Learning outcomes After completion of the course, the students should be able to: 1. Solve problems which involve areas of plane figures and volumes of solids: and 2. Apply Cavalieri’s and Volume theorems. INTRODUCTION Solid Mensuration ~ the study of the measure of volume, area, height, length, and many more. This subject is used extensively in the practice of engineering. Polygon — a closed plane figure bounded by straight lines (triangle, quadrilateral, pentagon, hexagon, etc.) Useful formulas for Polygon 1. Sum of the interior angle S = (n—2)180° 2. Interior angle of a regular polygon — 2)180° ==?) ™ 3. Number of diagonals N= 5a -3) where: n— number of sides 3.1. PLANE FIGURES 1. The Triangle Triangle is a closed figure bounded by three straight lines called sides. It can also be defined as polygon of three sides Area is a measure of the size or extent of a plane surface. ‘Area is measured in square units such as mm?, em? and m2. Area of triangle The area ofthe triangle is given by the following formulas: Given the base and the altitude Given two sides and included angle A=1/2 absin8 ‘Three sides given (Heron’s Formula [ss ays — bys) where, s = $(a + b + ¢) called the semi-perimeter 2 Given one side and three angles a@2sinB sinC sin TI. Quadrilaterals: a polygon of four sides. Five Types of Quadrilateral 1. Square A=a a P= 4a where: A~area aside P- perimeter ectangle A=bh P=2a+b)3. Parallelogram a. Given base and altitude: Acbh fe] b . Given two sides and included angle: q) A=absind 6 ©. Given diagonals and their included angle: 4. Rhombus. 4. Given base and altitude: a ~ {| q la a b. Given a side and included angle —_ a ©. Given diagonals 5. Trapezoi a “eee i \ o IV. Semicirele Ror Ere A=Ed? or Er V. Sector of a Circle =! A= sort Are length, $= 6r C9 YY where @ is in radians Ellipse A=nab a + be 2 7a VIL. Parabolic Segment feExample 3.1.1 1. Find the area of the largest circle which can be cut from a square of edge 4 in. What is the area of the material wasted? Solution: sin, Acinie = mtr? = (2 in)? = 12.56 in? Acquate = a? = (4 in? =16 int Area of wasted material Asasot= Argue ~ Acie = 16~ 12.56 3.43 in? 2. A hollow shaft has an outside diameter of $.45 em and an inside diameter of 2.25 cm, Caleulate the cross-sectional area of the shaft Solution: Area of shaded part = area of large circle -arca of small circle =Eprt_tge = $5.45? — 22.252 9.35 em? 3. A rectangular plate is 85 mm long and 42 mm wide. Find its area in square centimeters, (Ans. 35.7em?) 85 mm 2mm A= (85)(42) mm? x (1/10)? em? 5.7 em* 4. A rectangular field has an area of 1.2 hectares anda length, of 150 m. Find (a) its width and (b) the length of diagonal (1 hectare = 10 000m’). Given: A= 1.2 hectares: = Required: w a. width b. diagonal Solution: (a) For the width of the field, A=LW 10 000 m2 Thectare 10 000 150 1.2 hectare x: 150mxW (6) for the diagonal p=JP+w? = 80 F 15 D=170m 5. Determine the area of each of the angle iron sections shown, 1 ten 2onm Ma tn EL tome F ap) Exel + Zen hath tem Tone @ » Solution: (a) area of three rectangles A=7(2)+1()+72) = 29 em? (b) area of three rectangles A= 30(8) + LO(11) + 50(6) = 650 mm?Exercise 3.1.1 1. A rectangular garden measures 40 m by 15 m. Al m flower border is made round the two shorter sides and one long side. A circular swimming pool of diameter 8 m is constructed in the middle of the garden. Find, correct to the nearest square meter, the area remaining. (Ams: 482 m?) L-40m We ism D=8m Lm Im 2. The area ofa trapezium is 13.5 em” and the perpendicular distance between its parallel sides is 3 cm. If the length of one of the parallel sides is 5.6 cm, find the length of the other parallel side. (Ans: 3.4 em) A=13.5em? b=S.6em 3. Calculate the area of the following sectors of circles: (a) radius 9 em, angle subtended at center 75°, (b) diameter 35 mm, angle subtended at center 48°37", (©) diameter 5 cm, angle subtended at center 2.19 radians. (Ans: a. 53.01 cm?, b. 129.93 mm?, e. 6.84 cm?) Solution: (a) r= 9 em, 0 = 75° 4, Determine the area of the template shown. (Ams: 5773.45 mm’) 80mm 120mm (eds ‘90mm 5. Calculate the area of the steel plate shown. (Ans: 6750 mm’) Dimensions 25) 7406. Caleulate the area of a regular octagon, if each side is 5 cm and the width across the flats is 12 em. (Ans: 120 em?) 120m Bom 7. Determine the area ofa regular hexagon which has sides 8 cm long. A hexagon is a 6-sided polygon which may be divided into 6 equal triangles as shown in the figure. The angle subtended at the center of each triangle is 360°/6 = 60°. The other two angles in the triangle add up to 120° and are equal to each other. Hence, each of the triangles is equilateral with each angle 60° and cach side 8 em. (Ans: 166.3 em?) 13. The figure shows a plan of a floor of a building which is to be carpeted. Calculate the area of the floor in square meters. Calculate the cost, correct to the nearest pound, of carpeting the floor with carpet costing £16.80 per m?, assuming 30% extra carpet is required due to wastage in fitting. (Ans: £ 1074)3.2. Solid for which V = Bh. Cavalieri’s Theorem fin wo solids of equal altitude, the sections made by planes parallel to and at the same distance from their respective bases are always equal, the volume of the solids are equal, Ilustration: Consider the two solids of equal altitude J shown in the figure. Let A and A’ denote corresponding sectios which are parallel to and at the same variable distance y from their respective bases. If A= A’, the volumes of the two solids are equal. Volume Theorem If the bases of a solid are equal in area and lie in parallel planes and every section of the solid parallel to the base is ‘equal in area to that of the base, the volume of the solid is the product ofits base and altitude. Mlustration: a IfA= *, B=B',and A= A’; therefore, the volume of the solid CD is equal to the volume of solid C°D" which is base area x altitude (Bh). Useful formulas 1. Rectangular prism (or cuboid or rectangular parallelepiped) n 7 Volume = bx h b Surface area=2 (bh + i+ ib) 2. Cube v As=6a d=yBa 3. Cylinder — fh Volume = rr2h Total surface area=2nrh + 2nr? Prism —a solid object with two identical ends and flat sides. Example 3.2.1 Problems on volumes and surface areas of regular solids. 1, A water tank is the shape of a rectangular prism having length 2 m, breadth 75 em and height 50 cm. Determine the capacity of the tank in (a) m’ (b) em’ (¢) liters. Given: i=2m b= 50cm. b= 75cm ‘Volume of rectangular prism = 1 x b x h (a) Volume of tank = 2 x 0.75 x 0.5 = 0.75 m" (b) Im = 10%em', hence 0.75 m! = 0.75 x 10% em* 750000.cm* (©) Mitre = 1000em?, hence 750000cm? = litres = 750 litres2. Find the volume and total surface area of a eylinder of length 15.em and diameter 8 em, cS hh Volume = 2h = >Jh Total surface area=2nrh +2872 Volume of eylinder = rh (see Table 22.1) Since diameter = 8em, then radius x = 4em Hence volume = x 4? x 15 = 784em* Total surface area (i.e. including the two ends) = 2arh +207? =Qxmx4x 15)+Qx 2x4) =477.5cm* 3. Ifa cube has an edge equal to diagonal of another cube, find the ratio of their volume. (Ans: 3¥3) Let a’ = edge of the smaller cube a= edge of the larger cube Vi volume smaller cube V2 volume larger cube Required: viv 4, Determine the volume (in em*) of the triangular prism, shown. (Ans. 3.84 em?) 16mm 12mm 40 mm 5, Calculate the volume and total surface area of the solid prism shown. (Ans. 480 em’, 454 em?) tem ‘The solid shown in Fig. 22.2 is a trapezoidal prism, ‘Volume = cross-sectional area x height = SUL S)4 x 15 = 32 x 15 = 480m" Surface arca = sum of two trapeziums +4 rectangles = (2 x 32) 4 (5 x 15) + (II x 15) +265 x 15) = 644754 165+ 150 = 454em" Exercise 3.2.1 1.A packing box 2.2 fiby 4.9 ft by 5.5 ftis to be completely covered with tin. How many square feet of the metal are needed? (Ans. 99.66 ft?) 2. A wooden section is shown in the figure. Find (a) its volume (in m’), and (b) its total surface area, (Ans. 0.08775 im’, 2.0125 m?)3. A lead pencil whose ends are regular hexagons was cut from a cylindrical piece of wood with the least waste. I'the original piece was 8 in. long and “4 in. in diameter, find the ‘volume of the pencil. (V = 1.299 in’) 300 60° b= Bin 4. A dam 100 ft long has a cross section which is a trapezoid whose altitude is 16 ft and whose upper base is 5 ft. If the lower base angles of the cross section are 50° and 65°, find the volume of the material the dam contains. (Ans. 24, 710 fe) 5. An ice storage plant removed, from the center of a pond, a mass of ice covering an area of 2 acres. If the ice had a uniform thickness of 2, find the weight in tons of the ice removed. (Iee weighs 56 lb/ft; | ton = 2240 Ib). (Ans. 4, 356 tons) 6. Calculate the volume of a metal tube whose outside diameter is 8 cm and whose inside diameter is 6 cm, if the length of the tube is 4 m. (Ans. 8, 796 cm’) 7. The volume of a cylinder is 400 em’. IF its radius is $.20 cm, find its height. Determine also its curved surface area. (Ans. 4.709 em, 153.9 em?) 8. A cylinder is cast from a rectangular piece of alloy 5 em by 7 cm by 12 em. Ifthe length of the eylinder is to be 60 cm, find its diameter. (Ans. 2.99 em) 9, Find the volume and the total surface area of a regular hexagonal bar of metal of length 3 m if each side of the hexagon is 6 cm. (Ans. 28, 060 cm*, 1.099 m2) 10. A rivet consists of a cylindrical head, of diameter 1 em and depth 2 mm, and a shaft of diameter 2 mm and length 1.5 em. Determine the volume of metal in 2000 such rivets. (Ans. 408.4em’) 3.3. SOLIDS FOR WHICH V = 1/3 Bh 1. Pyramid xAxh lh where A~"area of base and h= perpendicular height ‘Total surface area = (sum of areas of ‘triangles forming sides) + (area of base) 2. Cone Total surface area = + xr? Example 3.3.1 Problems on Volumes and surface areas of regular solids. 1, Determine the volume and the total surface area of the square pyramid shown ifits perpendicular height is 12 em. (Ans. 100 em’, 147.6 em’)To calculate the volume of the pyramid the perpendicular hicight EF is required. Diagonal BD is calculated using Pythagoras’ theorem, 2. Determine the volume and total surface area of @ cone of radius 5 em and perpendicular height 12 em. (Ans 314.2 em! 282.7 em’) 3. A pyramid has a rectangular base 3.60 cm by 5.40 cm. Determine the volume and total surface area of the pyramid 4. A rectangular piece of metal having dimensions 4 em by if cach of its sloping edges is 15.0 em. (Ans. 94.87 em* 3 em by 12 cm is melted down and reeast into a pyramid 152.7 em?) having a rectangular base measuring 2.5 em by 5 cm. Calculate the perpendicular height of the pyramid. (Ans.34.56 cm)Exercises 3.3.1 Determine (a) the volume and (b) the total surface area of the following solids: (i) cone of radius 8.0 em and perpendicular height 10 cm (Ans. a. 670 em* b. 523 em*) Gi) a 2.5 em by 25 cm square pyramid of perpendicular height 5.0 em (Ans. a. 10.4 em b. 32.0.em?) (iii) a 4.0 cm by 6.0 cm rectangular pyramid of perpendicular height 12.0 em (Ans. a. 96.0 em? b. 146 cm’) (iv) a 4.2 em by 4.2 em square pyramid whose sloping edges are each 15.0 cm (Ans. a. 86.5 em* b, 142 em?) (¥) 8 pyramid having an octagonal base of side 5.0 em and perpendicular height 20 em. (Ans. a. 805 em® b. 539 em?) 3.4. SOLIDS FOR WHICH V = (mean B)h Volumes and surface areas of frusta of pyramids and cones The frustum of a pyramid or cone is the portion remaining witen a part containing the vertex is cut off by a plane parallel to the base. ‘The volume of a frustum of a pyramid or cone is given by the volume of the whole pyramid or cone minus the volume of the small pyramid or cone cut off. ‘The surface area of the sides of a frustum of a pyramid or cone is given by the surface area of the whole pyramid or cone minus the surface area of the small pyramid or cone cut off. This gives the lateral surface area of the frustum. If the total surface area of the frustum is required then the surface area of the two parallel ends are added to the lateral surface area, 1. Frustum of a Regular Cone Ror “Rk Volume, V = Re v9 [R +r? + Rr] Lateral Area, Au Ava A(R N)L ‘Total Surface Area = Ay + mR? + mr? 2. Frustum of a Regular Pyramid Furstum of Regular Pyramid Volume, V Lateral Face of Frustum of Regular Pyramid [As + Ap + JAyA2 | Lateral Arca, A AL= Anta + DLTotal Surface Area = AL+ Ai + Az where: = upper base edge b= lower base edge = lateral edge h=altitude L= slant height Aj ~ area of lower base A: area of upper base n= number of lower base edges Example 3.4.1 1. Determine the volume and total surface arca of a frustum of a cone if the diameter of the ends are 6.0 cm and 4.0 cm and its perpendicular height is 3.6 em 360m Hence volume of frustum = 713.6) (3.0) + B.0)(2.0) + (2.0) = }x(3.6)(19.0) = 71.6em* Total Surface Area = Ay +R? + nr? = m(R+ b+ WR? + nr? Solving for L, L=BD=V3E 410 = 374m Total Surface Area = w(3 + 2)3.74 + (3?) + (27) = 99.56 cm? 2. A storage hopper is in the shape of a frustum of a pyramid. Determine its volume and lateral surface area if the ends of the frustum are squares of sides 8.0 m and 4.6 m, respectively, and the perpendicular height between its ends is 3.6 m, (Ans. 146.35 m3, 100. 296 m?) c H] som SL o E BZ §——)\— 3 Hy 36 “ | Loe \ ZZ A a Fate 1 aataamtaom (a) (b) Solution: For the volume of the frustum, V=E [Ay + Az + Vara | where: AT 46x46 A= 8x8 Vv 3 [3.6x3.6 + 8x8 + V3-6x3.6x8x0 | = 146.35 m3Exercise 3.4.1 1. A lampshade is in the shape of a frustum of a cone. The vertical height of the shade is 25.0 cm and the diameters of the ends are 20.0 cm and 10.0 cm, respectively. Determine the area of the material needed to form the lampshade. (ams, 1201.7 cm’) 2..A cooling tower is in the form of a cylinder surmounted by frustum of cone as shown. Determine the volume of air space in the tower if 40% of the space is used for pipes and other structures. (Ans. 6557 m*) 30.0™m Ha 3.5. THE SPHERE, Sphere Volume =4 nro ‘Surface area = 4/2 Example 3.5.1 1, Find the volume and surface area of a sphere of diameter 8 cm, (Ans.268.1 em’, 201.1 em?) Since diameter = Sem, then radius, r = em. far = $x wx 4 = 268.1¢m! Volume of sphere = Surface area of sphere = 4ir? = 4 x x x 4? = 201.1 em? 2. The volume of a sphere is 325 cm’, Determine its diameter. (Ans. 8.53 em)3. A metal sphere weighing 24 kg is melted down and recast into a solid cone of base radius 8.0 em. Ifthe density of the metal is 8000 kg/m* determine (a) the diameter of the metal sphere and (b) the perpendicular height of the cone, assuming that 15% of the metal is lost in the process. (Ams. a, 17.9 cm b, 38.0 cm) 4. A petrol container is in the form of a central cylindrical portion 5.0m long with a hemispherical section surmounted, on each end, Ifthe diameters ofthe hemisphere and cylinder are both 1.2 m determine the capacity ofthe tank in liters (1 liter = 1000 cm’). (Ans. 6560 litres) 5. A solid metal cylinder of radius 6 em and height 15 em is melted down and recast into a shape comprising a hemisphere surmounted by a cone. Assuming that 8% of the ‘metal is wasted in the process, determine the height of the conical portion, if its diameter is to be 12 em. (Ans. 29.4 cm) 12cm Exercise 3.5.1 1. A boiler consists of a cylindrical section of length 8 m and diameter 6 1m, on one end of which is surmounted a hemispherical section of diameter 6 1m, and on the other end a conical section of height 4 m and base diameter 6 m. Calculate the volume of the boiler and the total surface : arca, 4m RY5. Determine (a) the volume and (b) the total surface area of the following solids: (i) a sphere of diameter 7.0 cm (Ans. a. 180 cm3 b. 154 em’) (ii) a hemisphere of radius 3.0 cm (Ans. a. 56.5 em" b, 84.8 cm?) 2. Determine the mass of a hemispherical copper container whose external and internal radii are 12 cm and 10 cm. Assuming that 1 em’ of copper weighs 8.9 g. (Ans. 13.57 kg) 3. Ifthe volume of a sphere is 566 em’, find its radius. (Ans. 5.131 em) 4. A metal plumb bob comprises a hemisphere surmounted by a cone. If the diameter of the hemisphere and cone are each 4 cm and the total length is 5 em, find its total volume. (Ans, 29.32 em’)