Gideon Kellenbarger

What does the Audience Bring to the Interaction Between Them and the Designer?

Introduction

Roozen first introduced the concept of the interaction between audience and author to me

in “Writing is a Social and Rhetorical Activity.” (Roozen 2016) I would argue it is a threshold

concept in Graphic Design as well, making it extremely important because threshold concepts

can open a new and previously inaccessible way of thinking. (Meyer & Land, 2003, p.3) Texts I

then researched detailed this interaction concept as well as Roozen. For example, McKay’s case

study details a curriculum based upon the idea that designers have impact on their audience and

the world. (McKay 2011, p.473) Some of the other texts explored this, but McKay highlighted

how it was directly being integrated and established in university programs, and then ultimately

Graphic Design.

Frascara in “Graphic Design: Fine art or social science?” mirrors McKay in that Frascara

raises that a graphic’s effectiveness should not be decided by it’s looks, but ability to cause

change or have an impact, requiring designers to know the target audience and how visual

languages aren’t compatible everywhere. (Frascara 1988 p.20) So with this and McKay’s text in

mind, we can see how designers have an impact, and how it should be made through

understanding the audience. Normoyle touches on this as well saying “Second, he or she must

then plan and operate it in a way or ways that help to improve local, regional, and global issues

related to public health, poverty, economic and community development.” Showcasing the

aforementioned impact. (Normoyle 2019)

 Livingston makes clear the considerations and the new ways of thinking we undergo once

we understand our audience. Like understanding semiotics, or the signs and symbols that

underpin design outcomes. (Livingston 2018 p.50) Traboco, Pandian, Nikiphorou, and Gupta

agree, and do so in their discussion of infographics. Speaking how images must be chosen wisely

as they can affect emotion, or how colors can convey subliminal messaging. (Traboco & Pandian

& Nikiporou & Gupta 2022) McMullen confirmed this in her study on Vogue localizing designs

specific to a country. (McMullen 2022) Or you have to think about accessibility, and

accommodations you may have to make. (Cornish 2015) Once you understand your audience

you will be able to consider what you know and then decide what images, colors, or symbols to

use.

Chan provides a demonstration of all this. Chan discusses visualizing multi-racialism in

Singapore. First emphasizing how Graphic Design creates awareness and changes behavior,

establishing the social interaction. (Chan 2010 p.63) They then show how in the attempts to

visualize the multi-racism issue, the designs drew from diacritics for inclusion as cultural

markers. (Chan 2010 p. 65) This is an example of understanding the audience and then opting for

what is thought to be the best representation. We see all the ideas discovered come together in

this example.

We now know the connection exists, and what must be considered through a new way of

thinking, but there is still a gap left for me that I fell short in finding evidence for: “What does

the designer get from the audience in the social interaction?” We see how the audience is served

things tailored towards them. Special thoughts and considerations made to make the perfect

message. But what is their contribution to the interaction? We have to know this because when

someone holds the aforementioned impact McKay brought up, it is important to know what is
driving them, and it may further alter the way of thinking this concept provides. It already alters

thinking that now the designer will not be able to design without considering who will see it.

Extended Review

In my research of the social interaction concept in Graphic Design, I came to an

understanding of what it looks like. It came to be a careful thought process and understanding

from the designer in order to deliver the best message. It left me thinking: “What does the

designer get from the audience in the social interaction?” Social interaction requires two. The

designer does their part, what does the audience bring?

In order to get closer to this, we can retake another look at some of the literature.

Bringing McKay first. McKay establishes the existence and importance of the social interaction

through the case study. We learn that the students in this curriculum work for and are exposed to

many different social issues. (McKay 2011 p.274) This is just another example of the designer’s

and audience’s social interaction, and the designer’s attempt to understand their potential

audiences. This brings upon a question: What if the knowledge acquired through these projects is

what the audience brings? A potential, but not definite answer.

Moving back to Frascara, and the design’s effectiveness. Frascara was huge on that there

wasn’t enough emphasis on communication and social significance. (Frascara 1988 p. 20) Again,

we see the communication and the social importance is Frascara highlighting the designer’s

delivery to the audience. Frascara attempts to make designer’s aware of their power. Is the result

of that power what the designer gets in return? Is a desired effect playing out the audience’s

contribution?
 Livingston revealed considerations to make. Traboco, Pandian, Nikiphorou, and Gupta

did too in their infographics conversation. Their mention of images and color evoking emotion or

meaning. (Traboco & Pandian & Nikiporou & Gupta 2022) Livingston’s mention of semiotics to

get a similar effect. (Livingston 2018 p.50) The choice of which to use is a result of the

designer’s effort to understand the type of social interaction they are in. Once understood, the

designer has almost unlocked a new way of communication. Is that the audience’s contribution to

the conversation?

Chan’s example raises a lot of these similar questions. Does the new awareness of the

mult-racism come at the benefit of the designer? Do the newly understood diacritics and their

ability to serve as a new form of communication? How about the possible positive effects on the

fight of the multi-racism?

It is important to understand what the audience may bring, so you will know where your

motive comes from. Having the drive to put forth your own efforts towards a social interaction

with an audience most likely comes from somewhere; I imagine understanding where exactly

will help you know what the best areas of work are for yourself.

Methodology

I plan to consult an online community of Graphic Designers. I will construct a survey for them. I

believe the consultation of an online community will bring a lot of perspectives. This eliminates

possible skew of the data due to only one geographical region being probed. I also think the

survey is effective because it works well with the net I am attempting to cast.
To obviate bias I will try to form non-leading questions. I do not want to skew any answers or

data. Such questions are below:

Question Why Ask?

1. How long have you been working in This is to give more background, and to add a
Graphic Design? variable that can possibly give some insight
a. Open response behind different answers.

2. Do you feel you receive anything in This is the first step that we have to take. If
return (besides money) from the we want to find out what the audience brings,
audiences you design for? (If no, end we have to find out if they bring anything in
survey) the first place.
a. Yes
b. No

3. Since you answered “Yes”, is it any of
the following? (Check all that apply)
a. New knowledge of cultures,
issues, etc.
b. Seeing your desired effect play
out
c. New methods of
communication
d. Other (open response)
A-C are questions that came from my
extended review. Option D allows for new
contributions to be discovered. The ability to
check more than one option allows me to see
what option is most popular to come to a
more definitive answer.

4. If you checked multiple boxes in Along with the last question, this can possibly
Question 3, which one would you say help find a common answer.
you receive the most? (If it is an
“other” please type it through Option
D)
a. New knowledge of cultures,
issues, etc.
b. Seeing your desired effect play
out
c. New methods of
communication
d. Other (open response)
I think the limits of this study are that you can’t really get crazy in-depth answers with a survey.

The sample size I am looking for doesn’t allow for the thoughtfulness and depth that something

like an interview would.

Important Dates

10/18 10/20 10/25 11/1 11/12 11/15 11/17 11/22

Preliminary Peer Final Begin Finish Preliminary Peer Final Draft

Drafts of Review of Drafts Due Primary Primary Draft of Review of of
Proposal Preliminary Research Research Research Research Research
and Letter Due Report Due Report Due Report Due
2 Due

Desired Journal or Scholarly Publication

I think I would aim for this to be in Design Issues published by the MIT Press. Some of my

research came from there, and it has a strong study of design. Studying history, theory, and

criticism.

Annotated Bibliography

Below, you will see my annotated bibliography. These are all sources I gathered so far in my

Secondary Research. Annotations to ones I find useful are in bold. The sources annotated I

believe help me contribute and understand where the current conversation is at.

1. Livingston, D. (2018). Graphic design, the communication of social issues and the evolution of the
'social alternatives' design framework over forty years. Social Alternatives, 37(2), 47-52.
https://doi.org/10.3316/ielapa.814384032351949
a. Mentioned a number of times, Livingston discusses the use of semiotics. A useful way
to communicate with the audience and requires deeper understanding of who they
are.

2. Bernardi, C., & Júnior, M. B. (2018). Graphic design of posters as social instrument for women’s
empowerment. Projetica, 9(2Supl), 159-178. https://doi.org/10.5433/2236-2207.2018v9n2Suplp159
3. McKay, B., & Vessella, S. (2011). A case study of an innovative graphic design curriculum focusing
on social responsibility. Design Principles & Practices, 5(5), 471-488.
https://doi.org/10.18848/1833-1874/CGP/v05i05/38197
a. McKay here gives insight to a curriculum inspired by the designer’s ability to create
change and have an impact on their audience. Using such methods that get them
involved in social issues, ultimately contributing to the conversation.

4. Normoyle, C. (2019). A blended perspective: Social impact assessment in graphic design. Dialectic,
2(2)https://doi.org/10.3998/dialectic.14932326.0002.205
a. This one demonstrates the impact designer’s have on their audience. The basis of the
interaction. Graphic Design is almost exclusively to create change or alter behavior, so
this is the first step in analyzing the interaction.
5. Horton, A. (2013). Designing for social change: Strategies for community-based graphic design.
Society for Technical Communication.
6. Frascara, J. (1988). Graphic design: Fine art or social science? Design Issues, 5(1), 18-29.
https://doi.org/10.2307/1511556
a. Frascara emphasizes social interaction. Instead of making things look pretty,
Frascara want’s the designer to realize their power. The influence they have in the
social interaction with their audience.

7. Ring, J. (2011). Map design and social awareness: An ideal combination for graphic design
students. Design Principles & Practices, 5(5), 349-368.
https://doi.org/10.18848/1833-1874/CGP/v05i05/38204

8. Surname, N., & Gunetti, L. (2011). The typographic city: Social commitment and graphic design in
the urban space in two late modernist italian projects. Design Principles & Practices, 5(6), 489-498.
https://doi.org/10.18848/1833-1874/CGP/v05i06/38259

9. Margolin, V. (1988). Rebellion, reform, and revolution: American graphic design for social change.
Design Issues, 5(1), 59-70. https://doi.org/10.2307/1511561

10. Chan, L. K. (2010). Visualising multi-racialism in singapore: Graphic design as a tool for ideology
and policy in nation building. Design Issues, 27(1), 63-69.
a. Chan’s example of Graphic Design being used to tackle the issue of multiracialism
serves as a great piece of evidence to show many of the ideas being discussed in the
works. On its own though, it can also attest to the ideas.
11. Cornish, K., Goodman-Deane, J., Ruggeri, K., & Clarkson, P. J. (2015). Visual accessibility in
graphic design: A client–designer communication failure. Design Studies, 40, 176-195.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.destud.2015.07.003
a. This article is an example of the new way of thinking you have to undergo. To design
with your audience in mind in order to fulfill the interaction. Here it speaks about
accessible and inclusive design,

12. Motley, P. (2017). Critique and process: Signature pedagogies in the graphic design classroom. Arts
and Humanities in Higher Education, 16(3), 229-240. https://doi.org/10.1177/1474022216652765

13. Nottingham, A. (2017). Feel the fear: Learning graphic design in affective places and online spaces.
The International Journal of Art & Design Education, 36(1), 39-49.
https://doi.org/10.1111/jade.12058

14. Traboco, L., Pandian, H., Nikiphorou, E., & Gupta, L. (2022). Designing infographics: Visual
representations for enhancing education, communication, and scientific research. Journal of Korean
Medical Science, 37(27), e214-e214. https://doi.org/10.3346/jkms.2022.37.e214
a. The authors here bring good points in discussing image selection, and color. How
you must choose them wisely because they can all give off and say different things,
In order to choose wisely you must understand your audience which contributes
to the social interaction.

15. Meyer, J. H., & Land, R. (2006). Threshold concepts and troublesome knowledge. Overcoming
Barriers to Student Understanding: Threshold Concepts and Troublesome Knowledge, 3-19
a. This is the basis for the entire research. I use this to introduce what a threshold
concept is, and ultimately raise one I think is involved in Graphic Design

16. ADLER-KASSNER, L., & WARDLE, E. (Eds.). (2016). Writing Is a Social and Rhetorical
Activity. In Naming What We Know, Classroom Edition: Threshold Concepts of Writing Studies (pp.
17–34). University Press of Colorado. http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv1vbd1v0.7
a. This one is extremely important to my research as it was the introduction of the social
concept to me. I found it translatable to Graphic Design, and that is now the subject
of my research.

17. Hoshi, K., Waterworth, J., & Ohio Library and Information Network. (2020). Primitive interaction
design. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-42954-6
18. Clemmensen, T., & Ohio Library and Information Network. (2021). Human work interaction
design: A platform for theory and action. Springer.

19. Marcano Larez, B. E. (2014). Graphics, playability and social interaction, the greatest motivations
for playing call of duty. educational reflections. Journal of New Approaches in Educational
Research, 3(1), 34-41. https://doi.org/10.7821/naer.3.1.34-41

20. Cabral, T. O. (2018;2019;). Creativity and a social graphic design project in the rego neighbourhood
in lisbon. In S. Bagnara, R. Tartaglia, S. Albolino, T. Alexander & Y. Fujita (Eds.), Proceedings of
the 20th congress of the international ergonomics association (iea 2018), vol 8: Ergonomics and
human factors in manufacturing, agriculture, building and construction, sustainable development
and mining (pp. 717-726). Springer International Publishing.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-96068-5_77

21. Liu, Y. (2021). Developing the network social media in graphic design based on artificial neural
network. International Journal of System Assurance Engineering and Management, 12(4), 640-653.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s13198-021-01058-2

22. Barnard, M., 1958, & eBook Academic Collection - North America. (2005;2013;). Graphic design
as communication. Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group.

23. Dyer, H. T., & Ohio Library and Information Network. (2020). Designing the social: Unpacking
social media design and identity. Springer.

24. Sun, H., 1973, & Ohio Library and Information Network. (2020). Global social media design:
Bridging differences across cultures. Oxford University Press.
https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190845582.001.0001

25. Frascara, J. (2022). Revisiting "graphic design: Fine art or social science?" - the question of quality
in communication design. She Ji, 8(2), 270-288. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sheji.2022.05.002

26. Shehab, B., Nawar, H., Shehab, & eBook Academic Collection - North America. (2020). History of
arab graphic design. The American University in Cairo Press. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv2ks6x4p
 27. Stupak, N., DiFonzo, N., Younge, A. J., & Homan, C. (2010). SOCIALSENSE: Graphical user
interface design considerations for social network experiment software. Computers in Human
Behavior, 26(3), 365-370. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2009.11.007

28. McMullen, M. (2022). Localizing graphic design in a global media environment: A visual social
semiotic analysis of vogue. International Journal of Communication (Online), 16, 4523.
a. This serves as a great example of interacting with your audience, and attempting to
understand what appeals to them. It studies how Vogue changed typefaces, symbols,
etc. in different countries to appeal.

29. Li, Z. (2019). Application research of digital image technology in graphic design. Journal of Visual
Communication and Image Representation, 65, 102689. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvcir.2019.102689

30. Hirsch, L., George, C., & Butz, A. (2022). Traces in virtual environments: A framework and
exploration to conceptualize the design of social virtual environments. IEEE Transactions on
Visualization and Computer Graphics, 28(11), 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1109/TVCG.2022.3203092

Conclusion
Majoring in Graphic Design, understanding the social interaction between designer and audience

is important to me. It is also important to those practicing, or aspiring to. So I opted to explore

the topic. I discovered confirmation of the interaction’s existence, its importance, ways to

understand the audience, and how to create the best message. Generally, I learned about the

designer’s contribution to the conversation. The gap missing for me was then what the audience

gives.

I want to discover the trade off. What do designers get? What are they searching for when

doing a project? Is the knowledge gained enough? Is it a one-sided interaction? To me the

understanding of this will allow me to have a better grasp on the goals and motives of design.

What is driving the graphics we see everyday.