Journal of CO2 Utilization 68 (2023) 102377

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Journal of CO2 Utilization

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jcou

Review Article

Preparation of cellulose carbon material from cow dung and its CO2
adsorption performance
Ren Wu, Agula Bao *
Inner Mongolia Key Laboratory of Green Catalysis, College of Chemistry and Environmental Science, Inner Mongolia Normal University, Hohhot 010022, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: With the development of large-scale animal husbandry, large amounts of manure have brought great harm to the
Biomass ecological environment, thus limiting sustainable development of human and animal husbandry. Biomass carbon
Cow dung has been extensively studied as an adsorption material. The rational use of cow dung as biomass has important
Cellulose
research significance for the ecological environment. However, most previous work has directly converted
Carbon material
biomass to carbon, which limits its application due to the poor quality stability of the biomass porous carbon and
CO2 adsorbent
large variations in performance resulting from the complexity of biomass composition and microstructure. In this
work, porous carbons were prepared after pretreatment of cow dung with NaOH-urea solution to extract cel­
lulose and activate KOH. The results showed that the materials prepared under the optimal conditions (pre-
carbonization temperature of 600 ◦ C, cellulose-to-KOH ratio of 1:1) exhibited an ultrahigh specific surface area
(1345 m2/g) and micropore ratio (74.24%). The capacities for adsorption of CO2 at 273 K and 298 K and 1 bar
were as high as 4.61 mmol/g and 3.26 mmol/g, respectively. This study expands the application range for
cellulose and has significance for future preparation of porous carbon materials by extracting cellulose from
biomass.

1. Introduction environmentally friendly and economically feasible CO2 capture tech­

In today’s world, approximately 80% of the global energy supply
comes from fossil fuels. Since these are a nonrenewable resources, the
price will continue to rise with the exhaustion of supply, which will
bring great trouble to human beings [1,2]. During fossil fuel conversion,
the carbon in the fuel is changed to carbon dioxide (CO2), so the CO2
concentration in the atmosphere has reached 417 ppm, which is close to
the upper limit (450 ppm) [3]. Excessive CO2 emissions lead to global
warming and trigger uncontrollable natural disasters such as melting of
glaciers and extreme weather [4]. Temperature-sensitive economic
sectors such as agriculture, mining, and construction will also suffer as a
result. According to statistics, for every 1 trillion tons of CO2 emitted, the
global annual loss due to declines in labor productivity accounts for 2%
of global GDP [5,6]. Therefore, efforts are being made to prevent or
reduce CO2 emissions from different point sources. Carbon capture and
storage (CCS) technology offers a viable way to significantly reduce CO2
emissions. At present, commonly used CO2 capture technologies include
membrane separation, amine washing, ionic liquid absorption and solid
material adsorption. Among these, solid material adsorption is an
nology, and it has the advantages of simple operation, high efficiency,
low energy consumption and no equipment corrosion [7]. Solid adsor­
bents include porous carbon (PC) [8], metal-organic frameworks
(MOFs) [9], zeolites [10] and carbon nanotubes (CNTs) [11]. Because of
their inherent reversibility, light weight, fast adsorption kinetics, and
recyclability, carbonaceous adsorbents can separate CO2 from
combustion-flow gas mixtures and absorb CO2 at 25 ◦ C and higher
pressures. They have become ideal candidate materials for CO2 capture
[12,13]. In general, porous carbon materials have multi-mode layered
porous structures at different length scales [14]. Following the recom­
mendations of the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry
(IUPAC), the pore space of porous materials is classified as macroporous
(>50 nm), mesoporous (2–50 nm) and microporous(<2 nm) according
to the size of the pore [15]. In the process of CO2 adsorption, the mac­
ropores in the adsorbent structure are usually the large channels for CO2
molecules to enter the interior of the material and play a role in recharge
and transport, while the mesopores serve as a bridge between the
macropores and micropores and are also the channels for CO2 molecule
movement, and the micropores can provide a large number of active

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: agl@imnu.edu.cn (A. Bao).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcou.2022.102377
Received 27 August 2022; Received in revised form 5 December 2022; Accepted 18 December 2022
Available online 22 December 2022
2212-9820/© 2022 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/).
R. Wu and A. Bao
sites and shape selectivity for the adsorbent, which are key factors in
determining the CO2 adsorption capacity [16].
Considering the preparation cost, environmental factors and poten­
tial scale involved in CO2 capture, it is advisable to use green technology
or renewable resources. The adoption of biomass has been emphasized
under the background of circular economy and emerging renewable
energy market [17,18]. Therefore, many researchers are committed to
preparing porous carbon from plant biomass, such as rice straw [19],
corn straw [20], peanut shells [21] and bamboo [22]. However, there is
no shortage of porous carbon derived from livestock manure such as
chicken manure [23], sheep manure [24], cow dung [25] and other
wastes and animal bones [26] remained after the production processes
of animal husbandry. Among them, cow dung can be used as a fuel,
insulating material, building material, disinfectant and floor water­
proofing material for rural houses, but its utilization rate is far from
sufficient. Approximately 90% of cow dung is still in a state of accu­
mulation and storage due to the lack of professional treatment facilities.
If it is not treated in time or is handled improperly, it may cause envi­
ronmental problems such as water, soil and air pollution [27,28]. In
recent years, it has been shown that cow dung-based biomass materials
have good porous structure and desirable specific surface area [29].
Adhering to the concept of modern green sustainable development,
building a resource-saving and recycling society in which man and na­
ture are harmonious and unified will require transforming cow dung
biomass into usable biofuel or bioenergy, which would reduce the use of
fossil fuels, reflect the advantages of biomass waste in producing
value-added materials and solve the problem of solid waste generation
and management [30]. For example, Rajkumar[31] et al. used natural
cow dung and cow dung soaked in CaCl2 and FeCl3 solutions as raw
materials with which to prepare defluorination adsorbents. Their results
showed that the adsorbent prepared from natural cow dung as the raw
material showed good efficiency in removing fluoride from aqueous
solution, and its defluorination activity was 15 mg/g. Bhattacharjya
[32] et al. synthesized porous carbon from cow dung with an improved
chemical activation method. When the ratio of KOH to pre-carbonized
carbon was 2:1, the synthesized material had an irregular surface
morphology and specific surface areas up to 1984 m2 g− 1. When it was
used as an electrode material, the specific capacitance was 124 F g− 1 at
0.1 A g− 1 and remained as high as 111 F g− 1 at a current density of 1.0 A
g− 1. Kong[33] et al. directly carbonized biomass waste cow dung and
activated it with KOH and NaNH2 to synthesize cow dung-derived car­
bon (CMC). The results show that the CMC had a specific surface area of
1106 m2 g− 1, rich graded nanoporosity and pyridine nitrogen sites. It
showed a competitive advantage in selectively capturing CO2, and it also
showed excellent catalytic performance for CO2 cycloaddition reactions
after metallization. However, there has been relatively little research on
synthesis of advanced materials from cow dung biomass, and the po­
tential of cow dung-derived carbon materials has not been fully explored
[34]. In addition, the high batch-to-batch variability due to differences
in biomass component content, composition and quality characteristics
negatively affects its reproducibility during utilization, which will pre­
vent further production of high value-added materials from biomass
[35]. Therefore, for cow dung, the complexity of its compositions, im­
purity content and microstructures leads to poor quality stability,
making it difficult to control the properties of porous carbon materials
prepared directly from natural cow dung for high demand applications
[36–38].
Based on the above problems, it is challenging to develop porous
carbon materials that contain fewer impurities and exhibiting better
performance. As lignocellulose biomass, cow dung is composed of cel­
lulose (crystallization zone), hemicellulose, lignin (amorphous zone),
pectin, wax and other components [39]. Cellulose has β-1,4-glycosidic
bonds and is a polysaccharide comprising 8000–10,000 glucose groups.
The basic unit is D-pyranosyl glucose (C6H10O5), which forms polymers
that exist widely on Earth [40,41]. As the annual output of cellulose is
approximately 1.5 × 1012 tons, there is no obvious melting point or
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Journal of CO2 Utilization 68 (2023) 102377
retention of its physical form after carbonization, and the biopolymer is
abundant. It is nontoxic, biocompatible, environmentally friendly and
economically attractive, so it is used as a flocculant, chemical catalyst
and disinfectant. Therefore, it has broad application prospects in water
treatment, medicine and industry [42,43]. On the one hand, considering
the economic feasibility and the urgent need for cellulose materials, it is
very important to seek new sources of cellulose and explore continuous
and effective extraction technology. This will drive the cellulose market,
human development and environmental security by employing the
concept of a circular economy based on the UN Sustainable Develop­
ment Goals (SDG) of "innovation for sustainable growth"[44]. On the
other hand, to overcome the structural limitations of natural composite
components in cow dung, it is necessary to extract cellulose to prepare
carbon materials because the cellulose in natural materials will ensure
quality stability and increase the specific surface area and improve the
uniformity of the resulting carbon, which has important significance for
practical applications. Therefore, the novelty of this study is to identify
the components and improve the quality stability. Many reports have
emphasized the importance of lignocellulose-rich materials for extrac­
tion and development of cellulose-based biological products. However,
applications of cellulose-derived porous carbon from cow dung for CO2
adsorption have not been reported, so we have made such an attempt.
In this study, NaOH-urea pretreatment was used to extract cellulose
components from cow dung, and KOH was used as an activator to pre­
pare cellulose carbon materials. Therefore, we provide a new cellulose
extraction method, focusing on the quality stability caused by complex
components to achieve the key challenges and new strategies for pre­
paring high-performance carbon materials. More importantly, this
simple and effective method can be further applied to other
lignocellulose.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Reagents and materials
Sun-dried cow dung was obtained from local pastures. NaOH, urea,
KOH, hydrochloric acid (HCl), and chemical reagents used in the ex­
periments were analytically pure and were purchased from Aladdin
(China).
2.2. Extraction of cellulose from cow dung
The synthetic steps are shown in Fig. 1, First, the dried cow dung was
ground, washed with deionized water three times, and placed into an
80 ◦ C drying oven for 12 h.A ten grams of cow dung was weighed and
put into a beaker containing NaOH (8 wt%) and urea (12 wt%) solution
(the solid-liquid ratio was 1:20), the mixture was shaken in a water bath
at 30 ◦ C for 1 h, centrifuged at 3900 rpm for 3 min; then the residue was
finally washed with deionized water to pH = 7, transferred to a drying
oven at 80 ◦ C for 12 h, and then the cellulose was separated.
2.3. Synthesis of cellulose-derived porous carbon
The extracted cellulose was heated at a rate of 10 ◦ C/min under a
nitrogen flow to different pre-carbonization temperatures and held for
1 h, and the semifinished product sample was marked as S-X (where X
was the pre-carbonization temperature; either 500 ◦ C, 600 ◦ C or
700 ◦ C). The semi-finished products were stirred with different weight
ratios of KOH for 1 h at room temperature to fully activate the cellulose.
Then, the activated sample was placed into a drying oven at 80 ◦ C and
dried for 12 h. Finally, the dried product was placed into a tubular
furnace, nitrogen was injected, and the mixture was carbonized at
800 ◦ C for 1 h. After cooling to room temperature, the samples was
washed with deionised water to neutralized the hydrochloric acid. The
mixture was placed into a drying oven, and the temperature and time
were set to 120 ℃ and 12 h, respectively. The finished product was
R. Wu and A. Bao
Fig. 1. Synthetic scheme for cellulose-derived porous carbon.
named F-X-Y (where X was the pre-carbonization temperature and Y
represented the amount of KOH used for the different weight ratios). For
example, the sample F-600–1 was synthesized with a pre-carbonization
temperature was 600 ◦ C, and the weight ratio of cellulose to KOH was
1:1 (the amount of cellulose remained unchanged). The biochar yield
from the carbonization of cow dung was 43.8 wt%, which was calcu­
lated using the following equation:
mbiochar
Yield (%) =
mcow dung
× 100%
where the mbiochar is the weight of cellulose biochar (4.38 g) and the
mcow dung is the weight of cow dung (10 g).
2.4. Physical characterization of materials
The weight loss percentage of a sample was determined by ther­
mogravimetric analysis (EXSTAR 7000). X-ray diffraction (XRD, Regaku
Ultima IV) and Raman spectroscopy (Horiba LabRAM HR Evolution)
were used to analyze the graphite structures of the samples. The
morphology was analyzed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and
transmission electron microscopy (TEM) (TECNAI G2F20). N2 adsorp­
tion/desorption experiments were performed on a surface area and pore
size analyzer (ASAP2020, Mike Instruments). Fourier transform infrared
spectra of the samples were analyzed on a Nicolet FTIR spectrometer to
determine the vibrational characteristics of chemical functional groups.
X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS, Kratos Axis Ultra) was used for
surface chemical analysis. The CO2 adsorption capacities of samples
were tested with a thermogravimetric analyzer (STA449F5, Netzsch,
Germany). Samples were degassed for 30 min at a temperature of 90 ◦ C,
and after the temperature dropped, the sample was subjected to CO2
adsorption for 180 min
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Journal of CO2 Utilization 68 (2023) 102377
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA)
As shown in Fig. 2a, TGA was performed on the materials under a N2
atmosphere and at a heating rate of 10 ◦ C/min to evaluate thermal
stabilities and degradation behaviors at high temperature. The weight
loss percentage of cellulose from 200 ℃ to 400 ℃ was as high as
58.12%, which was due to dehydration of cellulose chains, rupture of
1,4-glycosidic bonds and formation of free radicals, indicating complete
disintegration of cellulose structures [45,46]. However, above 600 ℃,
the TGA curves tended to be stable, so 600 ℃ was selected as the
pre-carbonization temperature for cellulose [47]. In addition, aromati­
zation and intramolecular condensation led to losses of the thermally
stable fused ring structures over a wide temperature range (400–800 ℃)
of 15.38%. Therefore, the final carbonization temperature was chosen to
be 800 ◦ C. In addition, all cellulose-derived porous carbons lose weight
below 150 ◦ C, which is the result of evaporation of water adsorbed by
hydroxyl groups on the cellulose surface [48]. Samples pretreated at
different temperatures showed few changes. As shown in Fig. 2b, the
thermal degradation of cellulose was accomplished through a series of
chemical reactions. First, cellulose was pyrolyzed to form oligomeric
reducing sugars with lower degrees of polymerization, and chain scis­
sion continued until the sugar level was reached. D-Glucopyranose is a
linear macromolecular polysaccharide linked by β-1,4 glycosidic bonds,
while levoglucan is derived from secondary decomposition products of
these oligomeric reducing sugars, which is a sludge with a yield of up to
60% or more [49]. Then, levoglucosan underwent dehydration and
isomerization reactions to form dehydrated monosaccharides such as 1,
4:3,6-dehydrated-α-D-glucopyranose (DGP), levoglucosenone (LGO)
and 1,6-dehydrated-furanose (AGF), which were polymerized again to
form dehydrated oligomers or further converted by condensation,
dehydration, decarboxylation or decarbonylation. Water, furfural,
5-hydroxymethylfurfural (5-HMF) and other furans were produced
during dehydration. Finally, decarboxylation, dehydration,
R. Wu and A. Bao
Fig. 2. (a) TGA curves of the samples and (b) possible reaction paths for carbonizing cellulose.
aromatization and other reactions were carried out to produce carbon­
ized products [50].
3.2. X-ray diffraction (XRD) and Raman spectroscopy
As shown in Fig. 3, XRD and Raman spectra were analyzed to explain
the graphite properties of the prepared material. Fig. 3a shows the XRD
patterns of cellulose and the corresponding carbonized samples, in
which cellulose shows two characteristic peaks at approximately 2θ
= 16◦ and 23◦ ; these correspond to the 101 and 002 diffraction planes of
cellulose, respectively [51]. Cellulosic carbon materials show charac­
teristic diffraction peaks centered at 2θ = 23◦ and 44◦ , which corre­
spond to the 002 and 100 planes of disordered graphite lattices [52].
When the ratio of cellulose to KOH was 1:1, the peak intensity of the
F-600–1 sample first increased and then decreased with increasing
pre-carbonization temperature; that is, the crystallinity of the F-600–1
sample increased to the greatest extent in the range of 5–10◦ , which may
be caused by continuous X-ray scattering of large numbers of micropo­
rous structures [53]. With the same pre-carbonization temperature
(600 ◦ C), the crystal structures changed with different KOH ratios, and
the diffraction peak intensities of the F-600–0.5 and F-600–1 samples at
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Journal of CO2 Utilization 68 (2023) 102377
2θ = 23◦ were obviously enhanced, which meant that they had the
characteristics of hexagonal graphitic carbon with higher structures
than other samples [54]. In addition, it can be seen from the Raman
spectra in Fig. 3b and c that all samples showed three strong peaks,
namely, the D peak at 1350 cm− 1, the G peak at 1580 cm− 1, and the 2D
peak, and the relative intensity of the D band reflected the degree of
disorder in the crystalline structure; this represented the A1g vibrational
mode of disordered graphite, and the G band represented the first-order
scattering E2g vibrational mode, which is used to characterize the sp2
bond structure of carbon [55,56]. The relative intensity ratio (ID/IG) of
peak D and peak G indicated the graphitization degree of the carbon
materials. The ID/IG values of the S-500, S-600 and S-700 samples were
0.95, 1.01 and 1.08, respectively. The ID/IG ratio increased with
increasing pre-carbonization temperature, indicating that the graphiti­
zation degree decreased with increasing activation temperature [57].
However, after adding the same proportion of KOH, it was 1.11, 1.20
and 1.18, respectively, and the ID/IG value obviously increased, indi­
cating that more sp3 hybrid carbon was produced; the large amount of
amorphous carbon increased the specific surface area and pore volume,
thus improving adsorption performance [58]. With increases in KOH
dosage, the ID/IG ratio of the sample increased first and then decreased;
R. Wu and A. Bao
Fig. 3. (a) X-ray diffraction patterns and (b and c) Raman spectra of the samples.
that is, the ID/IG value of F-600–1 was the highest, which indicated that
the graphitization degree of the material was low, and there were
abundant disordered structures and defects. This is because the carbon
atoms were seriously corroded by K ions, which affected the interlayer
distances between graphene layers in the carbon skeleton [59–61]. This
is consistent with the XRD results. Therefore, F-600–1 had a large
number of disordered carbon structures, thus forming a highly porous
framework with a large micropore volume; this is a prerequisite for
effective adsorption and separation of CO2.
3.3. Morphologies of the samples
Fig. 4a shows the SEM image of the cellulose extracted from cow
dung. Removing the other two components (lignin and hemicellulose),
the cellulose has a fibrous structure and a relatively rough surface, with
no pores observed. Fig. 4b shows the sample of cellulose pre-carbonized
at 600 ◦ C. It can be seen that cellulose parenchyma cells have certain
starch granules and micropores, indicating that pre-carbonization
caused the material to form preliminary pores [62]. Fig. 4c shows the
sample carbonized with KOH, which has a honeycomb structure with
ordered pores formed in the cross sections, which are parallel to cellu­
lose, and the outer surface is severely corroded [63,64]. This was due to
structural modifications caused by insertion of potassium metal and
expansion of the carbon layer, which led to increases in pore volumes
(and thus the surface areas) of KOH-activated carbon materials [65].
These results showed the obvious differences in the rough surfaces and
porous morphologies between cellulose and S-600 and F-600–1 and
highlighted the effectiveness of pre-carbonization and KOH activation in
forming interconnected porous networks. Fig. 4d and e show
high-resolution transmission electron microscope (HRTEM) images of
the sample. It can be seen that micropores were formed on the surface of
S-600. After adding KOH, the surface of F-600–1 became rougher, and
the pore structure increased obviously. This is consistent with the SEM
images. The structural composition of the F-600–1 sample was further
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Journal of CO2 Utilization 68 (2023) 102377
analyzed by the energy spectrum (EDS) elemental mapping, as shown in
Fig. 4f,g and h. The elements C, N and O were uniformly distributed on
the surface of the sample, indicating that there was a small amount of N
in the cellulose itself, which will be beneficial to adsorption.
3.4. Structural analyses
Fig. 5 shows the N2 adsorption-desorption isotherms and pore size
distributions of porous carbon samples prepared with different pre-
carbonization temperatures and different cellulose-to-KOH weight ra­
tios. Table 1 shows the pore structure parameters of the samples. The
curves of the pre-carbonized samples were not closed (Fig. S1,a), which
may be due to expansion of the frameworks during gas adsorption
caused by the flexible network structure and elastic deformation or
because the specific surface areas were too small (117–156 m2/g) (as
seen in Table S1) [66]. There were also micropores on the surfaces of the
pre-carbonized samples, which is consistent with the SEM results.
However, the specific surface areas and porosities of all materials
increased significantly after activation with KOH; the surface areas
ranged from 786 to 1345 m2/g (Table 1), indicating that activation with
KOH played an important role in pore formation. According to the
IUPAC classification, the samples with KOH added showed typical type
IV isotherms. When P/P0 < 0.1, N2 can be absorbed rapidly, indicating
that there were large numbers of micropores. When P/P0 > 0.4, there
are H4 hysteresis rings in all samples (Fig. 5a), capillary condensation
and emptying condensation, indicating that there are mesopores in the
samples [67]. The pore size distribution diagram of the pre-carbonized
sample (Fig. S1,b) shows that it is mainly composed of micropores
with diameters of < 2 nm. However, the samples subjected to KOH
activation were mainly composed of ultramicropores < 1 nm (Fig. 5b).
The influence of different KOH weight ratios on formation of the carbon
structures was investigated with a pre-carbonization temperature of
600 ◦ C. When the cellulose-to-KOH weight ratio was increased from 0.5
to 1, the specific surface area and micropore ratio increase from
R. Wu and A. Bao Journal of CO2 Utilization 68 (2023) 102377

Fig. 4. SEM images of (a) cellulose, (b) S-600 and (c) F-600–1.TEM images of (d) S-600 and (e) F-600–1, and C/N/O element mapping of (f-h) F-600–1.

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R. Wu and A. Bao Journal of CO2 Utilization 68 (2023) 102377

Fig. 5. (a) N2 adsorption-desorption isotherms and (b) pore size distributions for the indicated samples.

intermolecular and intramolecular interactions between polysaccharide

Table 1
chains. The band at 1078 cm− 1 was attributed to stretching vibrations of
Pore structural parameters of samples.
C-O-C glycosidic bonds [69]. There were no obvious characteristic peaks
Sample SBETa Smicb Vtc Vmid Vmi/Vt of cellulose at 1500 cm− 1, 1730 cm− 1 and 793 cm− 1(Si-O-Si) (Fig. 6a),
(m2/g) (m2/g) (cm3/g) (cm3/g) (%)
which indicated that lignin and hemicellulose were effectively removed
F-500–1 1097 874 0.63 0.36 57.14 and cellulose was successfully extracted from cow dung. Compared with
F-600–1 1345 1177 0.66 0.49 74.24 the original cellulose, the pre-carbonized samples showed characteristic
F-700–1 898 283 0.53 0.13 24.52
F-600–0.5 786 656 0.44 0.26 59.09
peaks at 1417 cm− 1 and 873 cm− 1 for C-H bending vibrations and
F-600–1.5 1318 1126 0.73 0.46 63.01 β-glucosidic bond vibrations between the glucose units in cellulose,
a respectively [70]. This corresponded to the results of the thermogravi­
Surface area calculated by BET method.
b metric analyses (TGA). When the samples were activated with KOH
micropore surface area.
c
Total pore volume. (Fig. 6b), there were absorption peaks at 1629 cm− 1, which was
d
Micropore volume.
– O) groups, and a weak
attributed to tensile vibrations of carbonyl (-C–
peak at 2800–3000 cm− 1, which was attributed to C-H stretching vi­
brations, indicating that activation caused considerable loss of DGP,
786 m2/g to 1345 m2/g and from 59.09% to 74.24%, respectively.
LGO, AGF and 5-HMF [71,72]. These peaks indicated formation of a
When the ratio was increased to 1.5, the specific surface area and
carbon skeleton and the presence of oxygen-containing surface func­
micropore ratio were 1318 m2/g and 63.01%, respectively, which
tional groups.
indicated a downward trend. This showed that excessive KOH dosages
intensified sample etching resulting in collapsed of the micropore
structure and an unstable internal structure, making the CO2 capture 3.6. XPS surface chemical analyses
performance degraded [68].
The elemental compositions and surface functional groups of the
3.5. FTIR analysis samples were investigated by XPS spectroscopy. The C 1 s XPS spectrum
of the S-600 material was subjected to subpeak fitting, and Fig. 7a shows
Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy was used to detect the that the strong peak of S-600 at 284.8 eV corresponded to sp2 (C-C)
vibrational characteristics of chemical functional groups on the surfaces aromatic carbons. The 286.0 eV and 287.8 eV peaks were assigned to C-
of the adsorbents, which is helpful in identifying the adsorption capac­ OH and C– – O moieties. In Fig. 7b, the binding energies of 530. eV,
ities of the samples. The results are shown in Fig. 6. All samples showed 531.8 eV and 534.4 eV were attributed to C– – O, C-OH and -COOH
absorption peaks at 3435 cm− 1, which are due to characteristic O-H bonds, respectively. In addition, the N 1 s spectrum showed peaks at
stretching vibrations of cellulose and indicated that there were strong 397.0 eV and 399.1 eV, which were attributed to pyridine nitrogen and

Fig. 6. FTIR spectra of the indicated samples.

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R. Wu and A. Bao Journal of CO2 Utilization 68 (2023) 102377

Fig. 7. (a-d) XPS plots for S-600 and (e-h) F-600–1.

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R. Wu and A. Bao Journal of CO2 Utilization 68 (2023) 102377

pyrrole nitrogen, respectively. The two main peaks for the F-600–1
sample at 284.6 and 532.6 eV corresponded to C 1 s and O 1 s binding
energies, respectively, indicating the presence of graphitic carbon sites
and oxygen-containing functional groups in the cellulosic carbon ma­
terial [73]. In the N 1 s XPS spectrum (Fig. 7 g), a weak C–N peak
centered at a binding energy of 400 eV was indicative of pyrrole nitro­
gen [74]. Pyrrole nitrogens provide favorable anchoring sites for acidic
CO2 molecules [75–77]. As seen in Fig. 7d and h, there were almost no N
1 s peaks in the F-600–1 spectrum, unlike that of S-600. This showed
that the nitrogen contents of the samples were decreased after activa­
tion, which may be the reason why nitrogen was oxidized and removed
by KOH. With the addition of KOH, the C content decreased from
91.29% to 79.01%, and the O content increased from 7.64% to 20.44%.
Therefore, the surface of the activated carbon contained abundant ox­
ygen functional groups that played very important roles in improving
the overall adsorption of CO2 by the F-600–1 sample. These results were
consistent with the FTIR analyses.
4. Applications of CO2 adsorption
Fig. 8a depicts the CO2 adsorption performance of the cellulose
carbon material at 303 K and 1 bar. Although the specific surface areas
and total pore volumes increased continuously after adding KOH, CO2
adsorption reached a maximum (91.8 mg/g) when the pre-
carbonization temperature was 600 ◦ C and the cellulose-to-KOH
weight ratio was 1. This indicated that activation of the cellulose to
achieve maximum CO2 uptake required the optimal pre-carbonization
temperature and KOH dosage. In addition, F-500–1 was found to have
a larger specific surface area and pore volume than F-700–1, but its CO2
adsorption capacity was lower. This indicated that CO2 adsorption

Fig. 8. (a) CO2 capture capacity of cellulose carbon materials at 303 K, (b) N2/CO2 adsorption selectivity of F-600–1 at 298 K, (c) adsorption isotherms at 273 K and
298 K, (d) isospatial heat of CO2 adsorption on F-600–1 and (e) cyclic stability of F-600–1 at 303 K.

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R. Wu and A. Bao Journal of CO2 Utilization 68 (2023) 102377

capacity cannot be simply attributed to the specific surface area and Table 2
total pore volume. The reason for this is that F-500–1 contained Comparison of CO2 adsorption capacity of F-600–1 with other adsorbents.
considerable proportions of wide micropores larger than 1 nm and Sample Experimental conditions CO2 uptake (mmol/g) Ref.
mesopores larger than 2 nm [78]. The optimized sample (F-600–1)
PFK-700–1.5 1 bar, 273 K/298 K 6.16/4.03 [79]
presents 4.61 and 3.26 mmol/g CO2 uptake at 273 K and 298 K at 1 bar, PFKC-700–2 1 bar, 273 K/298 K 5.84/3.83 [80]
respectively. Table 2 lists the adsorption values of some reported LPM-650–2 1 bar, 273 K/298 K 6.20/4.02 [81]
carbonaceous adsorbents. Although the CO2 adsorption capacity of N0.8A80F50 1 bar, 273 K/298 K 3.44/2.27 [82]
F-600–1 is better than most materials, it is still lower than that of some B/N-CNs 1 bar, 273 K,298 K 3.57/1.89 [83]
AC-6 1 bar, 298 K 1.5 [84]
N-doped porous carbons. For example, Ma et al. [79] performed KOH Pine sawdust 1 bar, 298 K 4.21 [85]
activation of polyacrylonitrile fibers at high temperature so that the EFBG-1000 1 bar, 298 K 2.43 [86]
fiber morphology of nanoporous carbon is not destroyed, and this WT-900 1 bar, 273 K 3.6 [87]
particular morphology in turn reduces the pressure drop during CO2 WNCP-3 1 bar, 273 K/298 K 3.72/2.78 [88]
F-600–1 1 bar, 273 K/298 K 4.61/3.26 Present work
capture, making nanoporous carbon fibers a more desirable solid
adsorbent than powdered porous carbon, and its in this simple strategy
eliminates the pre-carbonization step, which facilitates the material ecological environment and increasing economic benefits.
preparation process. The nanoporous carbon fiber exhibited CO2 up­
takes of 6.16 and 4.03 mmol/g at 1 bar and 273 K and 298 K, respec­
Declaration of Competing Interest
tively. In another study [80], polyacrylonitrile fibers were activated
with mild and harmless K2CO3 and treated in a single step reaction at
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
high temperature and obtained advanced structural properties and large
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
nitrogen content with adsorption capacities of 5.84 and 3.83 mmol/g for
the work reported in this paper.
CO2 at 273 K and 298 K, respectively. Xie et al.[81] prepared a
nitrogen-rich porous carbon adsorbent using lotus seed pot biomass and
Data availability
activated with melamine as the nitrogen source, with CO2 uptake of 6.20
and 4.02 mmol/g at 273 K and 298 K. Currently, we have only studied
Data will be made available on request.
the ratio of activators, and through their work, it is possible to under­
stand that the synergistic effect of porosity and N content determines the
Acknowledgments
CO2 capture capacity, which provides new ideas and insights for our
subsequent work.
This work was supported by the Natural Science Foundation of Inner
Fig. 8b shows the N2 and CO2 adsorption isotherms of F-600–1 at
Mongolia of China (2016MS0212), the Collaborative Innovation Center
298 K, which were used to evaluate the capacity of the adsorbent to
for Water Environmental Security of the Inner Mongolia Autonomous
separate gas mixtures. The figure shows that the amount of CO2 absor­
Region, China (XTCX003), the Science and Technology Program of Inner
bed by the sample was much higher than that of N2, indicating that
Mongolia Autonomous Region, China (2020PT0003), the Fundamental
selectivity of the sample for CO2 was higher than that for N2. Using
Research Funds for the Inner Monglia Normal University, China
Henry’s law, the ratio for CO2/N2 adsorption selectivity was determined
(2022JBQN085), and the scientific research project of colleges and
to be 15.9. From the adsorption isotherms of the samples determined at
universities in Inner Mongolia (NJZZ23021).
273 K and 298 K (Fig. 8c), the isosteric heat of adsorption Qst was
calculated using the Clausius-Clapeyron equation. Fig. 8d shows the
isosteric heat of adsorption (Qst), which indicates the intensity between Appendix A. Supplementary material
the adsorbent and the adsorbent surface, assessing the adsorption ca­
pacity of the material and the energy consumption during regeneration. Supplementary data associated with this article can be found in the
the initial Qst value for F-600–1 is 36.4 kJ/mmol, which is typical for online version at doi:10.1016/j.jcou.2022.102377.
physical adsorption. qe values increase to 0.38 when Qst decreases, but
further increases show the opposite trend. This indicates that the surface References
is inhomogeneous. The lower Qst indicates that the molecules are
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