a faster response
time. However, grounding also makes T/C circuits more time.
susceptible to electrical noise (which can corrupt the T/C
voltage signal) and may cause more susceptibility to
poisoning over time.
T Ungrounded—Ungrounded junctions have a slightly 32. Grounded / ungrounded
slower response time than grounded junctions, but are not junctions are susceptible to
susceptible to electrical noise. electrical noise.
T Unisolated—Unisolated junctions are at the same
temperature, but both junctions will typically fail at the
same time.
T Isolated—Isolated junctions may or may not be at the 33. What sort of dual-wire
same temperature. Reliability of each junction is configuration enables a T/C to
increased, however, because failure of one junction does continue to function even if one
not cause a failure in the second junction. wire breaks?
Sensor sheath
Single, Grounded Dual, Grounded,

Unisolated
Dual, Ungrounded,
Isolated
Single, Ungrounded Dual, Ungrounded,

Unisolated
Figure 4.17: T/C Junction Configurations
Isolated 33.
Grounded 32.
Grounded 31.
Sensor sheath 30.

Temperature Sensors
Thermocouples (T/C)
VOLTAGE MEASUREMENT AND THE SEEBECK Activities
EFFECT
T/Cs use a phenomenon known as the Seebeck effect to 34. A ____________ measurement
determine process temperature. According to the Seebeck at the cold junction of a T/C is
effect, a voltage measured at the cold junction of a T/C is proportional to the difference in
proportional to the difference in temperature between the hot ________________ between
junction and the cold junction. the hot and cold junctions.
The voltage measured at the cold junction is commonly
referred to as the Seebeck voltage, the thermoelectric voltage,
or the thermoelectric EMF. As the temperature of the hot
junction, or process fluid, increases, the observed voltage at the
cold junction also increases by an amount nearly linear to the
temperature increase.
If the hot junction temperature is held constant, an increasing 35. Describe the Seebeck effect.
cold junction temperature will produce a decreasing voltage,
because the temperature difference between the hot and cold
junction is decreasing. When the cold and hot junctions reach
the same temperature, the observed voltage will be 0 V.
The magnitude of the voltage signal produced at the cold
junction also depends on the type of metals used to form the
T/C. Different metals, or different type of T/Cs, have different
thermoelectric voltages at the same temperatures.
Cold Junction Compensation

Like RTDs, each type of T/C has a standard curve. The 36. Define cold junction
standard curve describes a T/C’s voltage versus temperature compensation.
relationship when the cold junction temperature is
32 °F (0 °C). The cold junction is where the T/C lead wires
attach to a transmitter or volt meter.
Because the voltage measured at the cold junction is
proportional to the difference in temperature between the hot
and cold junctions, the cold junction temperature must be
known before the voltage signal can be translated into a
temperature reading. The process of factoring in the actual cold temperature with a T/C
junction temperature (rather than assuming it is at 32 °F [0 °C]) temperature when measuring
is referred to as cold junction compensation (CJC). 36. Factoring in the actual cold junction
junctions
temperature between the hot and cold
proportional to the difference in
measured at the cold junction is
35. A phenomenon in which a voltage
34. Voltage; temperature

Temperature Sensors
Thermocouples (T/C)
The general steps for performing CJC are as follows: Activities
1. Determine the temperature of the cold junction (room
temperature) and find the corresponding voltage (CJV) in a
reference book.
2. With the hot junction exposed to the process temperature,
read the voltage output.
3. Add the measured process temperature voltage to the cold
junction voltage (CJV) and look up the result in the
standard curve table to find the true process temperature.
EXTENSION WIRE
T/C extension wires are often used to wire the T/C back to a
control system or to a remote transmitter, which may be
anywhere from 2–2,000 ft away.
T/C extension wire, with a few rare exceptions, must be of the 37. T/C lead wires and elements
same type of metal as the T/C lead wires. If the metals do not must be composed of identical /
match, the cold junction will be created prematurely. For dissimilar metals.
example, in Figure 4.18, copper wires are used to connect a
T/C to the measuring instrument. The temperature
measurement is made with the assumption that the cold
junction is at Junction 1, rather than at Junction 2. The
temperature measurement will be off by a factor of 25 °F.
38. What is the effect if T/C lead
wires are not of the same metal
Junctions 2: 75 °F
as the T/C itself?
T/C Extension Wires
Hot Junction: 200 °F
Junctions 1: 100 °F Copper Extension Wires
Figure 4.18: Multiple Junctions

The measured voltage from the T/C with copper extension
wires does not equal the measured voltage of the T/C with
correct extension wires. In fact, if copper extension wires are measurement is affected
prematurely and the temperature
used, it is nearly impossible to find the process temperature 38. The cold junction will be created
from the measured voltage. 37. Identical

Temperature Sensors
Thermocouples (T/C)
Copper extension wires can be used in rare instances. If the two Activities
additional hot junctions (1 and 2 in Figure 4.18) are kept at the
same temperature, no temperature gradient exists, and the net
voltage drop is zero. Thus, the temperature measurement is not
affected. However, keeping the hot junctions at identical
temperatures is generally too difficult to be practical.
T/C wire is relatively costly, particularly for platinum T/C
Types R and S. Often, it is not economically feasible to make
continuous runs of T/C wire from the hot to the cold junctions
(often hundreds of feet long). To compensate for this problem,
special lead wire is used that closely approximates the
thermoelectric properties of T/C wire. The special wire allows
the user to minimize cost without sacrificing performance.

Temperature Sensors
Temperature Sensor Comparison

Activities
WHY USE AN RTD RATHER THAN A T/C?
The main reasons for selecting RTDs rather than T/Cs are as 39. RTDs / T/Cs have better
follows: accuracy and repeatability.
T RTDs have better accuracy and repeatability.
T RTD signals are less susceptible to noise—they have a
higher signal-to-noise ratio.
T RTDs have better linearity over temperature ranges. 40. RTDs can / cannot be
T RTDs can use the Callendar-Van Dusen equation to recalibrated.
eliminate sensor interchangeability error.
T CJC and related errors are not associated with RTDs.
T RTD drift is predictable, while T/C drift is erratic and
unpredictable. In addition, T/C drift errors can be large as
a result of element poisoning and element oxidation at
high temperatures (Figure 4.19).
T The changes that affect the output of an RTD or T/C occur 41. RTDs are / are not highly
over time due to mechanical shock, poisoning, and susceptible to noise and have
temperature cycling. These changes can be eliminated by lower / higher linearity over
performing another RTD calibration, an option not temperature ranges when
available for a T/C. compared to T/Cs.
T RTDs do not need special extension wire.
Ornl Data:
.1 Type K Thermocouples
.01
Drift
.001
RTDs
.0001
1800 1500 1200 900 750 550 480 300 160 100 T°F
.00001
.0006 .0008 .0010 .0012 .0014 .0016 .0018 .0020 .0022 .0024 .0026 .0028 .0030 .0032 .0034
1/T
Figure 4.19: Drift—RTDs Versus T/Cs
41. Are not; higher

40. Can
(RTDs)
39. Resistance temperature detectors

Temperature Sensors
Temperature Sensor Comparison

WHY USE A T/C RATHER THAN AN RTD? Activities
The main reasons for selecting T/Cs rather than RTDs are as 42. T/Cs function at higher / lower
follows: temperatures than RTDs.
T T/Cs function at higher temperatures (above 1,100 °F
[593 °C]) than RTDs.
T T/Cs are typically less expensive than RTDs. 43. T/Cs have a faster / slower
T T/Cs have a faster response time than RTDs. response time than RTDs.
Current RTD construction techniques produce an

extremely rugged sensor for industrial environments
that can withstand many of the higher-vibration
applications in which T/Cs have typically been used.
43. Faster
42. Higher

Thermowells
Thermowells
A thermowell is a closed-end, metal tube that encapsulates and protects a sensor from process flow,
pressure, vibration, and corrosion. Thermowells allow for the installing and removal of sensors
without having to shut down the process. Thermowells are mounted in various ways onto the process
pipe or tank.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
T Describe the following design options available for thermowells:
• Materials
• Mounting methods
• Stem designs
T Identify causes of and preventions for thermowell failure
T Explain the importance of the effect of thermowells on temperature point response time

Thermowells
Thermowell Design and Selection

Thermowells are available in several different materials, Activities
mounting methods, and stem types. The variety of design
features renders thermowells suitable for various applications
and environmental conditions (Figure 4.20).
MATERIALS
Thermowells are constructed of one of several materials, some 1. List three examples of materials
of which are: that may be used for thermowell
T 316 and 304 stainless steel construction.
T Carbon steel
T Monel®
T Inconel 600
T Hastelloy®
Three factors affect the choice of material: 2. List two factors that affect the
T Type of corrosive environment the thermowell will be choice of thermowell
exposed to construction material.
T Temperature and pressure limits of the material
T Compatibility with the process piping material to ensure
solid, noncorroding welds and junctions
Figure 4.20: Typical Thermowell Installation
Thermowell
Stem
Process Pipe
noncorroding welds and junctions

process piping material to ensure solid,
material; and compatibility with the
temperature and pressure limits of the
thermowell is exposed to; the
The type of corrosive environment the 2.
Hastelloy
steel, Monel, Inconel 600, and
316 and 304 stainless steel, carbon 1.

Thermowells

MOUNTING METHODS Activities
Thermowells can be mounted in one of three methods, which 3. What are the three ways in
results in three different construction designs (Figure 4.21). which thermowells can be
Thermowells can be threaded, welded, or bolted (flanged style) mounted?
onto the process pipe.
Threaded
Thermowells are most commonly threaded onto the process
piping or tank, which enables them to be easily installed and
removed. Threaded thermowells are the weakest type of
thermowell.
Welded 4. Which type of thermowell
mounting style is the weakest?
Welded thermowells are permanently welded onto the process
pipe or tank. Thus, removal is very difficult and requires
cutting the thermowell out of the system. Welded thermowells
are the strongest type of thermowell and are used with fluids of
high velocity, high temperature, or high pressures. Welded
thermowells are necessary for applications that require a
leak-proof seal.
Flanged 5. Which type of thermowell
mounting style should be used
Flanged thermowells are bolted onto a pipe or tank and can be
for a leak-proof seal?
easily removed or installed. Flanged thermowells are used in
corrosive environments as well as in high-velocity,
high-temperature, or high-pressure applications. Flanged
thermowells are the most expensive type of thermowell.
Process Pipe
Flanged
Threaded
Welded
Welded 5.
Figure 4.21: Thermowell Mounting Methods Threading 4.
Bolting, threading, welding 3.

Thermowells

STEM DESIGNS Activities
The stem of a thermowell is the part that is inserted into the 6. List the three types of stem
process piping. Stems can be tapered, straight, or stepped. designs.
The performance of a thermowell varies with its stem design.
Figure 4.22 examines the following performance factors in
relation to tapered, straight, and stepped stem designs:
T Process pressure 7. List four performance factors
T Time response that are affected by stem design.
T Wake frequency—Frequency of alternating side-to-side
movement of a fluid, generated by properties of the fluid
T Drag force—Resistance of motion of a solid shape
through a body of fluid
T Price
S tra ig h t
T a p e re d S te p p e d
R a tin g :
1= B e st P r oce s s T im e W ake D rag
P r e s su re R e s p o ns e F r e q u e n cy F or ce P rice
T apered 1 2 1 or 2 2* 3
S tepped 1 1 3 1 1
S t r a igh t 1 3 1 or 2 2* 1
*D e pe n d e n t o n flu id (v isc o sity ) a n d flu id v elo city , a n d T -w e ll le n g th
Key: 1 = Best, 2 = Better, 3 = Good

Figure 4.22: Performance Rating of Thermowell Stem Designs
All stem designs perform equally well at equal process 8. Which stem design gives the
pressures, If thicknesses of the thermowell walls are identical, slowest response time?
Thermowells with straight stems have the slowest time 9. Which stem design gives the
response because they possess the most material at the tip lowest natural frequency?
(largest diameter). Thermowells with stepped stems have the
fastest time response because they possess the least material at
the tip (smallest diameter). A small diameter also results in the
least amount of drag force. Thermowells with stepped stems
also cause the highest wake frequency and have the lowest
natural frequency (oscillation rate determined by the properties
Stepped 9.
of the thermowell itself). Straight 8.
Generally, thermowells with tapered stems are slightly more frequency; drag force; price
expensive as a result of a more complicated manufacturing Process pressure; time response; wake 7.
Tapered; straight; stepped 6.
process.

Thermowells
Thermowell Performance
Activities
THERMOWELL FAILURE
Thermowells can fail for many reasons, such as high drag
forces, static pressure, and corrosion. The von Karman effect
can also cause thermowell failure.
Fluid flowing around a thermowell forms a turbulent wake 10. What is the von Karman effect?
called the von Karman trail (Figure 4.23). The wake alternates
from side to side at a specific frequency, called the wake
frequency. The wake frequency is dependent on many process
variables. If the wake frequency coincides with the
thermowell’s natural frequency, the thermowell can break. This
phenomenon is known as the von Karman effect.
Thermowell
Figure 4.23: The von Karman Trail
Wake frequency is a determining factor in selecting a

thermowell for a high-velocity application.
Preventing Thermowell Failure

Thermowell failure can be prevented by selecting the
appropriate thermowell for the process conditions. To ensure
safe and successful operation, the following information
should be known about the thermowell:
T Material
T Mounting method
T Stem design
T Dimensions (e.g., diameter, length)
can cause the thermowell to break.

thermowell’s natural frequency, which
frequency coincides with the
10. The von Karmen effect is when wake

Thermowells
In addition, the following information should be known about Activities
the product being measured:
T Velocity
T Pressure
T Temperature
T Fluid density
T Fluid type (e.g., steam, natural gas)
11. List three things that should be

To ensure safe operation, the wake frequency divided known about a thermowell
by the natural frequency of the thermowell must be when selecting the appropriate
<0.8. If it is >0.8, the thermowell may fail and a thermowell for an application.
different thermowell should be chosen. (Software is
available to aid in determining wake frequency.)
TEMPERATURE POINT RESPONSE TIME

Thermowells have a significant effect on a temperature 12. Explain why sensor time
sensor’s time response. Thermowell time constants constants become trivial when
(mathematical quantities used to determine time response) are the sensor is used with a
so large that the temperature sensor’s time constants become thermowell.
only a small factor. The thermowell time constant becomes the
major contributing factor to the overall time constant for the
entire thermowell/sensor/transmitter system.
Several factors affect the overall time response of the
temperature measurement when thermowells are used,
including:
T Thermowell design
T Tip thickness and diameter
T Sensor sheath fill
Thermowell Design
Stepped thermowells are the fastest to respond to changes in
temperature, with a time constant of about 20–23 seconds.
Tapered thermowells have time constants of about 26 seconds.
Straight thermowells are the slowest to respond to temperature
fluctuations, with time constants approaching 30 seconds.
time constant for the entire thermowell/

is so large that it becomes the overall
12. Because the thermowell time constant
design; dimensions
11. Material; mounting method; stem

Thermowells
Tip Thickness and Diameter Activities
The time constant of a thermowell is also affected by the
thickness at the tip. Less material at the stem tip results in
smaller time constants. Stepped thermowells have the smallest
tip diameter and thus have a faster response time.
Sensor Sheath Fill

The distance and material between the sensor sheath and the
thermowell also affect time response. The smaller the distance
(x and y in Figure 4.24), the quicker the time response.
Spring-loaded sensors can be used to ensure contact between
the tip of the temperature sensor and the bottom of the
thermowell (x would equal 0 in Figure 4.24), which provides a
faster time response due to increased thermal transfer.
13. The smaller the distance
Thermally between the sensor sheath and
Conductive Fill the thermowell, the faster /
slower the time response.
y
Temperature
Thermowell Sensor
Figure 4.24: Factors Affecting Response Time

To increase the time response even further, some industry
practice suggests using a thermally conductive fill between the
sensor sheath and the inside of the thermowell. Rather than
being filled with air, which is a poor thermal conductor, y in
Figure 4.24 is filled with a thermally conductive fill, which can
significantly reduce the overall time constant from 20–30
seconds to 10–11 seconds.
13. Faster

Transmitting the Temperature Sensor Signal
Transmitting the Temperature

Sensor Signal
To be useful for control, safety, or monitoring applications, a temperature measurement signal must be
relayed from the point of measurement to the DCS of the process. The signal is relayed back to the
DCS in one of many ways. The two most common ways that will be discussed in this section are:
T Transmitters—The sensor is wired a short distance to the transmitter, where its signal is converted
to a digital or 4–20 mA signal. The converted signal output is then communicated back to the
DCS through transmitter wire or a wireless network.
T Wiring direct—The sensor’s lead wires are wired the entire distance to the DCS. No signal
conversion takes place along the route.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
T Identify and explain four transmitter mounting styles:
• Field mount
• Head mount
• Rail mount
• Rack mount
T List and explain three benefits of using a temperature transmitter
T List and explain two potential drawbacks of using wiring direct
T Explain how input/output (I/O) cards work both with transmitters and with wiring direct

Transmitters
Activities
WHY USE A TEMPERATURE TRANSMITTER?
Three benefits of using a temperature transmitter over wiring
direct are:
T A more robust signal is delivered—The 4–20 mA or 1. List three benefits of using
digital signal output from the transmitter is much more temperature transmitters over
robust than a sensor signal that is wired direct. Noise wiring direct.
interference has less impact on 4–20 mA or digital
signals.
T Measurement accuracy is optimal—Transmitters offer
improved measurement accuracy over wiring direct. For
example, sensors can be matched to transmitters
(transmitter sensor matching), which improves the
accuracy of the temperature measurement.
T Time and money are saved—Transmitter installation is 2. Explain how temperature
often less expensive than wiring a sensor direct because of transmitters save time and
savings from cabling costs and installation (sensor wire, money over wiring direct.
especially T/C wire, is relatively expensive). Also, a
robust signal and accurate measurements produce time
and money savings through increased functionality and
diagnostic capabilities of the transmitter.
installation costs
Transmitters have cheaper cabling and 2.
money are saved.
normal instrument cables; time and
reduced by replacing sensor cables with
is improved; installation costs are
accuracy of temperature measurement
susceptible to noise interference; the
Transmitter signals are usually less 1.

Transmitters
WHAT DOES A TRANSMITTER DO? Activities
A transmitter converts a temperature sensor’s signal from 3. What is the function of a
resistance or voltage into a common digital or analog 4–20 mA temperature transmitter?
signal. Typically, the analog signal is linear with the
process-temperature measurement. As an example, consider a
transmitter with a range of 32–212 °F (0–100 °C). With this
transmitter, a 4 mA output corresponds to a 32 °F (0 °C)
process temperature, 12 mA corresponds to 122 °F (50 °C),
and 20 mA to 212 °F (100 °C) (Figure 4.25).
Temperature transmitters can accept sensor inputs from a wide
variety of temperature sensor types (including many types of
RTDs and T/Cs).
4. How do HART transmitters
differ from traditional analog
transmitters?
Figure 4.25: Temperature Transmitter
TRANSMITTER MOUNTING STYLES

There are four common styles of transmitters. Transmitter
styles are named according to their mounting method:
T Field mount
T Head mount
T Rail mount
T Rack mount
4-20 mA signals
information simultaneously with
HART transmitters can transmit digital 4.
signal
signal into a common analog or digital
It converts a temperature sensor’s 3.

Transmitters
Field-Mount Transmitters Activities
Field-mount transmitters are the most rugged of all transmitter 5. Explain why field-mount
styles. Their robust housings protect against corrosion and transmitters are particularly
humidity. Some field-mount transmitters house the electronics rugged.
in dual-compartment housings, which completely isolates them
from the effects of humidity. Dual-compartment transmitters
are the best design for use in harsh environments.
Field-mount transmitters can be integrally or remotely
mounted (Figure 4.26):
T Integral mount—The transmitter is threaded onto the 6. Integral / remote mount
sensor directly (mounts directly to U.S. style [1/2 NPT] transmitters are mounted on a
sensor). pipe stand or other support near
T Remote mount—The transmitter is mounted on a pipe the sensor.
stand or other support near the sensor. Remote mount is
preferred when the measurement point is inaccessible or
when the process environment is too harsh for the
transmitter to be installed directly on top of the sensor.
Remotely Mounted
Control Room Field Field-Mount
Remote-Mounted
Transmitter
Field Mount Xmtr
4-20 mA Signal
Control Integrally Mounted Ω or mV

signal
System Field-Mount
Integral-Mounted
Transmitter
4-20 mA Signal Field Mount Xmtr
RTD Process Pipe Sensor connection

RTD
or T/C head
or T/C
Figure 4.26: Field-Mount Transmitter
Head-Mount Transmitters
Head-mount transmitters are small, puck-shaped transmitters.
Head-mount transmitters are typically housed in a protective
enclosure—a connection head for direct mounting or a
junction box for remote mounting.
Head mount transmitters are very common globally

and continue to gain popularity over traditional Remote 6.
measurement practices. electronics from the process
housings that separate the transmitter’s
They can have dual-compartment 5.

Transmitters
Head-mount transmitters can be mounted in one of three ways Activities
(Figure 4.27):
T Integral mount—The transmitter is housed in a
connection head that is threaded directly onto the sensor.
T Remote mount—The transmitter is housed in a junction
box that is mounted on a pipe stand or other support near
the sensor.
T Rail mount—The transmitter is used in lieu of a
rail-mount style and is mounted to a G-rail or top-hat rail.
Remotely Mounted
Control Room Field Head-Mount
Remote -Mounted
Transmitter
Junction Box Head Mount Xmtr
4-20 mA
Control
mV or Ω
System 4-20 mA
signal
Integrally Mounted
L1 connection head Head-Mount
Integral-Mounted
Transmitter
Head Mount Xmtr
T/C Sensor connection

or RTD Process Pipe head
T/C
or RTD
Figure 4.27: Head-Mount Transmitter

Transmitters
Rail-Mount Transmitters Activities
Rail-mount transmitters are designed to be attached to a
DIN-rail (G-rail or top-hat rail) or directly screwed onto a wall.
Rail-mount transmitters are also designed for compact
mounting, which allows for a number of transmitters to be
mounted very closely together (Figure 4.28).
7. Why are rail-mount transmitters
particularly convenient for
Control Room Field maintenance and less
4-20 mA
susceptible to harsh
mV or Ω
signal environments?
Control
System
Rack Mount:
Accepts multiple inputs
Sensor connection Sensor connection
head head
Rail (or Rack) Mount mV or Ω

signal
Process Pipe
T/C T/C
or RTD or RTD
Figure 4.28: Rail-Mount and Rack-Mount Transmitters
Rail-mount transmitters are usually mounted in a mild and 8. True or False? One limitation
controlled environment near a control room, which makes of rail-mount transmitters is that
them both convenient for maintenance and less susceptible to they are susceptible to noise.
harsh environmental conditions such as high ambient
temperature.
A limitation of rail-mount transmitters is their susceptibility to
noise. When rail-mount transmitters are installed near the
DCS, the sensor’s lead wires have to run the entire distance to
the DCS. In addition, there is no standard accessory that would
allow a rail-mount transmitter to be used in an explosion-proof
area.
Rack-Mount Transmitters 9. What is the main difference
between rail-mount and
Rack-mount transmitters are very similar to rail-mount
rack-mount transmitters?
transmitters, except that rack-mount transmitters use a
mounting chassis. The common backplane of the mounting
chassis, rather than the loop wires, often provides power to the separate wires
transmitter (Figure 4.28). power from the rack rather than through
Rack-mount transmitters get their 9.
Rack-mount transmitters are not common in the U.S. True 8.
environment
control room or other controlled
Because they are usually mounted in a 7.

Wiring Direct
Wiring direct refers to wiring the sensor’s lead wires back to Activities
the DCS (Figure 4.29).
Because the sensor’s lead wire (and original signal) is traveling 10. List the two problems that must
the entire distance from the point of measurement to the DCS, be avoided in wiring direct.
care must be taken to avoid two key problems:
T Noise—T/Cs are especially sensitive to noise interference
and must be routed around such sources as turbines and
motors.
T Heat sources—A large change in the ambient temperature
can effect the sensor’s signal as it travels to the control
system.
DCS/PLC
I/O
cards
8-pair bundled (“Homerun”)

T/C cable to DCS
Thermowell/
Temperature
Sensor
T/C Wire
Single pair
Junction Box
(Multiple single pair inputs)
Figure 4.29: A Sensor Wired Direct to the DCS
Although transmitters offer many benefits over wiring direct,

many temperature measurement points are still wired directly
to the DCS.
10. Noise, heat sources

Input/Output Cards
Input cards, usually located near the DCS or control room, Activities
collect measurement signals (inputs) from sensors or
transmitters in the field. An input card typically accepts 8 or 16
inputs, depending on its design. Output cards send the signal
back to the field for process control.
Input/output (I/O) cards can be either digital or analog. Analog 11. Input / output cards collect
input cards can accept inputs of only voltage (mV), resistance signals from sensors in the field,
(Ω), or current (mA). Each type of signal requires a specific while input / output cards send
type of input card. For example, transmitters are wired into signals to the field.
input cards that accept 4–20 mA inputs. Type K T/Cs are wired
into Type K T/C input cards, and Type J T/Cs are wired into
Type J T/C input cards. RTDs also have their own input card
types.
Figure 4.30 shows sensors connected to I/O cards via
transmitter and via wiring direct.
12. What are the two types of
DCS/PLC signals that I/O cards can
accept?
I/O
I/O
cards
cards
78.9°F
Thermowell/
Sensor Connected to
Temperature DCS Via Transmitter
Sensor
Sensor Wired
Directly to DCS
T/C Wire
Single pair
8-pair bundled (“Homerun”)

T/C cable to DCS
Figure 4.30: Sensor I/O Card Connections
12. Analog, digital

11. Input; output

Input/Output Cards
TRANSMITTERS AND INPUT CARDS Activities
Transmitters allow for a standard, 4–20 mA analog input card 13. Digital cards are used with what
to be used. If a transmitter is used, the 4–20 mA analog input kind of transmitters?
cards accept any type of measurement (temperature, flow,
pressure, level, etc.). If HART transmitters are used, digital
cards may be used.
Standardizing the type of input card used reduces costs and
ensures full use of each card. Changing the sensor type does
not necessitate switching the input card. The transmitter is
simply reconfigured for the new sensor type.
WIRING DIRECT AND I/O CARDS

When a sensor is wired directly to the DCS, specific types of 14. List one limitation of wiring
input cards are used that correspond to the sensor type. Each direct.
type of T/C must be used with a specific type of mV analog
input card. RTDs must be used with special analog input cards
that measure resistance signals.
One of the limitations of wiring direct is the need for specific
types of input cards for specific sensor types.
input cards for specific sensor types

14. Wiring direct requires specific types of
13. HART transmitters

Workbook Exercises
Workbook Exercises
Note: All exercise answers are located at the end of this module.
EXERCISE 4.1—WHY MEASURE TEMPERATURE?

1. Match each temperature application to the correct scenario.
___ Product quality and yield a) A chemical plant manager uses smart instrumentation to
control temperatures in vessels in which potentially
dangerous exothermic reactions are taking place.
___ Efficiency b) A pulp and paper company maintains the pulp
temperature within a precise range during manufacture to
ensure a consistent paper product.
___ Safety c) Temperature is measured before and after a heat
exchanger to check for fouling.
___ Custody transfer d) Temperature measurements are used to determine a more
accurate product density, which is then used to get more
accurate flow rate calculations.

Workbook Exercises
Workbook Exercises
EXERCISE 4.2—TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT SCALES
1. Match each temperature measurement scale to its description.
___ Kevin, Rankine a) Commonly used in industrial measurements.

___ Celsius, Fahrenheit, Kelvin, Rankine b) The fixed points on this scale are associated with
the body temperature of a healthy person and
absolute zero.
___ Celsius c) Absolute scales.
___ Fahrenheit, Celsius d) Contains two or more fixed points that
correspond to a specific temperature.
e) Increments on this scale are equal to increments
on the Kelvin scale.

Workbook Exercises
Workbook Exercises
EXERCISE 4.3—TEMPERATURE SENSORS
1. Write the letter number of the construction description next to the temperature sensor type.
___ RTD a) The sensor may be grounded or ungrounded in

its sheath.
___ T/C b) The device includes a sensing element, lead
wires, a sensor sheath, and a threaded adaptor.
___ Both RTD and T/C c) The sensing element is the cold junction.
___ Neither RTD nor T/C d) The sensing element is composed of two wires of
dissimilar metals.
e) The sensing element may be wire wound or thin
film.
2. A pulp and paper plant manager wants to control the temperature of a process that can range from
100–500 °C. Accuracy is more important than temperature point response time. Which
temperature measurement sensor would you suggest the manager use and why? (Select all that
apply.)
a) An RTD, because RTDs have better accuracy and repeatability, and although they have a slower
response time, that is not so important in this application.
b) A T/C, because although RTDs generally have better accuracy and repeatability, they are highly
susceptible to noise and this would cause major errors in temperature measurement, since this
is a pulp and paper plant.
c) A Type R and S T/C, because they are constructed from a platinum alloy and are useful for high
temperature measurements. Additionally, they are not susceptible to noise and provide better
accuracy than other T/Cs and even most RTDs.
d) A 4-wire RTD because it is the most accurate, together with a platinum sensing element,
because of the wide temperature range of the application and the need for accuracy throughout.

Workbook Exercises
Workbook Exercises
3. A pulp and paper plant manager wants an inexpensive sensor so he can monitor a process where
accuracy is not critical, but in which the process temperature is typically 900 °C to 1,000 °C.
Which sensor would you suggest and why?
a) A Type J sensor would be the best because it is made of materials that do not wear out with
rugged use.
b) A Type K sensor would be ideal because it can handle the high temperature but is not as
expensive as the Type R and S sensors.
c) Type E sensors are the best since they have the highest output and they work efficiently at high
temperatures.
d) Type T sensors are the best option since they are very robust and operate efficiently even in
high-humidity environments.
4. A plant manager connects a voltmeter to the free end of the lead wires on a Type E T/C. With the
other end of the T/C in contact with the process fluid, the voltage measurement reads 0.92 mV. The
room temperature is 72 °F (22 °C).
Determine the temperature of the process fluid in Fahrenheit, then complete the sentence below.
For your calculations, use the cold junction compensation method and the table on the next page,
then select among the options for each blank to complete the sentence.
Answer 1 Answer 2 Answer 3

a) 1.326 a) 0.32 c) 0.916
b) 0.196 b) 0.72 b) 2.246
c) 2.006 c) 0.92 c) 2.326
Since the cold junction temperature is 72 °F, and since this corresponds to a voltage of ______ mV,
we add the voltage measurement derived from the process fluid as _______ mV to the voltage
measure at the cold junction temperature to get an answer of _________.

Workbook Exercises
Workbook Exercises

Workbook Exercises
Workbook Exercises
5. A food and beverage plant manager is debating whether to install 3-wire or 4-wire RTDs in the
plant. What would you say to convince the manager that 4-wire RTDs are better?
a) In cases where lead wire resistance varies, 4-wire installation will compensate for the lead wire
error better than a 3-wire will, and thus will provide a more accurate temperature and help to
ensure a better quality product.
b) In the case of a food and beverage plant where lead wire effects are accentuated by noise levels,
the lead wire effects with a 3-wire RTD will result in a completely inaccurate temperature
reading. To offset this, it is best to use a 4-wire RTD.
c) The longer the wire run, the greater the error or lead wire effect, which is reflected in the
temperature measurement. Since a 4-wire RTD is comprised of 4 wires that are shorter than
those of a 3-wire RTD, it reduces the margin of error when a 4-wire RTD is used.
d) Given that the RTD would be prone to corrosion since this is a food and beverage plant, it is
advisable to use a 4-wire RTD, since the probability of all the wires being affected by corrosion
is lower.
6. In which of the following scenarios would you suggest an RTD to your customer? (Select all that
apply.)
a) The customer wants a high accuracy measurement.

b) The customer has a high temperature [(1,100 °F (593 °C)] process and wants to save money.
c) The customer needs an accurate measurement in a high-noise environment.
d) The customer does not require high accuracy.

Workbook Exercises
Workbook Exercises
EXERCISE 4.4—THERMOWELLS
1. A plant manager uses thermowells in her process temperature measurements, but is convinced that
she must use a T/C because temperature point response time is so critical for product quality. How
would you respond to this claim?
The response time of a thermowell is (faster than / equal to / slower than) that of an RTD or a T/C
and thus will always determine the overall response time. Since the customer is using a
thermowell, the overall temperature response time will be (almost the same / faster / slower)
whether an RTD or a T/C is used.
2. Suggest a way to get the best response time to a plant manager who uses thermowells in her
process temperature measurements, but is convinced that she must use a T/C because temperature
point response time is critical for product quality.
She should use a (straight / tapered / stepped) design and a thermally conductive fill between the
sensor sheath and the inside of the thermowell.
3. Which of the selections below are the four important questions you would ask a new customer that
you’ve never had contact with before in order to determine the best thermowell for his/her needs
and to ensure a safe and successful operation? (Select all that apply.)
a) What is the typical velocity range of the product being measured?

b) What is the volume of the product being measured?
c) What is the typical pressure range of the product being measured?
d) What is the wake frequency of the product being measured?
e) What is the typical temperature range of the product being measured?

Workbook Exercises
Workbook Exercises
4. If you discover that the process followed leads to extreme corrosion at high pressures and
temperature, which thermowell design (material, mounting method, and stem design) would you
suggest to a customer and why?
After using the ______ tables to determine the most suitable material(s) to be used with the
process, a ______ design should be suggested, since it provides the highest amount of integrity in
high-pressure, high-temperature applications. Stem style depends on whether ______ to high flow
rates is important.
a) Chemical resistance a) Threaded a) Response time or resistance

b) Rosemount common reference b) Welded b) Pressure
c) Temperature-pressure ratio c) Flanged c) Corrosion

Workbook Exercises
Workbook Exercises
EXERCISE 4.5—TRANSMITTING THE TEMPERATURE SENOR SIGNAL
1. Match the transmitter mounting style to the corresponding transmitter mounting description.
___ Field mount a) Compact mounting; mounted to a G-rail or top-hat rail

___ Head mount b) Often has a dual compartment housing
___ Rail mount c) Designed for compact mounting; receives power through
a mounting chassis rather than sensor wires
___ Rack mount d) May be housed in a connection head or junction box
2. One of your customers has always used wiring direct and wishes to continue doing so. Which
statements would you use to explain the advantages of using a temperature transmitter instead of
wiring direct (including a discussion of I/O cards)? (Select all that apply.)
a) A transmitter delivers a more robust signal than does a sensor. Noise interference has less
impact on 4–20 mA signals.
b) Transmitters offer improved measurement accuracy over wiring direct. Also, wiring direct into
a DCS requires a specific input card for each specific sensor type.
c) Transmitters save time and money. Installation is less expensive and, because of the more robust
signal and greater accuracy, time and money are saved through increased functionality and
diagnostic capabilities of the transmitter.
d) Although they cost more, transmitters are less susceptible to noise levels and therefore improve
the accuracy of measurement.
e) Because T/C lead wires are more expensive than a standard twisted pair, long runs of T/C wire
can soon add up to the cost of a transmitter, while an even greater susceptibility to noise still
exists.

Workbook Answers
Workbook Answers
Exercise 4.1—Why Measure Temperature?
1. Match each temperature application to the correct scenario.
b Product quality and yield

___ a) A chemical plant manager uses smart instrumentation to
control temperatures in vessels in which exothermic
reactions are taking place.
c Efficiency
___ b) A pulp and paper company maintains the pulp
temperature within a precise range during manufacture to
ensure a consistent paper product.
a Safety
___ c) Temperature is measured before and after a heat
exchanger to check for fouling.
d Custody transfer
___ d) Temperature measurements are used to determine a more
accurate product density, which is then used to get more
accurate flow rate calculations.
Exercise 4.2—Temperature Measurement Scales
1. Match each temperature measurement scale to its description.
c Kevin, Rankine
___ a) Commonly used in industrial measurements.
d Celsius, Fahrenheit, Kelvin, Rankine
___ b) The fixed points on this scale are associated with
the body temperature of a healthy person and
absolute zero.
e Celsius
___ c) Absolute scales.
a Fahrenheit, Celsius
___ d) Contains two or more fixed points that
correspond to a specific temperature.
e) Increments on this scale are equal to increments
on the Kelvin scale.

Workbook Answers
Workbook Answers
Exercise 4.3—Temperature Sensors
1. Write the letter number of the construction description next to the temperature sensor type.
e RTD
___ a) The sensor may be grounded or ungrounded in
its sheath.
a,
___d T/C b) The device includes a sensing element, lead
wires, a sensor sheath, and a threaded adaptor.
b Both RTD and T/C
___ c) The sensing element is the cold junction.
c Neither RTD nor T/C
___ d) The sensing element is composed of two wires of
dissimilar metals.
e) The sensing element may be wire wound or thin
film.
2. a, d
3. b
4. a, c, b
5. a
6. a, c
Exercise 4.4—Thermowells
1. Slower than; almost the same
2. Stepped
3. a, c, d, e
4. Chemical resistance; welded; response time or resistance
Exercise 4.5—Transmitting the Temperature Sensor Signal
1. Match the transmitter mounting style to the corresponding transmitter mounting description.
b Field mount
___ a) Compact mounting; mounted to a G-rail or top-hat rail
d Head mount
___ b) Often has a dual compartment housing
a Rail mount
___ c) Designed for compact mounting; receives power through
a mounting chassis rather than sensor wires
c Rack mount
___ d) May be housed in a connection head or junction box
2. a, b, c, d, e

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00826-0100-0004, 07/09

Process Control Fundamentals

Temperature Measurement Page 3

Page 4 Temperature Measurement

Temperature Measurement Page 5

Why Measure Temperature?

Temperature Measurement Page 7

Why Measure Temperature?

Page 8 Temperature Measurement

Why Measure Temperature?

COMPLETE WORKBOOK EXERCISE 4.1 ON PAGE 57

Temperature Measurement Page 9

Temperature Measurement Scales

Temperature Measurement Page 11

Temperature Measurement Scales

Water 212° 100° 671° 373°

Water 32° 0° 491° 273°

Fahrenheit Celsius Rankine Kelvin

Figure 4.1: Temperature Measurement Scale Comparison

Page 12 Temperature Measurement

Temperature Measurement Scales

On this scale, Fahrenheit measured the boiling point of water to

Temperature Measurement Page 13

Temperature Measurement Scales

Equation for converting between Kelvin and Rankine

COMPLETE WORKBOOK EXERCISE 4.2 ON PAGE 58

Page 14 Temperature Measurement

Temperature Measurement Page 15

Common Construction Characteristics

Figure 4.2: Common Temperature Sensor Characteristics

Page 16 Temperature Measurement

Common Construction Characteristics

Temperature Measurement Page 17

Common Construction Characteristics

DIN PLATE SENSOR - RTD

Figure 4.4: DIN Mounting Plate Style

Page 18 Temperature Measurement

Resistance Temperature Detectors

RTD SENSING ELEMENT MATERIALS 5. Describe the phenomenon of

Temperature Measurement Page 19

Resistance Temperature Detectors

Figure 4.5: Thermoresistive Characteristics of

Table 4.1 compares resistance temperature characteristics for

Characteristic 100 Ω Platinum 120 Ω Nickel 100 Ω Copper

Table 4.1: Thermoresistive Characteristics of RTD Elements

Page 20 Temperature Measurement

Resistance Temperature Detectors

Wire-wound RTD Sensing Elements

Figure 4.6: Externally Wound RTD Sensing Element

Temperature Measurement Page 21

Resistance Temperature Detectors

Figure 4.7: Thin-Film RTD Element

Table 4.2: Comparison of Sensing Elements

13. Less; less

Page 22 Temperature Measurement

Resistance Temperature Detectors

2-wire RTD 3-wire RTD

Figure 4.8: Two-, Three-, and Four-Wire RTDs

Temperature Measurement Page 23

Resistance Temperature Detectors

LW3 Voltage Drop

Figure 4.9: Three-Wire RTD Lead Wire Compensation

4. Calculate the resistance of the RTD element using Ohm’s